Caudate nucleus - Knowledge

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presented rats with levers that triggered the release of a cinnamon flavored solution. After the rats learned to press the lever, the researchers changed the value of the outcome (the rats were taught to dislike the flavor either by being given too much of the flavor, or by making the rats ill after drinking the solution) and the effects were observed. Normal rats pressed the lever less frequently, while rats with lesions in the caudate did not suppress the behavior as effectively. In this way, the study demonstrates the link between the caudate and goal-directed behavior; rats with damaged caudate nuclei had difficulty assessing the changing value of the outcome. In a 2003-human behavioral study, a similar process was repeated, but the decision this time was whether or not to trust another person when money was at stake. While here the choice was far more complex––the subjects were not simply asked to press a lever, but had to weigh a host of different factors––at the crux of the study was still behavioral selection based on changing values of outcomes.

911:. This can result in enduring cognitive and behavioral deficits, which can result in significant functional limitations, being overlooked. The symptoms of caudate strokes are usually more severe and persistent when they are bilateral rather than unilateral. In addition, they are more severe when other adjacent structures are also involved. Mendez et al. (1989) categorized caudate stroke patients into three groups based on stroke location and patterns of clinical symptoms: (1) apathetic or abulic, with difficulties perseverating in tasks (dorsolateral caudate); (2) restless, agitated, hyperactive, disinhibited, inappropriate, impulsive, distractible, and/or inattentive (ventromedial caudate); and (3) affective disturbances ( 1105:) which are later combined with various cognitive deficiencies, including dementia. Parkinson's disease depletes dopaminergic neurons in the nigrostriatal tract, a dopamine pathway that is connected to the head of the caudate. As such, many studies have correlated the loss of dopaminergic neurons that send axons to the caudate nucleus and the degree of dementia in Parkinson's patients. And while a relationship has been drawn between the caudate and Parkinson's motor deficiencies, the caudate has also been associated with Parkinson's concomitant cognitive impairments. One review contrasts the performance of patients with Parkinson's and patients that strictly had frontal-lobe damage in the 276: 1142:. The authors used MR images to compare the relative volumes of the caudate nuclei (as the caudate is a bilateral structure), and drew a connection between any asymmetries and symptoms of ADHD: "The degree of caudate asymmetry significantly predicted cumulative severity ratings of inattentive behaviors." This correlation is congruent with previous associations of the caudate with attentional functioning. A more recent 2018 study replicated these findings, and demonstrated that the caudate asymmetries related to ADHD were more pronounced in the dorsal medial regions of the caudate. 1471: 1459: 1635:

compromised by the death of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (Chapter 17). Patients with Parkinson disease have normal declarative memory (unless they have a co-occurring dementia as may occur in Lewy body disease.) However, they have marked impairments of stimulus-response learning. Patients with Parkinson disease or other basal ganglia disorders such as Huntington disease (in which caudate neurons themselves are damaged) have deficits in other procedural learning tasks, such as the acquisition of new motor programs.

1435: 1109:. The differences in performance between the two types of patients (in a test that, in short, requires subjects to select appropriate intermediate goals with a larger goal in mind) draws a link between the caudate and goal-directed action. However, the studies are not conclusive. While the caudate has been associated with executive function (see "Goal-Directed Action"), it remains "entirely unclear whether executive deficits in reflect pre-dominantly their cortical or subcortical damage." 1255: 1303: 1411: 1375: 1423: 1279: 41: 1291: 29: 1351: 1339: 1327: 226: 1363: 1315: 1447: 1399: 1387: 552:

trilingual subject with a lesion to the caudate was observed. The patient maintained language comprehension in her three languages, but when asked to produce language, she involuntarily switched between the three languages. In short, "these and other findings with bilingual patients suggest that the left caudate is required to monitor and control lexical and language alternatives in production tasks."

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give cortical signs . The smaller restricted striatocapsular infarct, also due to embolism as is the larger variety, usually does not give cortical signs and is an underacknowledged entity . There are other subcortical strokes, including internal borderzone (watershed) infarction, considered most likely due to hypoperfusion and others with even less certain patho-etiologies (TABLE 1) .

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greater in the caudate nucleus when the activity immediately preceded a motor response. These results indicate that the caudate nucleus could be involved in coding a motor response. With this in mind, the caudate nucleus could be involved in the recruitment of the motor system to support working memory performance by the mediation of sensory-motor transformations.

982:, and gaze abnormalities, among others. Caudate hemorrhages are due to rupture of penetrating arteries. Aside from additional acute subarachnoid hemorrhage-like symptoms, symptoms of caudate hemorrhages are similar to those of caudate infarcts, including features like behavioral abnormalities, dysarthria, movement disorders, language disorders, and memory problems. 631:. A 2002 review described 108 patients with 119 caudate infarcts that had been characterized, with three of the largest series having a total of 64 patients. In the 1994 meta-analysis, there were 43 patients with lesions confined to the caudate nucleus and 129 patients with lesions involving both the caudate and other structures, with 172 patients in total. 658:, which are small and are due to a single perforating artery occlusion, or can be striatocapsular (caudate–putamen–internal capsule) infarcts, which are larger and are due to multiple perforating artery occlusion. Caudate nucleus strokes infrequently affect only the caudate, but usually also involve neighboring areas like the anterior portion of the 610:(CT) scanning in the 1970s and early 1980s. Major studies of caudate strokes have included Stein et al. (1984), Weisberg et al. (1984), Mendez et al. (1989), Caplan et al. (1990), Caplan & Helgason (1995), Bokura & Robinson (1997), Kumral et al. (1999), Gnanashanmugam (2011), and Kumral et al. (2023). A number of 3727:

progression of small-vessel disease is a typical feature of the lacunar infarcts. For this reason, lacunar infarction should be regarded as a potentially severe condition rather than a relatively benign disorder and, therefore, lacunar stroke patients require adequate and rigorous management and follow-up.

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infarcts have commonly been regarded as benign vascular lesions with a favourable long-term prognosis. However, recent studies have shown that this is only the case early in the disease course. A few years after infarct, there is an increased risk of death, mainly from cardiovascular causes. The risk

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Lacunar infarcts show a paradoxical clinical course with a favorable prognosis in the short term, characterized by a low early mortality and reduced functional disability on hospital discharge, but with an increased risk of death, stroke recurrence and dementia in the mid- and long term. Asymptomatic

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A 2014 study found Type I Bipolar patients had relatively higher volume of gray and white matter in the caudate nucleus and other areas associated with reward processing and decision making, compared to controls and Bipolar II subjects. Overall the amount of gray and white matter in Bipolar patients

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years. People with caudate strokes only rarely die, and generally because of underlying heart disease or other problems rather than the stroke itself. However, although having favorable prognosis in the short-term, and having previously thought to be relatively benign, lacunar strokes in general are

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to the caudate nucleus and the resulting lesions produced, a "leaping or forward movement" was observed in monkeys. Due to its association with damage to the caudate, this movement demonstrates the inhibitory nature of the caudate nucleus. The "motor release" observed as a result of this procedure

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In a follow-up study, patients with lacunar infarcts are diagnosed with dementia 4 to 12 times more frequently than the average population. Post-stroke dementia in accumulated lacunar infarct is common despite their small size and association with small vessel disease. Lacunar strokes are a common

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Local shape deformations of the medial surface of the caudate have been correlated with verbal learning capacity for females and the number of perseverance errors on spatial and verbal fluency working memory tasks for males. Specifically, a larger caudate nucleus volume has been linked with better

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Clinical diagnosis of subcortical infarction, chiefly lacunar stroke, Subcortical infarction is unfortunately often considered synonymous with lacunar stroke, Not all subcortical strokes are lacunes. The large striatocapsular infarct, even though confined to subcortical structures, usually does

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Evidence that the caudate nucleus and putamen influence stimulus-response learning comes from lesion studies in rodents and primates and from neuroimaging studies in humans and from studies of human disease. In Parkinson disease, the dopaminergic innervation of the caudate and putamen is severely

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patients and the caudate nucleus. MRI images were used to estimate the volume of caudate nuclei in patients with Alzheimer's and normal volunteers. The study found a "significant reduction in the caudate volume" in Alzheimer's patients when compared to the normal volunteers. While the correlation

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The sizes, locations, and involvements of neighboring structures define the symptoms of caudate lesions. Damage to the caudate nucleus usually presents with cognitive and behavioral symptoms rather than with neurological signs. Cognitive and behavioral symptoms are more common than motor problems

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analysis techniques. Activity in the caudate nucleus was demonstrated to be greater during tasks featuring spatial and motoric memory demands than those that involved nonspatial tasks. Specifically, spatial working memory activity has been observed, via fMRI studies of delayed recognition, to be

245:, so it is sometimes also referred to as two structures: the medial dorsal striatum (the caudate) and the lateral dorsal striatum (the putamen). In this vein, the two are functionally distinct not as a result of structural differences, but merely due to the topographical distribution of function. 3272:

The occurrence of stroke involving only the caudate nucleus seems overall rather uncommon. In one register study 23, it was reported that patients with caudate stroke constituted only 1% of a total number of 3050 stroke patients (2450 ischaemic stroke and 600 haemorrhagic stroke). In the present

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gene which encodes for Htt protein. The Htt protein interacts with over 100 other proteins, and appears to have multiple biological functions. The behavior of this mutated protein is not completely understood, but it is toxic to certain cell types, particularly in the brain. Early damage is most

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The prognosis of caudate strokes has been considered good and benign, with majorities of individuals recovering and becoming independent. However, patients with caudate strokes can have residual deficits and dependency needs, can worsen clinically with time, or can require institutionalization.

