Procedural memory - Knowledge

421:. However, sometimes even experienced and highly skilled performers falter under conditions of stress. This phenomenon is commonly referred to as choking, and serves as a very interesting exception to the general rule that well-learned skills are robust and resistant to deterioration across a wide range of conditions. Although not well understood, it is widely accepted that the underlying cause of choking is performance pressure, which has been defined as an anxious desire to perform very well in a given situation. Choking is most often associated with motor skills, and the most common real-life instances are in sports. It is common for professional athletes who are highly trained to choke in the moment and perform poorly. However, choking can occur within any domain that demands a high level of performance involving complex cognitive, verbal or motor skills. "Self-focus" theories suggest that pressure increases anxiety and self-consciousness about performing correctly, which in turn causes an increase in attention paid to the processes directly involved in the execution of the skill. This attention to the step-by-step procedure disrupts the well-learned, automatic (proceduralized) performance. What was once an effortless and unconscious retrieval execution of a procedural memory becomes slow and deliberate. Evidence suggests that the more automated a skill is the more resistant it is to distractions, performance pressure, and subsequent choking. This serves as a good example of the relative durability of procedural memory over episodic memory. In addition to deliberate practice and automatization of skills, self-consciousness training has been shown to help with reducing the effect of choking under pressure. 403:

and the intended goals of the performance. Using these individualized abilities to compare how experts and novices differ regarding both cognitive and sensorimotor skills has provided a wealth of insight into what makes an expert excellent, and conversely, what sorts of mechanisms novices lack. Evidence suggests that an often overlooked condition for skill excellence is attentional mechanisms involved in the effective utilization and deployment of procedural memory during the real-time execution of skills. Research suggests that early in skill learning, execution is controlled by a set of unintegrated procedural steps that are held in working memory and attended to one-by-one in a step-by-step fashion. The problem with this is that attention is a limited resource. Therefore, this step-by-step process of controlling task performance occupies attentional capacity which in turn reduces the performer's ability to focus on other aspects of the performance, such as decision making, fine motor-skills, self-monitoring of energy level and "seeing the field or ice or court". However, with practice,

179:. Merely repeating a task alone, however, does not ensure the acquisition of a skill. Skill acquisition is achieved when an observed behaviour has changed due to experience or practice. This is known as learning and is not directly observable. The information processing model, which incorporates this idea of experience, proposes that skills develop from the interaction of four components central to information processing. These components include: processing speed, the rate at which information is processed in our processing system; breadth of declarative knowledge, the size of an individual's factual information store; breadth of procedural skill, the ability to perform the actual skill; and processing capacity, synonymous with working memory. The processing capacity is of importance to procedural memory because through the process of proceduralization an individual stores procedural memory. This improves skill usage by linking environmental cues with appropriate responses. 430:"rising to the occasion." One common misconception is that a person must be an expert in order to have consistent success under pressure. On the contrary, implicit knowledge has been hypothesized to only partially mediate the relationship between expertise and performance. It works closely with a perceived control of the task, and can often trump expertise if the performer embodies procedural comfort within the domain. Traditionally, "rising to the occasion" or being "clutch" has been used in reference to sporting feats of particular excellence given the magnitude of the event, however there is increasing awareness to the phenomenon in our everyday life. How one performs under circumstances that do not necessarily present immediate or grave consequence, but do require the performer to actively access a conscious mechanism to perform in unfamiliar or uncomfortable settings, is a concept that may prove educationally beneficial across a variety of disciplines and activities. 1063:

consistently shown to aid in the development of procedural knowledge by the ongoing process of memory consolidation, especially when sleep soon follows the initial phase of memory acquisition. Memory consolidation is a process that transforms novel memories from a relatively fragile state to a more robust and stable condition. For a long time it was believed that the consolidation of procedural memories took place solely as a function of time, but more recent studies suggest, that for certain forms of learning, the consolidation process is exclusively enhanced during periods of sleep. However, it is important to note that not just any type of sleep is sufficient to improve procedural memory and performance on subsequent procedural tasks. In fact, within the domain of motor skill, there is evidence showing that no improvement on tasks is shown following a short,