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Neuroimaging studies reveal that people who can communicate in multiple languages activate exactly the same brain regions regardless of the language. A 2006 publication studies this phenomenon and identifies the caudate as a center for language control. In perhaps the most illustrative case, a

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Meanwhile, behavioral studies provide another layer to the argument: recent studies suggest that the caudate is fundamental to goal-directed action, that is, "the selection of behavior based on the changing values of goals and a knowledge of which actions lead to what outcomes." One such study

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In a 2005 study, subjects were asked to learn to categorize visual stimuli by classifying images and receiving feedback on their responses. Activity associated with successful classification learning (correct categorization) was concentrated to the body and tail of the caudate, while activity

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patients. Functional imaging has shown activation of this subcortical loop during working memory tasks in primates and healthy human subjects. The caudate may be affiliated with deficits involving working memory from before illness onset as well. Caudate nucleus volume has been found to be

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The caudate nucleus contributes importantly to body and limbs posture and the speed and accuracy of directed movements. Deficits in posture and accuracy during paw usage tasks were observed following the removal of caudate nuclei in felines. A delay in initiating performance and the need to

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Approach-attachment behavior and affect are also controlled by the caudate nucleus. Cats with bilateral removal of the caudate nuclei persistently approached and followed objects, attempting to contact the target, while exhibiting a friendly disposition by the elicitation of treading of the

681:. About 25 to 30% of lesions are confined exclusively to the caudate. Caudate strokes are usually unilateral, but can also be bilateral, affecting both the left and right caudate nuclei. In the 1994 meta-analysis, 90% of isolated caudate infarcts were unilateral and 10% were bilateral. 402:) and anatomical studies expose a strong relationship between the caudate and cortical areas associated with executive functioning: "non-invasive measures of anatomical and functional connectivity in humans demonstrate a clear link between the caudate and executive frontal areas." 931:) (dorsolateral caudate, with larger lesions and more often extending into adjacent areas). Sometimes, abulia can alternate with periods of disinhibition and agitation in people with caudate strokes. The symptoms of caudate infarcts are assumed to be due to interruption of 907:(e.g., respective rates of 39% vs. 20% in the 1994 meta-analysis). Due to the predominance of cognitive and behavioral symptoms over neurological symptoms, and frequent absence of classical stroke signs, people with caudate strokes can be misdiagnosed as having primarily 1071:

that has infiltrated the structure. Opinions in this area are mixed about resecting the caudate, with some authors reporting relatively few deficits upon caudate removal, and others recommending against removal due to poor cognitive and behavioral outcomes, for instance

811:(14–33%). Motor weakness is often absent, minor/slight, or transient, and reportedly does not occur with lesions confined exclusively to the caudate nucleus. Abulia is defined as decreased spontaneous verbal and motor activity and slowness, with symptoms including 3462:

Riahi, A., Derbali, H., Bedoui, I., Messelmani, M., Mansour, M., Zaouali, J., & Mrissa, R. (2016, June). Implication of Caudate nucleus lacunar infarcts in post-stroke depression. European Journal of Neurology, 23(Suppl 2), 756–756 (abstract no. P32016).

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forelimbs and purring. The magnitude of the behavioral responses was correlated to the extent of the removal of the nuclei. Reports of human patients with selective damage to the caudate nucleus show unilateral caudate damage resulting in loss of drive,

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Goehler H, Lalowski M, Stelzl U, Waelter S, Stroedicke M, Worm U, Droege A, Lindenberg KS, Knoblich M, Haenig C, Herbst M, Suopanki J, Scherzinger E, Abraham C, Bauer B, Hasenbank R, Fritzsche A, Ludewig AH, Büssow K, Buessow K, Coleman SH, Gutekunst CA,

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In short, neuroimagery and anatomical studies support the assertion that the caudate plays a role in executive functioning, while behavioral studies deepen our understanding of the ways in which the caudate guides some of our decision-making processes.

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A review of neuroimaging studies, anatomical studies of caudate connectivity, and behavioral studies reveals a role for the caudate in executive functioning. A study of Parkinson's patients (see below) may also contribute to a growing body of evidence.

1130:, but as the disease progresses, other areas of the brain are also more conspicuously affected. Early symptoms are attributable to functions of the striatum and its cortical connections—namely control over movement, mood and higher cognitive function. 3792:

Recent studies have shown that the prognosis after lacunar infarcts is not benign; the risk of recurrent stroke is no lower than for other ischaemic stroke subtypes, and there is an increased risk for cognitive decline, dementia and death in the long

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Riggi, F. F., Hommel, M., & Jaillard, A. (2018). Lesions in the dorsolateral caudate nucleus predict post stroke depression – a voxel-based lesion-symptom mapping study. Cerebrovascular Diseases, 45(Suppl 1), 33–33 (abstract no. OP 025).

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lesions that included analysis of caudate lesions (Bhatia & Marsden, 1994). Caudate strokes are rare, representing only 1% of all strokes in one population of about 3,000 stroke patients. Caudate hemorrhages account for about 7% of all

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Hannan KL, Wood SJ, Yung AR, Velakoulis D, Phillips LJ, Soulsby B, Berger G, McGorry PD, Pantelis C (June 2010). "Caudate nucleus volume in individuals at ultra-high risk of psychosis: a cross-sectional magnetic resonance imaging study".

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cause of vascular dementia and mild cognitive impairment, often overlooked in clinical practice. Multiple silent lacunar strokes are documented on brain MRI, with patients presenting with mild cognitive impairment and early dementia.

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to compare the relative volume of white matter in the caudate among schizophrenia patients. Those patients with the disorder have "smaller absolute and relative volumes of white matter in the caudate nucleus than healthy subjects."

579:. It is difficult to see how such a system can operate without some mechanism to prevent explosive activation. There is some indirect evidence that the caudate may perform this regulatory role by measuring the general activity of 3559:

Ruppert E, Hacquard A, Tatu L, Namer IJ, Wolff V, Kremer S, Lagha-Boukbiza O, Bataillard M, Bourgin P (April 2022). "Stroke-related restless legs syndrome: Clinical and anatomo-functional characterization of an emerging entity".

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is likely the most studied basal ganglia disorder. Patients with this progressive neurodegenerative disorder often first experience movement related symptoms (the three most common being tremors at rest, muscular rigidity, and

290:. After the body travels briefly towards the back of the head, the tail curves back toward the anterior, forming the roof of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle. This means that a coronal (on a plane parallel to the 4414:

Maller, Jerome J.; Thaveenthiran, Prasanthan; Thomson, Richard H.; McQueen, Susan; Fitzgerald, Paul B. (2014). "Volumetric, cortical thickness and white matter integrity alterations in bipolar disorder type I and II".

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Müller DM, Robe PA, Eijgelaar RS, Witte MG, Visser M, de Munck JC, Broekman ML, Seute T, Hendrikse J, Noske DP, Vandertop WP, Barkhof F, Kouwenhoven MC, Mandonnet E, Berger MS, De Witt Hamer PC (January 2019).

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measures during human sleep cycles has indicated that the caudate nucleus demonstrates reduced activity during non-REM sleep across all sleep stages. Additionally, studies of human caudate nuclei volume in

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study, at least nine of the 925 patients initially included in the investigation had lesions involving an area in the superior part of the body of the left caudate nucleus and the adjacent corona radiata.

883:, and depression, have been particularly associated with caudate strokes relative to strokes occurring in other regions. Strokes in the caudate nucleus have also been strongly associated with post-stroke 486:

However, the effects of caudate nuclei removal on the sleep-wakefulness pattern of cats have not been permanent. Normalization has been discovered after a period of three months following caudate nuclei

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Crinion J, Turner R, Grogan A, Hanakawa T, Noppeney U, Devlin JT, Aso T, Urayama S, Fukuyama H, Stockton K, Usui K, Green DW, Price CJ (June 2006). "Language control in the bilingual brain".

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on memory processing in the caudate nucleus has been demonstrated with the finding that lesions involving the connections between these two structures "block the memory-enhancing effects of

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Schrimsher GW, Billingsley RL, Jackson EF, Moore BD (December 2002). "Caudate nucleus volume asymmetry predicts attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptomatology in children".

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Gnanashanmugam, G. (2011). A Study on Evaluation of Motor, Cognitive and Behavioral Manifestations of Basal Ganglia Infarcts (Doctoral dissertation, Madras Medical College, Chennai).

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Takase K, Tamagaki C, Okugawa G, Nobuhara K, Minami T, Sugimoto T, Sawada S, Kinoshita T (2004). "Reduced white matter volume of the caudate nucleus in patients with schizophrenia".

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associated with greatly increased risk of stroke recurrence, cognitive impairment and dementia, and early death in the mid- to long-term. Treatment of caudate strokes may consist of

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have linked the caudate nucleus to spatial and nonspatial mnemonic processing. Spatially dependent motor preparation has been linked to the caudate nucleus through event-related

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Tang, W.K.; Liang, H.J.; Chen, Y.K.; Chu, Winnie C.W.; Abrigo, Jill; Mok, V.C.T.; Ungvari, Gabor S.; Wong, K.S. (2013). "Poststroke fatigue is associated with caudate infarcts".

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Functional neuroimaging in humans demonstrates activation of the prefrontal cortex and caudate nucleus (part of the striatum) in tasks that demand inhibitory control of behavior.

3994:Çırak M, Yağmurlu K, Kearns KN, Ribas EC, Urgun K, Shaffrey ME, Kalani MY (July 2020). "The Caudate Nucleus: Its Connections, Surgical Implications, and Related Complications". 3832:

of recurrent stroke after lacunar infarct is similar to that for most other types of stroke, and patients have an increased risk of developing cognitive decline and dementia.

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infused into the caudate nucleus". In a study involving rats given water-maze training, the caudate nucleus was discovered to enhance memory of visually cued training after

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Pellizzaro Venti, Michele; Paciaroni, Maurizio; Caso, Valeria (2012). "Caudate Infarcts and Hemorrhages". In Paciaroni, M.; Agnelli, G.; Caso, V.; Bogousslavsky, J. (eds.).

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Caudate nucleus strokes have been associated with a variety of clinical symptoms. In studies of patients with caudate infarcts, frequently occurring symptoms have included

272:). The caudate head receives its blood supply from the lenticulostriate artery while the tail of the caudate receives its blood supply from the anterior choroidal artery. 3844:

Grau-Olivares M, Arboix A (August 2009). "Mild cognitive impairment in stroke patients with ischemic cerebral small-vessel disease: a forerunner of vascular dementia?".

4634: 519:(CCHS) subjects established a correlation between CCHS and a significant reduction in left and right caudate volume. CCHS is a genetic disorder that affects the 3595:

Akaho R, Deguchi I, Kigawa H, Nishimura K (April 2019). "Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Following Cerebrovascular Accident: A Case Report and Literature Review".

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Newberg AB, Wintering NA, Morgan D, Waldman MR (November 2006). "The measurement of regional cerebral blood flow during glossolalia: a preliminary SPECT study".

2032:"Differential response patterns in the striatum and orbitofrontal cortex to financial reward in humans: a parametric functional magnetic resonance imaging study" 1470: 543:

behavior, and hyperactivity. Most of these deficits can be classified as relating to approach-attachment behaviors, from approaching a target to romantic love.

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Aron A, Fisher H, Mashek DJ, Strong G, Li H, Brown LL (July 2005). "Reward, motivation, and emotion systems associated with early-stage intense romantic love".

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Wang XX, Feng Y, Tan EK, Ondo WG, Wu YC (February 2022). "Stroke-related restless legs syndrome: epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and pathophysiology".

503:(REMS) time that only lasted for about two months. However, afrontal cats had a permanent decrease in REMS time and only a temporary period of hyperactivity. 153: 1410: 596: 4114:

Jiji S, Smitha KA, Gupta AK, Pillai VP, Jayasree RS (September 2013). "Segmentation and volumetric analysis of the caudate nucleus in Alzheimer's disease".

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Gogichadze M, Oniani MT, Nemsadze M, Oniani N (2009). "Sleep disorders and disturbances in memory processing related to the lesion of the caudate nucleus".

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Douglas PK, Gutman B, Anderson A, Larios C, Lawrence KE, Narr K, Sengupta B, Cooray G, Douglas DB, Thompson PM, McGough JJ, Bookheimer SY (February 2018).

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Satzer D, Bond DJ (May 2016). "Mania secondary to focal brain lesions: implications for understanding the functional neuroanatomy of bipolar disorder".

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Levitt JJ, McCarley RW, Dickey CC, Voglmaier MM, Niznikiewicz MA, Seidman LJ, Hirayasu Y, Ciszewski AA, Kikinis R, Jolesz FA, Shenton ME (July 2002).

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Strokes can occur in the caudate nucleus and studies of patients with these kinds of strokes followed the introduction and widespread availability of

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The caudate nucleus has been implicated in responses to visual beauty, and has been suggested as one of the "neural correlates of romantic love".

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Duffau H, Denvil D, Capelle L (August 2002). "Absence of movement disorders after surgical resection of glioma invading the right striatum".

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Caplan LR, Schmahmann JD, Kase CS, Feldmann E, Baquis G, Greenberg JP, Gorelick PB, Helgason C, Hier DB (February 1990). "Caudate infarcts".

129: 1180:(OCD), in that it may perhaps be unable to properly regulate the transmission of information regarding worrying events or ideas between the 835:

items, verbal amnesia (33% of left-sided lesions), and visual amnesia (right-sided lesions), among other deficits. Less commonly, there are

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The dorsal-prefrontal cortex subcortical loop involving the caudate nucleus has been linked to deficits in working memory, specifically in

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Kumral E, Çetin FE, Özdemir HN (2023). "A Neuropsychiatric and Neuroimaging Study of Unilateral and Bilateral Striatal Ischemic Lesions".

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Chung, Chin-Sang; Caplan, Louis R. (2012-07-12). "Caudate nucleus infarcts and hemorrhages". In Caplan, Louis R.; van Gijn, Jan (eds.).

4610: 1422: 2128:"MRI study of caudate nucleus volume and its cognitive correlates in neuroleptic-naive patients with schizotypal personality disorder" 1011:

like hypertension and diabetes mellitus to reduce the risk of additional strokes. On the basis of case reports and small case series,

899:, have been reported rarely in individuals with caudate strokes as well. In one case report of bilateral caudate head damage, severe 1987:

Grahn JA, Parkinson JA, Owen AM (April 2009). "The role of the basal ganglia in learning and memory: neuropsychological studies".

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gyri. These findings contrast with those in people with other anxiety disorders, who evince decreased (rather than increased)

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Bhatia KP, Marsden CD (August 1994). "The behavioural and motor consequences of focal lesions of the basal ganglia in man".

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due to a reduced drive to breathe. Therefore, the caudate nucleus has been suggested to play a role in human sleep cycles.

4555:"Meta-analytical comparison of voxel-based morphometry studies in obsessive-compulsive disorder vs other anxiety disorders" 4470:"The caudate nucleus in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Reduced metabolism following treatment with paroxetine: a PET study" 563:

showed a significant reduction in activity in the left caudate nucleus during glossolalia compared to singing in English.

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associated with feedback processing (the result of incorrect categorization) was concentrated to the head of the caudate.

2329:"Brain activation and hypothalamic functional connectivity during human non-rapid eye movement sleep: an EEG/fMRI study" 1935:

White NM (April 2009). "Some highlights of research on the effects of caudate nucleus lesions over the past 200 years".

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found that the right caudate nucleus had the largest change in glucose metabolism after patients had been treated with

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Wu X, Xu J, Lu B (June 2020). "Acute post-stroke restless legs syndrome: the body of caudate nucleus considerations".

1815:"Dissociation of human caudate nucleus activity in spatial and nonspatial working memory: an event-related fMRI study" 1724:

Yeterian EH, Pandya DN (February 1995). "Corticostriatal connections of extrastriate visual areas in rhesus monkeys".