1075:(SWS; combined stage 3 and 4 and the deepest form of NREM sleep), has shown to be the most beneficial type of sleep for procedural memory enhancement, especially when it takes place immediately after the initial acquisition of a skill. So essentially, a full night (or day) of uninterrupted sleep soon after learning a skill will allow for the most memory consolidation possible. Furthermore, if REM sleep is disrupted, there is no gain in procedural performance shown. However, equal improvement will take place whether the sleep after practice was at night or during the daytime, as long as SWS is followed by REM sleep. It has also been shown that the enhancement in memory is specific to the learned stimulus (i.e., learning a running technique will not cross over to improvements in biking performance). Subject performance in the Wff 'n Proof Task, the 137:, formerly known as patient H.M., could learn a hand–eye coordination skill (mirror drawing) in the absence of any memory of having practiced the task before. Although this finding indicated that memory was not made up of a single system positioned in one place in the brain, at the time, others agreed that motor skills are likely a special case that represented a less cognitive form of memory. However, by refining and improving experimental measures, there has been extensive research using amnesic patients with varying locations and degrees of structural damage. Increased work with amnesic patients led to the finding that they were able to retain and learn tasks other than motor skills. However, these findings had shortcomings in how they were perceived as amnesic patients sometimes fell short on normal levels of performance and therefore 270:

patient maintains the desired result (e.g., control over hand movement) while making repeated attempts, without conscious awareness of the neural activity required to make the hand move. The patient continues to make attempts until movement is achieved. In the case of brain injury, how much progress is made depends upon the extent of the injury and the "mental force" or "will power" applied by the individual. Most individuals with reading problems have brains unaffected by brain injury, but negatively affected by an undefined problem with early learning in the area of reading. Because the brain is otherwise healthy, Tadlock has used highly structured methods associated with the Predictive Cycle to successfully remediate individuals with mild to severe reading problems (including dyslexia).

959:, part of the striatum that plays a very important role in procedural memory. Further studies on the brain reveal that schizophrenics have improper basal ganglia communication with the surrounding extrapyramidal system that is known to be closely involved with the motor system and in the coordination of movement. The most recent belief is that functional problems in the striatum of schizophrenic patients are not significant enough to seriously impair procedural learning, however, research shows that the impairment will be significant enough to cause problems improving performance on a task between practice intervals. 564: 919:

procedural memory. However, another study found that individuals with OCD do not perform significantly different on procedural working memory tasks than healthy controls. Differences between the two studies may be due to the different procedural memory tests that were used and the different aspects of procedural working memory they may be tapping on. Specifically, the study which found improved performance in early stages of procedural memory employed a pursuit rotor task, whilst the study that found no differences in procedural memory between controls and OCD participants used a choice reaction task.

681:

memory. Once thought to be functionally separate, this vital section of the brain found on the striatum's back border has only recently been linked to memory and is now being called the marginal division zone (MrD). A special membrane protein associated with the limbic system is said to concentrate in related structures and to travel towards the basal nuclei. To put things simply, the activation of brain regions that work together during procedural memory can be followed because of this limbic system associated membrane protein and its application in molecular and

873:; the striatum being the structure most notably affected. MRI studies have even shown white matter irregularity and basal ganglia subcortical atrophy in these vital areas necessary for both procedural memory and motor-skill. Applied research using various procedural memory tasks such as the Rotary pursuit, Mirror star tracing and Weather prediction tasks have shown that HIV positive individuals perform worse than HIV negative participants suggesting that poorer overall performance on tasks is due to the specific changes in the brain caused by the disease. 381:

multidimensional stimuli, so participants are given a set of cards with shapes and then asked to predict the outcome. After the prediction is made participants receive feedback and make a classification based on that feedback. For example, the participant can be shown one pattern and then asked to predict whether the pattern indicates good or bad weather. The actual weather outcome will be determined by a probabilistic rule based on each individual card. Amnesic participants learn this task in training but are impaired in later training control.

855:

subjects with Tourette's syndrome displayed faster processing of rule-based grammar than typically developed subjects. Two possible explanations exist for these results. One explanation is that once a person with Tourette's syndrome has learned a procedure, there is a mechanism that supports more accelerated processing. Second, because procedural memory subserves sequencing, and grammar recruits sequencing, an enhancement of grammatical processing was seen in those with Tourette's syndrome due to their improved procedural memories.

289:, which predicts the rate of skill acquisition over practice time. The power law of learning says that learning occurs at the fastest rate in the beginning then drastically tapers off. The rate at which practice loses its ability to sharpen execution is independent from the skill being practiced and the type of animal learning the skill. For example, participants in a reading speed study made the greatest leap in the first days of the experiment, while additional days of practice saw only slight improvement. 526:

the identical twins, whereas the results for the fraternal twins became more disparate with practice. In other words, the performance of the skill by the identical twins became closer to 100% identical, while the fraternal twins' skill performance became less identical, suggesting the 50% difference in genetic makeup is responsible for the difference in skill performance. The study shows that more practice leads to a closer representation of a person's innate capability, also known as

772: 1106:. Although Korsakoff's patients have deficits in declarative memory, their nondeclarative memory is preserved, allowing them to successfully complete syntactic priming tasks, as in the study. This result proves syntactic priming is a nondeclarative memory function. These patients were also capable of forming proper grammatical sentences, suggesting that procedural memory is responsible for grammatical processing in addition to syntactic priming. 784: 705: 1020:. Studies using rats have shown that when rats are administered trace amounts of cocaine, their procedural memory systems are negatively impacted. Specifically, the rats are unable to effectively consolidate motor-skill learning. With cocaine abuse being associated with poor procedural learning, research has shown that abstinence from cocaine is associated with sustained improvement of motor-skill learning (Wilfred et al.). 342: 1016:

important for the consolidation of procedural memory. These increased dopamine levels in the brain resultant of cocaine use is similar to the increased dopamine levels in the brain found in schizophrenics. Studies have compared the common memory deficits caused by both cases to further understand the neural networks of procedural memory. To learn more about the effects of dopamine and its role in schizophrenia see:

1086:) or implicitly, each plays a role in the offline consolidation effect. Research suggests that explicit awareness and understanding of the skill being learned during the acquisition process greatly improves the consolidation of procedural memories during sleep. This finding is not surprising, as it is widely accepted that intention and awareness at time of learning enhances the acquisition of most forms of memory. 937:

knowledge that is needed in the acquisition step of procedural memory. Further evidence suggests that the frontal lobe networks relate to executive function and only act when specific tasks are presented to the patient. This tells us that the frontostriatal circuits are independent but able to work collaboratively with other areas of the brain to help with various things such as paying attention or focusing.

326: 234:) as ineffective actions are dropped. An individual's sensory system acquires the accurate spatial and symbolic data required for the completion of the skill. The ability to differentiate important from unimportant stimuli is crucial at this stage of the model. It is held that the greater the amount of important stimuli associated with a task, the longer it will take to complete this phase of the model. 482: 888: 642: 5967: 206: 5955: 530:. Therefore, some of the differences people show after extended practice increasingly reflects their genetics. The study also confirmed the idea that practice improves skill learning by showing that, in both the identical and fraternal groups, more practice aided in shedding ineffective tendencies in order to improve execution of a given skill. Currently, the link between 716:

It is very important in the process of "adaptive navigation", which serves to help different brain areas respond together during a new situation that has many unknown stimuli and features. Dopamine pathways are dispersed all over the brain and this allows for parallel processing in many structures all at the same time. Currently most research points to the

1042:. Psychostimulants have been shown to be used more frequently today amongst students and other social demographics as a means to study more efficiently or have been abused for their pleasurable side effects. Research suggests that when not abused, psychostimulants aid in the acquisition of procedural learning. Studies have shown that psychostimulants like 372:

the work of your procedural memory; once you figure out how to draw the image in the mirror you have little difficulty the second time. Individuals with Alzheimer's disease are not able to recall the skills acquired in a mirror tracing task, but they acquire the procedural performance ability regardless.