1350: 241:, which is considered a single functional structure; anatomically, it is separated by a large white matter tract, the 4802: 4626: 2288:"Counterpointing the functional role of the forebrain and of the brainstem in the control of the sleep-waking system" 1705: 1627: 1580: 1555: 1269: 1265: 888: 471:

Bilateral lesions in the head of the caudate nucleus in cats were correlated with a decrease in the duration of deep

3234:"Predominance of caudate nucleus lesions in acute ischaemic stroke patients with impairment in language and speech" 1649:"Linking dopaminergic reward signals to the development of attentional bias: A positron emission tomographic study" 729: 160: 3915: 752:. Additionally, a case report of lacunar infarction of the caudate and adjacent structures due to high-dose oral 3360:

Godfrey J (March 2009). "Safety of therapeutic methylphenidate in adults: a systematic review of the evidence".

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during the sleep-wakefulness cycle. With a decrease in total volume of deep slow wave sleep, the transition of

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Canavero S, Fontanella M (1998). "Behavioral-attentional syndrome following bilateral caudate head ischaemia".

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McGaugh JL (2004). "The amygdala modulates the consolidation of memories of emotionally arousing experiences".

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Stein RW, Kase CS, Hier DB, Caplan LR, Mohr JP, Hemmati M, Henderson K (December 1984). "Caudate hemorrhage".

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Mendez MF, Adams NL, Lewandowski KS (March 1989). "Neurobehavioral changes associated with caudate lesions".

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The caudate nucleus integrates spatial information with motor behavior formulation. Selective impairment of

148: 1791: 654:. In one series of patients, 80% of strokes were ischemic and 20% were hemorrhagic. Caudate infarcts can be 499:

activation. The cats with caudate removal, although permanently hyperactive, had a significant decrease in

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indicates that the caudate nucleus inhibits the tendency for an animal to move forward without resistance.

4189:"A protein interaction network links GIT1, an enhancer of huntingtin aggregation, to Huntington's disease" 1487: 1314: 1308:

Superficial dissection of brain-stem. Lateral view. The caudate nucleus can be seen above the optic nerve.

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studies comparing people with OCD and healthy controls have found people with OCD to have increased

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of action, among other functions. The caudate is also one of the brain structures which compose the

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Bokura H, Robinson RG (May 1997). "Long-term cognitive impairment associated with caudate stroke".

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Contrasting with associations between "deep", REM sleep and the caudate nucleus, a study involving

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constantly shift body position were both observed in cats following partial removal of the nuclei.

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Bokura & Robinson (1997) found that some individuals with caudate strokes deteriorated on the

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The volume of white matter in the caudate nucleus has been linked with patients diagnosed with

1097: 908: 884: 496: 344: 340: 294:) section that cuts through the tail will also cross the body and head of the caudate nucleus. 194: 136: 124: 4158: 3940:

Arnts H, van Erp WS, Lavrijsen JC, van Gaal S, Groenewegen HJ, van den Munckhof P (May 2020).

3325: 193:. While the caudate nucleus has long been associated with motor processes due to its role in 5109: 5030: 4976: 4861: 4396: 2370:"Reduced caudate nuclei volumes in patients with congenital central hypoventilation syndrome" 1647:

Anderson BA, Kuwabara H, Wong DF, Roberts J, Rahmim A, Brašić JR, Courtney SM (August 2017).

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The head and body of the caudate nucleus form part of the floor of the anterior horn of the

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Kumar R, Ahdout R, Macey PM, Woo MA, Avedissian C, Thompson PM, Harper RM (November 2009).

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Kaufmann C, Wehrle R, Wetter TC, Holsboer F, Auer DP, Pollmächer T, Czisch M (March 2006).

2188: 1856:"Spatial working memory activity of the caudate nucleus is sensitive to frame of reference" 1236: 1220: 1219:, extending to the caudate nuclei, while decreased grey matter volumes in bilateral dorsal 1204: 1185: 1106: 694: 682: 303: 253: 202: 8: 5124: 5035: 4851: 2925: 2848: 2776: 1575:. Connors, Barry W.,, Paradiso, Michael A. (Fourth ed.). Philadelphia. p. 502. 1416:

Ventricles of brain and basal ganglia. Superior view, horizontal section, deep dissection

1064: 864: 607: 584: 572: 198: 2532: 2434: 1380:

Central part and anterior and posterior cornua of lateral ventricles exposed from above.

5072: 5067: 5062: 5057: 4726: 4388: 4340: 4315: 4296: 4253: 4091: 4066: 3258: 3233: 2613: 2552: 2501: 2453: 2418: 2394: 2385: 2369: 2236: 2211: 2152: 2127: 2108: 2056: 2047: 2031: 2012: 1960: 1749: 1673: 1648: 1598: 1523: 1514: 1498: 1232: 1216: 900: 702: 651: 323: 206: 4656: 4571: 4554: 4241: 3818: 3766:

Norrving B (August 2008). "Lacunar infarcts: no black holes in the brain are benign".

3285:

Gerraty RP (September 2003). "Clinical diagnosis of subcortical cerebral infarction".

2601: 2272: 2096: 1831: 1814: 4944: 4856: 4790: 4721: 4596: 4576: 4532: 4491: 4432: 4380: 4345: 4288: 4245: 4210: 4162: 4151: 4131: 4096: 4046: 4011: 3973: 3896: 3892: 3861: 3822: 3783: 3744: 3717: 3682: 3647: 3612: 3577: 3541: 3506: 3418: 3377: 3333: 3302: 3263: 3214: 3162: 3110: 3106: 3047: 3001: 2929: 2894: 2852: 2817: 2780: 2714: 2605: 2544: 2493: 2458: 2399: 2350: 2309: 2304: 2287: 2241: 2192: 2157: 2100: 2061: 2004: 1952: 1917: 1877: 1836: 1741: 1701: 1678: 1664: 1623: 1586: 1576: 1551: 1528: 1000: 880: 808: 796: 706: 698: 627:. Research on caudate strokes has consisted of small clinical series of patients and 611: 576: 476: 287: 4300: 4257: 3958: 3941: 2617: 2556: 2112: 2016: 1753: 1398: 1176:

It has been theorized that the caudate nucleus may be dysfunctional in persons with

1138:

A 2002 study draws a relationship between caudate asymmetry and symptoms related to

1089:

does not indicate causation, the finding may have implications for early diagnosis.

875:(9%, or 1 of 11 and with bilateral lesions). Among strokes in general, and/or among 780: 5011: 4833: 4797: 4716: 4566: 4522: 4481: 4424: 4392: 4372: 4335: 4327: 4280: 4237: 4200: 4123: 4086: 4078: 4038: 4003: 3963: 3953: 3888: 3853: 3814: 3775: 3709: 3674: 3639: 3604: 3569: 3533: 3498: 3445: 3408: 3369: 3294: 3253: 3245: 3206: 3154: 3102: 3037: 2993: 2921: 2886: 2844: 2809: 2772: 2706: 2597: 2536: 2485: 2448: 2438: 2389: 2381: 2340: 2299: 2268: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2184: 2147: 2139: 2092: 2051: 2043: 1996: 1964: 1944: 1867: 1826: 1733: 1668: 1660: 1518: 1510: 1386: 1040: 979: 916: 860: 816: 749: 733: 667: 480: 307: 256:

of the brain. Individually, they resemble a C-shape structure with a wider "head" (

242: 4511:"Voxel-wise meta-analysis of grey matter changes in obsessive-compulsive disorder" 2505: 197:, it plays important roles in various other nonmotor functions as well, including 4981: 4959: 4927: 4838: 4817: 4735: 4697: 4617: 4284: 4205: 4188: 3537: 2710: 2443: 1024: 1016: 959: 832: 828: 753: 678: 655: 643: 580: 472: 275: 248:

The caudate nuclei are located near the center of the brain, sitting astride the

238: 182: 117: 92: 63: 4400: 4127: 3740: 3502: 3078: 2143: 5119: 5084: 4909: 4882: 4826: 4331: 4042: 4007: 1769:"Cerebral vascular territories - Radiology Reference Article - Radiopaedia.org" 1235:/ caudate nuclei, while also decreased grey matter volumes in bilateral dorsal 1085: 994:

years, whereas patients with other subcortical lesions tended to improve over 2

971: 955: 932: 836: 737: 671: 492: 4527: 4510: 4486: 4469: 4428: 3449: 3413: 3396: 3210: 2000: 1948: 5143: 5079: 4671: 4658: 3779: 3713: 3373: 3298: 1590: 1151: 1004: 924: 892: 876: 804: 788: 784: 685:

or penetrating-branch disease is a major mechanism of caudate strokes. Major

619: 615: 540: 424: 419: 210: 186: 141: 46: 3042: 3025: 2997: 2966:. In Donnan, G. A.; Norrving, B.; Bamford, J. M.; Bogousslavsky, J. (eds.). 2540: 40: 5101: 4998: 4919: 4782: 4580: 4536: 4495: 4436: 4384: 4349: 4292: 4249: 4214: 4135: 4100: 4050: 4015: 3977: 3900: 3865: 3826: 3787: 3748: 3721: 3651: 3616: 3581: 3545: 3510: 3422: 3381: 3306: 3267: 3114: 2813: 2609: 2548: 2497: 2462: 2403: 2354: 2345: 2328: 2313: 2245: 2196: 2161: 2104: 2065: 2008: 1956: 1921: 1881: 1840: 1682: 1532: 1192: 1020: 852: 690: 674: 628: 447: 3916:"Disorders of diminished motivation: What they are, and how to treat them" 3686: 3678: 3332:. Oxford medical publications. Oxford University Press. pp. 195–208. 3218: 3051: 3005: 2933: 2898: 2856: 2821: 2489: 1745: 1737: 571:

The brain contains large collections of neurons reciprocally connected by

5052: 5044: 5025: 4968: 4891: 4680: 4662: 4082: 3805:

Norrving B (April 2003). "Long-term prognosis after lacunar infarction".