851:. Current literature on this topic provides evidence for there being many unique forms of procedural memory. The one most relevant to procedural memory and most common in Tourette's is related to the skill-acquisition process that ties stimuli to response during the learning part of procedural memory. 854:

One study has found that those with Tourette syndrome have enhanced procedural learning. Subjects with Tourette's syndrome were found to have more quickly processed procedural knowledge and more accurately learned procedural skills than their typically developed counterparts. Another study found that

846:

This disease of the central nervous system, like many other procedural-memory related disorders, involves changes in the associated subcortical brain area known as the striatum. This area and the brain circuits closely interacting with it from the basal ganglia are affected both structurally and at a

715:

is one of the more known neuromodulators involved in procedural memory. Evidence suggests that it may influence neural plasticity in memory systems by adapting brain processing when the environment is changing and an individual is then forced to make a behavioural choice or series of rapid decisions.

402:

There are several factors that contribute to the exceptional performance of a skill: memory capacities, knowledge structures, problem-solving abilities, and attentional abilities. They all play key roles, each with its own degree of importance based on the procedures and skills required, the context,

362:

is the time it takes for the participant to respond to the designated cue presented to them. Participants with Alzheimer's disease and amnesia demonstrate a long retention time which indicates that they are able to retain the skill and demonstrate effective performance of the task at a later point in

242:

This is the final phase in Fitts' (1954) model, and it involves perfecting skill acquisition. The ability to discriminate important from unimportant stimuli are made quicker and less thought process is required because the skill has become automated. Important to this phase of the model is experience

3363:

Dere, E.; Zlomuzica, A.; Viggiano, D.; Ruocco, L.A.; Watanabe, T.; Sadile, A.G.; Huston, J.P.; Souza-Silva, M.A. De (2008). "Episodic-like and procedural memory impairments in histamine H1 Receptor knockout mice coincide with changes in acetylcholine esterase activity in the hippocampus and dopamine

1109:

Another study's results support the hypothesis that procedural memory subserves grammar. The study involved a series of tests for two groups: one typically developing (TD) group and one group with developmental language disorder (DLD). Those with DLD have difficulty with proper grammar usage, due to

1062:

Practice is clearly an important process for learning and perfecting a new skill. With over 40 years of research, it is well established in both humans and animals that the formation of all forms of memory are greatly enhanced during the brain-state of sleep. Furthermore, with humans, sleep has been

1015:

in the frontal, periventricular and temporal-parietal. These structures play a role in various memory systems. Furthermore, the drug cocaine elicits its desirable effects by blocking the DRD1 dopamine receptors in the striatum, resulting in increased dopamine levels in the brain. These receptors are

680:

is a group of unique brain areas that work together in many interrelated processes involved in emotion, motivation, learning and memory. Current thinking indicates that the limbic system shares anatomy with a component of the neostriatum already credited with the major task of controlling procedural

525:

in identical and fraternal twins raised in separate homes. Because identical twins share 100% of their genes while fraternal twins share 50%, the impact of genetic makeup on skill learning could be examined. The results of the pursuit rotor task test became more identical with practice over time for

371:

This task looks at the integration of the senses more specifically as it is a visual motor test where the participants learn a new motor skill involving hand–eye coordination. Evidence is shown for procedural memory as amnesic participants are able to learn and retain this task. Drawing the image is

292:

The power law of learning can be overcome if the subject is shown a more effective way to accomplish the task. A study subject was shown a film comparing his task performance, kicking a target as rapidly as possible, with that of a known way of minimizing kicking time. Though the subject had reached

251:

Another model for understanding skill acquisition through procedural memory has been proposed by Tadlock (2005). The model is significantly different from Fitts' 1954 view in that it does not require conscious understanding of a skill's components. Rather, the learner is only required to maintain in

579:

help in the regulation of activity in the basal ganglia circuit. Essentially, two parallel information processing pathways diverge from the striatum. Both acting in opposition to each other in the control of movement, they allow for association with other needed functional structures One pathway is

141:

was viewed as strictly a retrieval deficit. Further studies with amnesic patients found a larger domain of normally functioning memory for skill abilities. For example, using a mirror reading task, amnesic patients showed performance at a normal rate, even though they are unable to remember some of