3232:

Grönholm EO, Roll MC, Horne MA, Sundgren PC, Lindgren AG (January 2016).

2890: 1872: 1855: 1228: 1212: 1032: 1008: 963: 824: 686: 639: 560: 520: 451: 439: 268:). Sometimes a part of the caudate nucleus is referred to as the "knee" ( 190: 4552: 859:(9–16%), as well as more severe cognitive and behavioral problems, like 166: 3968: 2705:(3 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 397–404. 1200: 1048: 760: 99: 4376: 3857: 3643: 3573: 3249: 3158: 1440:

Caudate nuclei along with other subcortical structures, in glass brain

799:, minor speech or linguistic deficits (23–50% of left-sided lesions), 771:(40–100%), and cognitive/behavioral abnormalities (39–78%), including 5091: 4768: 4600: 4553:

Radua J, van den Heuvel OA, Surguladze S, Mataix-Cols D (July 2010).

1102: 1036: 1028: 920: 800: 764: 597:

Neurobiological effects of physical exercise § Structural growth

3914:

Spiegel DR, Warren A, Takakura W, Servidio L, Leu N (January 2018).

3477: 3464: 3144: 2630:

Braitenberg V. (1984) Vehicles. Experiments in synthetic psychology.

438:

and the caudate nucleus have direct and indirect projections to the

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Marin RS, Wilkosz PA (2005). "Disorders of diminished motivation".

3142: 3140: 3138: 3136: 3134: 3132: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3124: 2212:"The roles of the caudate nucleus in human classification learning" 1698:

Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience

1696:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

1620:

Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience

1618:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

1548:

Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience

1546:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

1261: 1181: 1127: 1044: 951: 943: 928: 872: 856: 820: 768: 741: 721: 713: 488: 443: 435: 431: 352: 348: 319: 311: 249: 111: 1428:

Ventricles of brain and basal ganglia. Close-up of preceding image

879:

strokes specifically, certain sequelae, including apathy, abulia,

614:

on caudate nucleus strokes have been published, as well as a 1994

225: 28: 4702: 4413: 4270: 1550:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 147–148. 1476:

Caudate nucleus highlighted in green on transversal T1 MRI images

975: 967: 912: 868: 844: 659: 647: 373: 315: 234: 3121: 1073: 1068: 947: 848: 840: 812: 772: 4597:

Stained brain slice images which include the "caudate nucleus"

3700:

Arboix A, Martí-Vilalta JL (February 2009). "Lacunar stroke".

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Caudate nucleus highlighted in green on sagittal T1 MRI images

1284:

Coronal section through anterior cornua of lateral ventricles.

4362: 3939: 3913: 3148: 2587: 2125: 1452:

Caudate nucleus highlighted in green on coronal T1 MRI images

896: 75: 4181: 3738: 2911: 2326: 1908:

Villablanca JR (2010). "Why do we have a caudate nucleus?".

1700:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 321. 1622:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 326. 1019:, secondary to stroke and other causes, may be treated with 4502: 4313: 3594: 2518: 1646: 1497:

Yager LM, Garcia AF, Wunsch AM, Ferguson SM (August 2015).

1139: 1133: 511: 434:

sends direct projections to the caudate nucleus. Both the

399: 356: 347:

and the knowledge of the disease's impact on the amount of

291: 16:

Structure of the striatum in the basal ganglia of the brain

4467: 2030:

Elliott R, Newman JL, Longe OA, Deakin JF (January 2003).

1499:"The ins and outs of the striatum: Role in drug addiction" 4468:

Hansen ES, Hasselbalch S, Law I, Bolwig TG (March 2002).

3942:"On the pathophysiology and treatment of akinetic mutism" 3231: 2771:. Oxford University PressNew York, NY. pp. 209–224. 1496: 507: 280: 279:

Transverse view of the caudate nucleus from a structural

4063: 3993: 3558: 2081: 2029: 3469: 3397:"Lacunar stroke associated with methylphenidate abuse" 2876: 2475: 2077: 2075: 938:

Caudate nucleus hemorrhages can mimic the symptoms of

4113: 3739:

Gore M, Bansal K, Khan Suheb MZ, Asuncion RM (2024).

3073: 3071: 3069: 3067: 3065: 3063: 3061: 2957: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2945: 2943: 1296:

Coronal section of brain through anterior commissure.

4474:

The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology

4157:(4th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. p. 3429: 2970:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 117–130. 2835:

Weisberg LA (September 1984). "Caudate hemorrhage".

1853: 1812: 903:

impairment was measured, along with other deficits.

634:

Caudate nucleus strokes can be diagnosed with CT or

4028: 3843: 3699: 3023: 2799: 2696: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2684: 2682: 2680: 2678: 2676: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2668: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2367: 2072: 1860:

Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience

1695: 1617: 1545: 1356:

Superficial dissection of brain-stem. Ventral view.

4228:Walker FO (January 2007). "Huntington's disease". 4150: 4148: 3664: 3092: 3058: 2940: 2654: 2652: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2640: 2638: 2636: 1986: 935:such as cortico–striatal–thalamic–cortical loops. 394:A two-pronged approach of neuroimaging (including 3907: 1982: 1980: 1978: 1976: 1974: 322:. There are also additional inputs from various 314:and contains cell projections to the caudate and 5141: 4508: 3435: 3153:. Vol. 30. S. Karger AG. pp. 137–140. 1171: 3989: 3987: 3488: 3088: 3086: 2633: 2417:Ishizu T, Zeki S (May 2011). Warrant EJ (ed.). 1903: 1901: 1899: 1897: 1895: 1893: 1891: 33:Caudate nucleus (in red) shown within the brain 3196: 3194: 3192: 3190: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3180: 3178: 3024:Kumral E, Evyapan D, Balkir K (January 1999). 3019: 3017: 3015: 2983: 2979: 2977: 2961: 2872: 2870: 2868: 2866: 2767:Caplan, L R (2002-04-11). "Caudate infarcts". 2762: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2754: 2752: 2750: 1971: 1723: 1611: 1539: 575:, thus forming large network of elements with 334: 260:in Latin) at the front, tapering to a "body" ( 45:Transverse cut of brain (horizontal section), 4642: 3200: 3079:http://repository-tnmgrmu.ac.in/id/eprint/580 2748: 2746: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2736: 2734: 2732: 2730: 2571:"How bilingual brains switch between tongues" 2209: 4548: 4546: 4175: 4057: 4022: 3984: 3933: 3878: 3872: 3837: 3798: 3759: 3732: 3693: 3623: 3588: 3552: 3517: 3482: 3388: 3353: 3278: 3225: 3083: 2279: 1888: 1344:Deep dissection of brain-stem. Lateral view. 1332:Deep dissection of brain-stem. Lateral view. 454:was infused post-training into the caudate. 3658: 3317: 3175: 3012: 2974: 2905: 2863: 2828: 2793: 2700: 2285: 2119: 1907: 517:congenital central hypoventilation syndrome 215:cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop 4649: 4635: 4221: 3629: 3609:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2018.12.034 2727: 2416: 1689: 1603:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 1084:A 2013 study has suggested a link between 181:is one of the structures that make up the 39: 27: 4570: 4543: 4526: 4485: 4339: 4204: 4187:, Lehrach H, Wanker EE (September 2004). 4090: 3967: 3957: 3456: 3412: 3394: 3257: 3041: 2968:Lacunar and Other Subcortical Infarctions 2452: 2442: 2393: 2344: 2303: 2235: 2151: 2055: 1871: 1830: 1672: 1522: 887:(RLS). Other behavioral conditions, like 863:(loss of psychic self-activation) (12%), 252:. There is a caudate nucleus within each 4509:Radua J, Mataix-Cols D (November 2009). 3804: 3765: 2834: 1819:Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research 1134:Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder 1023:agents and other medications, including 590: 427:errors on spatial working memory tasks. 274: 224: 3359: 3323: 3284: 3151:Frontiers of Neurology and Neuroscience 2962:Caplan, L. R.; Helgason, C. M. (1995). 2419:"Toward a brain-based theory of beauty" 2174: 1766: 1573:Neuroscience : exploring the brain 1320:Dissection of brain-stem. Lateral view. 1112: 795:or frontal system abnormalities (26%), 728:. Less common risk factors may include 689:and causes of caudate infarcts include 385: 5142: 4227: 3523: 2766: 2189:10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144157 1368:Dissection of brain-stem. Dorsal view. 1092: 1079: 380: 4630: 4153:An Introduction to Brain and Behavior 1934: 1854:Postle BR, D'Esposito M (June 2003). 1813:Postle BR, D'Esposito M (July 1999). 1264:(on the right side of the brain): A, 726:carotid artery stenosis and occlusion 363: 4149:Kolb, Bryan; Ian Q. Whishaw (2001). 3438:Journal of the Neurological Sciences 2926:10.1001/archneur.1990.00530020029011 2849:10.1001/archneur.1984.04050200077021 2210:Seger CA, Cincotta CM (March 2005). 1785: 1726:The Journal of Comparative Neurology 1570: 1246: 1058: 566: 302:The caudate is highly innervated by 1121:, a genetic mutation occurs in the 970:, neuropsychological disturbances, 709:, large artery lesions, rupture of 638:(MRI) scanning. They are a type of 13: 4622:Neuroscience Information Framework 2777:10.1093/oso/9780192631572.003.0018 2386:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.07.038 2261:Parkinsonism and Related Disorders 2132:The American Journal of Psychiatry 2048:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-01-00303.2003 1515:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.06.033 1013:disorders of diminished motivation 329: 14: 5161: 4590: 4572:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.70 4515:The British Journal of Psychiatry 3478:https://doi.org/10.1159/000520354 3465:https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.13094 2602:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2006.07.001 2286:Villablanca JR (September 2004). 2097:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.02.006 1162: 1063:The caudate nucleus is sometimes 601: 483:may also be affected negatively. 318:, utilizing the neurotransmitter 310:(SNc). The SNc is located in the 297: 3893:10.1097/00001199-200507000-00009 3107:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21030083 3026:"Acute caudate vascular lesions" 2305:10.1111/j.1365-2869.2004.00412.x 1665:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.05.062 1469: 1457: 1445: 1433: 1421: 1409: 1397: 1385: 1373: 1361: 1349: 1337: 1325: 1313: 1301: 1289: 1277: 1253: 1145: 1007:agents and management of stroke 960:decreased level of consciousness 867:(10% with right-sided lesions), 730:non-valvular atrial fibrillation 229:Caudate nucleus within the skull 161:Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy 4461: 4443: 4407: 4356: 4307: 4264: 4142: 4107: 3959:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.02.006 3095:J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2624: 2581: 2563: 2512: 2469: 2410: 2361: 2320: 2252: 2203: 2168: 2023: 1928: 1847: 1806: 1053:acetylcholinesterase inhibitors 4559:Archives of General Psychiatry 4417:Journal of Affective Disorders 2228:10.1523/jneurosci.3401-04.2005 1779: 1760: 1717: 1640: 1564: 308:substantia nigra pars compacta 185:, which is a component of the 1: 4905:Anterior perforated substance 4242:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60111-1 4116:European Journal of Radiology 3819:10.1016/s1474-4422(03)00352-1 3395:Sadeghian H (February 2004). 2273:10.1016/S1353-8020(09)70639-X 2177:Annual Review of Neuroscience 1832:10.1016/s0926-6410(99)00010-5 1481: 1178:obsessive compulsive disorder 1172:Obsessive-compulsive disorder 988:mini-mental state examination 889:obsessive–compulsive disorder 642:stroke and are classified as 537:obsessive-compulsive disorder 372:Following the application of 213:and functions as part of the 4611:NIF Search - Caudate Nucleus 4451:"A Trip Into Bipolar Brains" 4285:10.1177/08830738020170122001 4206:10.1016/j.molcel.2004.09.016 3538:10.1016/j.sleep.2019.11.1253 2711:10.1017/cbo9781139093286.034 2444:10.1371/journal.pone.0021852 1260:Two views of a model of the 1197:positron emission tomography 556:verbal fluency performance. 220: 7: 4606:Diagram at uni-tuebingen.de 4128:10.1016/j.ejrad.2013.03.012 3503:10.1016/j.sleep.2022.02.001 3205:. 117 ( Pt 4) (4): 859–76. 2216:The Journal of Neuroscience 2144:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.7.1190 2036:The Journal of Neuroscience 1015:, like apathy, abulia, and 718:arteriovenous malformations 546: 457: 335:Spatial mnemonic processing 10: 5166: 4900:Anterior olfactory nucleus 4332:10.1016/j.nicl.2018.02.020 4273:Journal of Child Neurology 4043:10.3171/jns.2002.97.2.0363 4008:10.1016/j.wneu.2020.04.027 3326:"Striatocapsular infarcts" 2478:Journal of Neurophysiology 1989:Behavioural Brain Research 1937:Behavioural Brain Research 1156:magnetic resonance imaging 636:magnetic resonance imaging 594: 526: 423:inversely associated with 5100: 5043: 5024: 4997: 4967: 4957: 4918: 4890: 4881: 4781: 4756: 4688: 4679: 4670: 4665:and associated structures 4528:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.055046 4487:10.1017/S1461145701002681 4429:10.1016/j.jad.2014.08.016 3450:10.1016/j.jns.2012.10.022 3414:10.1017/s0317167100002924 2292:Journal of Sleep Research 2001:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.11.020 1949:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.12.003 1910:Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars) 1168:was lower than controls. 732:, myocardial dyskinesia, 625:intracerebral hemorrhages 495:in controlling levels of 413: 159: 147: 135: 123: 110: 98: 86: 74: 69: 59: 54: 38: 26: 21: 4989:Nucleus of diagonal band 3780:10.1136/jnnp.2008.153601 3714:10.1586/14737175.9.2.179 3597:J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 3374:10.1177/0269881108089809 3299:10.1586/14737175.3.5.703 756:use has been published. 