992:

have been studied immensely, even with respect to memory, there is limited research examining the effects of alcohol on procedural memory. Research conducted by Pitel A. L. et al. suggests that alcoholism impairs the ability to acquire semantic concepts. In this study, while semantic concepts were

653:

is known to play a part in correcting movement and in fine-tuning the motor agility found in procedural skills such as painting, instrument playing and in sports such as golf. Damage to this area may prevent the proper relearning of motor skills and through associated research it has more recently

936:

is known to affect selective areas in the frontal lobe area of the brain. Current scientific information suggests that the memory performance problems notably shown in patients are controlled by unusual frontostriatal circuits. Parkinson's patients often have difficulty with the sequence-specific

1094:

Language works because of the brain's ability to retrieve pieces of information from memory and then combine those pieces into a larger, more complex unit based on context. The latter part of this process is called unification. Results of several studies provide evidence that suggests procedural

1053:

on procedural learning tasks. While improvements in procedural memory were evident when participants were administered traces of psychostimulants, many researchers have found that procedural memory is hampered when psychostimulants are abused. This introduces the idea that for optimal procedural

407:

develops, which operates largely outside of working memory, and thus allows for skills to be executed more automatically. This, of course, has a very positive effect on overall performance by freeing the mind of the need to closely monitor and attend to the more basic, mechanical skills, so that

269:

The stages are repeated over and over until the learner builds or remodels the neural network to guide an activity appropriately and accurately without conscious thought. The context for this view is similar to how physical therapy works to help brain-injured patients recover lost functions. The

166:

Models of working memory primarily focused on declarative memory until Oberauer suggested that declarative and procedural memory may be processed differently in working memory. The working memory model is thought to be divided into two subcomponents; one is responsible for declarative, while the

899:

being a disorder that directly affects striatal areas of the brain used in procedural memory, most individuals with the condition display different memory problems from people with striatum related brain diseases. In more advanced stages of the disease, however, procedural memory is affected by

745:

Disorders have been important for the understanding of memory systems. The memory abilities and inhibitions of patients with various diseases played a major role in establishing the distinction that long-term memory consists of different types of memory, more specifically declarative memory and

499:

paid to material being encoded and stored will reduce the quality and quantity of the later retrieval of that material in a form that is explicit and reportable. So, if a well learned skill is stored as a procedural memory, and its retrieval and subsequent performance is mostly unconscious and

429:

If choking on skill-based or co-ordination oriented tasks requires the pressure of the situation to cause the performer's increased conscious attention to his or her process of performance, then the reverse can also be true. A relatively unexplored area of scientific research is the concept of

213:

At this point in Fitts' (1954) model of skill acquisition individuals come to understand what an observed skill is composed of. Attention at this point in the process is significant for the acquisition of skill. This process involves breaking down the desired skill to be learned into parts and

967:

Overall, research concerning the effects of drugs on procedural memory is still limited. This limitation stems from the fact that procedural memory is implicit and thus more difficult to test, as opposed to declarative memory which is more pronounced and thus easier memory system to use for

918:

patients perform considerably better on procedural memory tasks because of noticeable over-activation of the striatum brain structures, specifically the frontostriatal circuit. These studies suggest that procedural memory in OCD patients is unusually improved in the early learning stages of

117:

disregarded the influence of learning on memory systems in its early years, and this greatly limited the research conducted in procedural learning up until the 20th century. The turn of the century brought a clearer understanding of the functions and structures involved in procedural memory

380:

Specifically, this task uses experimental analysis of weather prediction. As a probability learning task, the participant is required to indicate what strategy they are using to solve the task. It is a cognitively-oriented task that is learned in a procedural manner. It is designed using

512:

did an on-ice interview with Crosby: "Sid, if you can, just take us through how that goal went in?" Crosby replied: "I don't really remember, I just shot it – I think from around here. That's all I really remember. I think it went 5-hole, but, um, I didn't really see it to be honest."