559:A neurological study of 501:rapid eye movement sleep 466: 442:. The influence of the 306:that originate from the 237:, the caudate forms the 4938:Lateral olfactory stria 3328:. In Donnan, G. (ed.). 3211:10.1093/brain/117.4.859 3043:10.1161/01.str.30.1.100 2998:10.1161/01.str.28.5.970 2541:10.1126/science.1127761 1209:voxel-based morphometry 940:subarachnoid hemorrhage 711:internal carotid artery 5007:Diagonal band of Broca 4933:Medial olfactory stria 4869:Subthalamic fasciculus 4847:Pallidothalamic tracts 4071:JCO Clin Cancer Inform 2814:10.1212/wnl.34.12.1549 1571:Bear, Mark F. (2016). 885:restless legs syndrome 497:central nervous system 341:spatial working memory 283: 230: 5031:Hippocampal formation 4977:Substantia innominata 4862:Lenticular fasciculus 3946:Neurosci Biobehav Rev 3881:J Head Trauma Rehabil 3679:10.1007/s004150050226 2490:10.1152/jn.00838.2004 1738:10.1002/cne.903520309 1231:volumes in bilateral 1215:volumes in bilateral 793:executive dysfunction 591:Clinical significance 278: 228: 4320:NeuroImage: Clinical 4083:10.1200/CCI.18.00089 3846:Expert Rev Neurother 3702:Expert Rev Neurother 3324:Weiller, C. (2002). 3287:Expert Rev Neurother 2891:10.1212/wnl.39.3.349 2346:10.1093/brain/awh686 1873:10.3758/cabn.3.2.133 1794:on 30 September 2013 1186:orbitofrontal cortex 1154:. A 2004 study uses 1119:Huntington's disease 1113:Huntington's disease 1107:Tower of London test 695:hypercholesterolemia 683:Small vessel disease 583:and controlling the 386:Goal-directed action 324:association cortices 304:dopaminergic neurons 203:associative learning 5125:Schaffer collateral 5036:Hippocampus anatomy 4852:Thalamic fasciculus 2590:Psychiatry Research 2533:2006Sci...312.1537C 2435:2011PLoSO...621852I 2085:Psychiatry Research 1098:Parkinson's disease 1093:Parkinson's disease 1080:Alzheimer's disease 1065:surgically resected 909:psychogenic illness 608:computed tomography 585:threshold potential 573:excitatory synapses 381:Cognitive functions 345:Parkinson's disease 199:procedural learning 195:Parkinson's disease 5053:Hippocampus proper 4727:Olfactory tubercle 4616:2013-07-27 at the 4365:Neuropsychobiology 3923:Current Psychiatry 3330:Subcortical Stroke 2964:"Caudate infarcts" 2769:Subcortical Stroke 1788:"Substantia Nigra" 1241:anterior cingulate 1225:anterior cingulate 901:prospective memory 803:difficulties, and 746:Hodgkin's lymphoma 703:myocardial infarct 612:literature reviews 364:Directed movements 284: 233:Together with the 231: 207:inhibitory control 5137: 5136: 5133: 5132: 5020: 5019: 4953: 4952: 4945:Olfactory trigone 4877: 4876: 4857:Ansa lenticularis 4791:Centrum semiovale 4777: 4776: 4722:Nucleus accumbens 4601:BrainMaps project 4377:10.1159/000080956 3858:10.1586/ern.09.73 3644:10.1111/bdi.12387 3574:10.1111/ene.15207 3362:J Psychopharmacol 3339:978-0-19-263157-2 3250:10.1111/ene.12822 3168:978-3-8055-9910-8 3159:10.1159/000333616 2786:978-0-19-263157-2 2720:978-1-139-09328-6 2527:(5779): 1537–40. 1786:McDougal, David. 1247:Additional images 1217:lenticular nuclei 1205:SDM meta-analyses 1059:Caudate resection 1041:dopamine agonists 797:memory impairment 707:cigarette smoking 699:diabetes mellitus 577:positive feedback 567:Threshold control 539:, stimulus-bound 477:short-term memory 343:in subjects with 288:lateral ventricle 175: 174: 170: 5157: 5041: 5040: 5012:Stria terminalis 4965: 4964: 4888: 4887: 4834:External capsule 4798:Internal capsule 4717:Ventral striatum 4686: 4685: 4677: 4676: 4651: 4644: 4637: 4628: 4627: 4585: 4584: 4574: 4550: 4541: 4540: 4530: 4506: 4500: 4499: 4489: 4465: 4459: 4458: 4447: 4441: 4440: 4411: 4405: 4404: 4360: 4354: 4353: 4343: 4311: 4305: 4304: 4268: 4262: 4261: 4236:(9557): 218–28. 4225: 4219: 4218: 4208: 4185:Landwehrmeyer BG 4179: 4173: 4172: 4156: 4146: 4140: 4139: 4111: 4105: 4104: 4094: 4061: 4055: 4054: 4026: 4020: 4019: 3991: 3982: 3981: 3971: 3961: 3937: 3931: 3930: 3920: 3911: 3905: 3904: 3876: 3870: 3869: 3841: 3835: 3834: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3763: 3757: 3756: 3741:"Lacunar Stroke" 3736: 3730: 3729: 3697: 3691: 3690: 3662: 3656: 3655: 3627: 3621: 3620: 3592: 3586: 3585: 3568:(4): 1011–1016. 3556: 3550: 3549: 3521: 3515: 3514: 3486: 3480: 3473: 3467: 3460: 3454: 3453: 3444:(1–2): 131–135. 3433: 3427: 3426: 3416: 3401:Can J Neurol Sci 3392: 3386: 3385: 3357: 3351: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3321: 3315: 3314: 3282: 3276: 3275: 3261: 3229: 3223: 3222: 3198: 3173: 3172: 3146: 3119: 3118: 3090: 3081: 3075: 3056: 3055: 3045: 3021: 3010: 3009: 2981: 2972: 2971: 2959: 2938: 2937: 2909: 2903: 2902: 2874: 2861: 2860: 2832: 2826: 2825: 2797: 2791: 2790: 2764: 2725: 2724: 2703:Stroke syndromes 2698: 2631: 2628: 2622: 2621: 2585: 2579: 2578: 2575:newscientist.com 2567: 2561: 2560: 2516: 2510: 2509: 2473: 2467: 2466: 2456: 2446: 2414: 2408: 2407: 2397: 2365: 2359: 2358: 2348: 2339:(Pt 3): 655–67. 2324: 2318: 2317: 2307: 2283: 2277: 2276: 2256: 2250: 2249: 2239: 2207: 2201: 2200: 2172: 2166: 2165: 2155: 2123: 2117: 2116: 2079: 2070: 2069: 2059: 2027: 2021: 2020: 1984: 1969: 1968: 1932: 1926: 1925: 1905: 1886: 1885: 1875: 1851: 1845: 1844: 1834: 1810: 1804: 1803: 1801: 1799: 1790:. Archived from 1783: 1777: 1776: 1767:D'Souza, Donna. 1764: 1758: 1757: 1721: 1715: 1714: 1693: 1687: 1686: 1676: 1644: 1638: 1637: 1615: 1609: 1608: 1602: 1594: 1568: 1562: 1561: 1543: 1537: 1536: 1526: 1494: 1473: 1461: 1449: 1437: 1425: 1413: 1401: 1389: 1377: 1365: 1353: 1341: 1329: 1317: 1305: 1293: 1281: 1257: 1025:psychostimulants 997: 993: 980:mental confusion 942:and can include 917:bipolar disorder 861:psychic akinesia 817:flattened affect 750:Moyamoya disease 734:cardiac aneurysm 722:cardiac embolism 668:internal capsule 656:lacunar infarcts 481:long-term memory 351:supplied to the 264:) and a "tail" ( 243:internal capsule 167:edit on Wikidata 164: 81:nucleus caudatus 43: 31: 19: 18: 5165: 5164: 5160: 5159: 5158: 5156: 5155: 5154: 5140: 5139: 5138: 5129: 5096: 5034: 5029: 5016: 4993: 4982:Nucleus basalis 4960:basal forebrain 4949: 4928:Olfactory tract 4914: 4873: 4839:Extreme capsule 4818:Optic radiation 4773: 4752: 4736:Globus pallidus 4708:Caudate nucleus 4698:Dorsal striatum 4666: 4655: 4618:Wayback Machine 4593: 4588: 4551: 4544: 4507: 4503: 4466: 4462: 4457:. 14 June 2017. 4449: 4448: 4444: 4412: 4408: 4361: 4357: 4312: 4308: 4269: 4265: 4226: 4222: 4180: 4176: 4169: 4147: 4143: 4112: 4108: 4062: 4058: 4027: 4023: 3996:World Neurosurg 3992: 3985: 3938: 3934: 3929:(1): 10–18, 20. 3918: 3912: 3908: 3877: 3873: 3842: 3838: 3803: 3799: 3764: 3760: 3737: 3733: 3698: 3694: 3663: 3659: 3628: 3624: 3593: 3589: 3557: 3553: 3522: 3518: 3487: 3483: 3474: 3470: 3461: 3457: 3434: 3430: 3393: 3389: 3358: 3354: 3344: 3342: 3340: 3322: 3318: 3283: 3279: 3230: 3226: 3199: 3176: 3169: 3147: 3122: 3091: 3084: 3076: 3059: 3022: 3013: 2982: 2975: 2960: 2941: 2910: 2906: 2875: 2864: 2833: 2829: 2808:(12): 1549–54. 2798: 2794: 2787: 2765: 2728: 2721: 2699: 2634: 2629: 2625: 2586: 2582: 2569: 2568: 2564: 2517: 2513: 2474: 2470: 2415: 2411: 2366: 2362: 2325: 2321: 2284: 2280: 2257: 2253: 2222:(11): 2941–51. 2208: 2204: 2173: 2169: 2124: 2120: 2080: 2073: 2028: 2024: 1985: 1972: 1933: 1929: 1906: 1889: 1852: 1848: 1811: 1807: 1797: 1795: 1784: 1780: 1773:radiopaedia.org 1765: 1761: 1722: 1718: 1708: 1694: 1690: 1645: 1641: 1630: 1616: 1612: 1596: 1595: 1583: 1569: 1565: 1558: 1544: 1540: 1495: 1488: 1484: 1477: 1474: 1465: 1462: 1453: 1450: 1441: 1438: 1429: 1426: 1417: 1414: 1405: 1404:Caudate nucleus 1402: 1393: 1392:Caudate nucleus 1390: 1381: 1378: 1369: 1366: 1357: 1354: 1345: 1342: 1333: 1330: 1321: 1318: 1309: 1306: 1297: 1294: 1285: 1282: 1273: 1258: 1249: 1174: 1165: 1148: 1136: 1126:evident in the 1115: 1095: 1082: 1061: 1017:akinetic mutism 995: 991: 933:neural circuits 873:global dementia 839:(20–23%), like 837:motor disorders 815:, disinterest, 754:methylphenidate 679:globus pallidus 604: 599: 593: 581:cerebral cortex 569: 549: 529: 473:slow wave sleep 469: 460: 416: 388: 383: 366: 337: 332: 330:Motor functions 300: 239:dorsal striatum 223: 183:corpus striatum 179:caudate nucleus 171: 64:Dorsal striatum 50: 34: 22:Caudate nucleus 17: 12: 11: 5: 5163: 5153: 5152: 5135: 5134: 5131: 5130: 5128: 5127: 5122: 5120:Perforant path 5117: 5112: 5106: 5104: 5098: 5097: 5095: 5094: 5089: 5088: 5087: 5085:Fascia dentata 5077: 5076: 5075: 5070: 5065: 5060: 5049: 5047: 5038: 5022: 5021: 5018: 5017: 5015: 5014: 5009: 5003: 5001: 4995: 4994: 4992: 4991: 4986: 4985: 4984: 4973: 4971: 4962: 4955: 4954: 4951: 4950: 4948: 4947: 4942: 4941: 4940: 4935: 4924: 4922: 4916: 4915: 4913: 4912: 4910:Olfactory bulb 4907: 4902: 4896: 4894: 4885: 4883:Rhinencephalon 4879: 4878: 4875: 4874: 4872: 4871: 4866: 4865: 4864: 4859: 4842: 4841: 4836: 4830: 4829: 4827:Corona radiata 4823: 4822: 4821: 4820: 4815: 4813:Posterior limb 4810: 4805: 4794: 4793: 4787: 4785: 4779: 4778: 4775: 4774: 4772: 4771: 4766: 4760: 4758: 4754: 4753: 4751: 4750: 4749: 4748: 4743: 4732: 4731: 4730: 4729: 4724: 4713: 4712: 4711: 4710: 4705: 4694: 4692: 4683: 4674: 4668: 4667: 4654: 4653: 4646: 4639: 4631: 4625: 4624: 4608: 4603: 4592: 4591:External links 4589: 4587: 4586: 4542: 4521:(5): 393–402. 4501: 4460: 4442: 4406: 4371:(4): 296–300. 4355: 4306: 4279:(12): 877–84. 4263: 4220: 4193:Molecular Cell 4174: 4168:978-1429242288 4167: 4141: 4122:(9): 1525–30. 4106: 4056: 4021: 3983: 3932: 3906: 3871: 3852:(8): 1201–17. 3836: 3797: 3758: 3731: 3692: 3673:(6–7): 322–4. 3657: 3632:Bipolar Disord 3622: 3603:(4): e17–e21. 3587: 3551: 3516: 3481: 3468: 3455: 3428: 3387: 3368:(2): 194–205. 3352: 3338: 3316: 3277: 3224: 3174: 3167: 3120: 3082: 3057: 3011: 2973: 2939: 2904: 2862: 2827: 2792: 2785: 2726: 2719: 2632: 2623: 2580: 2562: 2511: 2468: 2409: 2360: 2319: 2298:(3): 179–208. 2278: 2251: 2202: 2167: 2118: 2071: 2022: 1970: 1927: 1887: 1846: 1805: 1778: 1759: 1716: 1706: 1688: 1639: 1628: 1610: 1581: 1563: 1556: 1538: 1485: 1483: 1480: 1479: 1478: 1475: 1468: 1466: 1463: 1456: 1454: 1451: 1444: 1442: 1439: 1432: 1430: 1427: 1420: 1418: 1415: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1384: 1382: 1379: 1372: 1370: 1367: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1324: 1322: 1319: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1300: 1298: 1295: 1288: 1286: 1283: 1276: 1274: 1259: 1252: 1248: 1245: 1237:medial frontal 1221:medial frontal 1173: 1170: 1164: 1163:Bipolar type I 1161: 1147: 1144: 1135: 1132: 1114: 1111: 1094: 1091: 1081: 1078: 1060: 1057: 972:disorientation 956:neck stiffness 925:hallucinations 915:, depression, 893:perseverations 769:motor weakness 738:mural thrombus 672:corona radiata 603: 602:Caudate stroke 600: 592: 589: 568: 565: 548: 545: 528: 525: 493:frontal cortex 468: 465: 459: 456: 415: 412: 387: 384: 382: 379: 365: 362: 336: 333: 331: 328: 299: 298:Neurochemistry 296: 222: 219: 173: 172: 163: 157: 156: 151: 145: 144: 139: 133: 132: 127: 121: 120: 115: 108: 107: 102: 96: 95: 90: 84: 83: 78: 72: 71: 67: 66: 61: 57: 56: 52: 51: 44: 36: 35: 32: 24: 23: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5162: 5151: 5150:Basal ganglia 5148: 5147: 5145: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5107: 5105: 5103: 5099: 5093: 5090: 5086: 5083: 5082: 5081: 5080:Dentate gyrus 5078: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5066: 5064: 5061: 5059: 5056: 5055: 5054: 5051: 5050: 5048: 5046: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5023: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5004: 5002: 5000: 4996: 4990: 4987: 4983: 4980: 4979: 4978: 4975: 4974: 4972: 4970: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4956: 4946: 4943: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4930: 4929: 4926: 4925: 4923: 4921: 4917: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4897: 4895: 4893: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4880: 4870: 4867: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4854: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4844: 4843: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4831: 4828: 4825: 4824: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4803:Anterior limb 4801: 4800: 4799: 4796: 4795: 4792: 4789: 4788: 4786: 4784: 4780: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4761: 4759: 4755: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4738: 4737: 4734: 4733: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4719: 4718: 4715: 4714: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4700: 4699: 4696: 4695: 4693: 4691: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4672:Basal ganglia 4669: 4664: 4660: 4659:basal ganglia 4652: 4647: 4645: 4640: 4638: 4633: 4632: 4629: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4598: 4595: 4594: 4582: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4565:(7): 701–11. 4564: 4560: 4556: 4549: 4547: 4538: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4505: 4497: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4464: 4456: 4452: 4446: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4410: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4359: 4351: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4310: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4267: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4224: 4216: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4199:(6): 853–65. 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4178: 4170: 4164: 4160: 4155: 4154: 4145: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4110: 4102: 4098: 4093: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4060: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4025: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4002:: e428–e438. 4001: 3997: 3990: 3988: 3979: 3975: 3970: 3965: 3960: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3936: 3928: 3924: 3917: 3910: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3887:(4): 377–88. 3886: 3882: 3875: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3840: 3833: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3813:(4): 238–45. 3812: 3808: 3807:Lancet Neurol 3801: 3794: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3762: 3755: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3735: 3728: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3708:(2): 179–96. 3707: 3703: 3696: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3661: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3638:(3): 205–20. 3637: 3633: 3626: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3591: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3555: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3520: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3485: 3479: 3472: 3466: 3459: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3432: 3424: 3420: 3415: 3410: 3407:(1): 109–11. 3406: 3402: 3398: 3391: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3356: 3341: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3320: 3313: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3293:(5): 703–11. 3292: 3288: 3281: 3274: 3269: 3265: 3260: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3244:(1): 148–53. 3243: 3239: 3235: 3228: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3197: 3195: 3193: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3179: 3170: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3139: 3137: 3135: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3089: 3087: 3080: 3074: 3072: 3070: 3068: 3066: 3064: 3062: 3053: 3049: 3044: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3020: 3018: 3016: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2980: 2978: 2969: 2965: 2958: 2956: 2954: 2952: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2920:(2): 133–43. 2919: 2915: 2908: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2885:(3): 349–54. 2884: 2880: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2867: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2831: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2796: 2788: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2763: 2761: 2759: 2757: 2755: 2753: 2751: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2737: 2735: 2733: 2731: 2722: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2697: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2685: 2683: 2681: 2679: 2677: 2675: 2673: 2671: 2669: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2661: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2653: 2651: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2643: 2641: 2639: 2637: 2627: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2584: 2576: 2572: 2566: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2515: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2484:(1): 327–37. 2483: 2479: 2472: 2464: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2429:(7): e21852. 2428: 2424: 2420: 2413: 2405: 2401: 2396: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2380:(4): 1373–9. 2379: 2375: 2371: 2364: 2356: 2352: 2347: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2323: 2315: 2311: 2306: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2282: 2274: 2270: 2267:: S167–S168. 2266: 2262: 2255: 2247: 2243: 2238: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2206: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2171: 2163: 2159: 2154: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2138:(7): 1190–7. 2137: 2133: 2129: 2122: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2091:(3): 223–30. 2090: 2086: 2078: 2076: 2067: 2063: 2058: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2026: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1983: 1981: 1979: 1977: 1975: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1931: 1923: 1919: 1916:(1): 95–105. 1915: 1911: 1904: 1902: 1900: 1898: 1896: 1894: 1892: 1883: 1879: 1874: 1869: 1866:(2): 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