599:. The two parallel pathways previously mentioned travel to and from the striatum and are made up of these same special medium spiny neurons. These neurons are all sensitive to different neurotransmitters and contain a variety of corresponding receptors including dopamine receptors ( 580:

direct while the other is indirect and all pathways work together to allow for a functional neural feedback loop. Many looping circuits connect back at the striatum from other areas of the brain; including those from the emotion-center linked limbic cortex, the reward-center linked

357:

This task involves having participants retain and learn procedural skills that assess specific memory for procedural-motor skill. These skills are measured by observing the speed and accuracy of the participant's ability to retain and acquire new skills. The

1964:

Balota, D.A.; Connor, L.T.; Ferraro, F.R. (1993). "Implicit Memory and the Formation of New Associations in Nondemented Parkinson's Disease Individuals and Individuals with Senile Dementia of the Alzheimer Type: A Serial Reaction Time (SRT) Investigation".

1110:

deficits in procedural memory function. Overall, the TD group performed better on each task and displayed better speed in grammatical processing than the DLD group. Therefore, this study shows that grammatical processing is a function of procedural memory.

736:

family transcription factors to look at the processing of information in the striatum during various tasks. Although poorly understood, results show that CREB function is needed at the synapse for linking the acquisition and storage of procedural memory.

167:

other represents procedural memory. These two subsections are considered to be largely independent of each other. It has also been determined that the process for selection may be very similar in nature when considering either modality of working memory.

1117:

researchers, spoken languages which require the use of helping words or suffixes, rather than word order, to explain subject-object relationships rely on procedural memory. Word-order dependent languages rely on short-term memory for equivalent tasks.

654:

been linked to having a role in automating the unconscious process used when learning a procedural skill. New thoughts in the scientific community suggest that the cerebellar cortex holds the holy grail of memory, what is known to researchers as "

348:

The results are then calculated by the participant's time-on and time-off the object. Amnesic participants show no impairment in this motor task when tested at later trials. It does however seem to be affected by lack of sleep and drug use.

3864:

A Chatterjee, M Chakos, A Koreen, S Geisler, B Sheitman, M Woerner, JM Kane J Alvir and Ja (1995). "Prevalence and clinical correlates of extrapyramidal signs and spontaneous dyskinesia in never-medicated schizophrenic patients"

626:

Current understanding of brain anatomy and physiology suggests that striatal neural plasticity is what allows basal ganglia circuits to communicate between structures and to functionally operate in procedural memory processing.

293:

the limit of his ability to improve through practice as predicted by the power law of learning, viewing the film resulted in a breakthrough in his ability that defied the power law of learning. Viewing the film is an example of

3184:

Yun Shu, Si; Min Bao, Xin; Ning, Qun; Ming Wu, Yong; Wang, Jun; Leonard, Brian E. (2003). "New component of the limbic system; Marginal division of the neostriatum that links the limbic system to the basal nucleus of Meynert".

3635:

Sprengelmeyer, R; Canavan, AG; Lange, HW; Hömberg, V (January 1995). "Associative learning in degenerative neostriatal disorders: contrasts in explicit and implicit remembering between Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases".

2262:

Beilock, S.L.; Carr, T.H.; MacMahon, C.; Starkes, J.L. (2002). "When Paying Attention Becomes Counterproductive: Impact of Divided Versus Skill-Focused Attention on Novice and Experienced Performance of Sensorimotor Skills".

2211:

Starkes, J. L., & Deakin, J. (1984). Perception in sport: A cognitive approach to skilled performance. In W. F. Straub & J. M. Williams (Eds.), Cognitive sport psychology (pp. 115–128). Lansing, MI: Sport Science

416:

It is well established that highly practiced, over-learned skills are performed automatically; they are controlled in real time, supported by procedural memory, require little attention, and operate largely outside of

2248:

Tenenbaum, G., & Bar-Eli, M. (1993). Decision-making in sport: A cognitive perspective. In R. N. Singer, M. Murphey, & L. K. Tennant (Eds.), Handbook of research on sport psychology (pp. 171–192). New York:

1339:

Oberauer, Klaus; Souza, Alessandra S.; Druey, Michel D.; Gade, Miriam (2013). "Analogous mechanisms of selection and updating in declarative and procedural working memory: Experiments and a computational model".

3967:

Strickland, T. L.; Mena, I.; Villanueva-Meyer, J.; Miller, B. L.; Cummings, J.; Mehringer, C. M.; Satz, P.; Myers, H. (1993). "Cerebral perfusion and neuropsychological consequences of chronic cocaine use".

333:

The pursuit rotor task is a simple pure visual-motor tracking test that has consistent results within age groups. This displays a measurement of procedural memory as well as demonstrates the participant's

4087:

Toomey, R.; Lyons, M. J.; Eisen, S. A.; Xian, Hong; Chantarujikapong, Sunanta; Seidman, L. J.; Faraone, S.; Tsuang, M. T. (2003). "A Twin Study of the Neuropsychological Consequences of Stimulant Abuse".

129:. Studies in the 1970s divided and moved towards two areas of work: one focusing on animal studies and the other to amnesic patients. The first convincing experimental evidence for a dissociation between 4064:

McCabe, S. E., Knight, J. R., Teter, C. J., Wechsler, H. (2004). Non-medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: prevalence and correlates from anational survey. Research Report.

584:

and other important motor regions related to movement. The main looping circuit involved in the motor skill part of procedural memory is usually called the cortex-basal ganglia-thalamus-cortex loop.

3407:

Marsh, R; Alexander, GM; Packard, MG; Zhu, H; Peterson, BS (2005). "Perceptual-motor skill learning in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Evidence for multiple procedural learning and memory systems".

500:

automatic, there is evidence showing that the explicit recollection of what happened during the performance will be reduced. A recent example illustrates this concept nicely. Immediately following

389:

Choice reaction tasks have been used to assess working memory. It has been determined to be useful in gauging procedural working memory by asking participants to follow stimulus-reaction rules.

230:

The associative phase of the Fitts (1954) model involves individuals repeated practice until patterns of responding emerge. At this part in the model, actions of the skill become learned (or

2142:

Shahar, Nitzan; Teodorescu, Andrei R.; Anholt, Gideon E.; Karmon-Presser, Anat; Meiran, Nachshon (2017). "Examining procedural working memory processing in obsessive-compulsive disorder".

3543:

Chang, L; Lee, PL; Yiannoutsos, CT; Ernst, T; Marra, CM; Richards, T; et al. (2004). "A multicenter in vivo proton-MRS study of HIV-associated dementia and its relationship to age".

521:

Genetic makeup has been found to impact skill learning and performance, and therefore plays a role in achieving expertise. Using the pursuit rotor task, one study examined the effects of

4789:

Conway J, Smith C. REM sleep and learning in humans: a sensitivity to specific types of learning tasks. In: Proceedings of the 12th Congress of the European Sleep Research Society. 1994.

4073:

Kumari, V., Gray, J.A., Corr, P.J., Mulligan, O.F., Cotter, P.A., Checkley, S.A. (1997). Effects of acute administration of d-amphetamine and haloperidol on procedural learning in man.

2015:

Corkin, S.; Gabrieli, J. D. E.; Growdon, J. H.; Mickel, S. F. (1993). "Intact Acquisition and Long-Term Retention of Mirror-Tracing Skill in Alzheimer's Disease and in Global Amnesia".

812:(AchE) which may be affected by a genetic predisposition in an immune-system brain receptor called the histamine H1 receptor. The same current scientific information also looks at how 4951:

Clark, Gillian M.; Lum, Jarrad A.G. (2017). "Procedural memory and speed of grammatical processing: Comparison between typically developing children and language impaired children".

1038:

work by activating dopamine receptors causing increased focus or pleasure. The usage of psychostimulants has become more widespread in the medical world for treating conditions like

2104:

Shahar, Nitzan; Teodorescu, Andrei R.; Usher, Marius; Pereg, Maayan; Meiran, Nachshon (2014). "Selective influence of working memory load on exceptionally slow reaction times".

3271:

Zellner, MR; Rinaldi, R (2009). "How conditioned stimuli acquire the ability to activate VTA dopamine cells; A proposed neurobiological component of reward-related learning".

993:

understood, procedural memory was often not automated. A potential reason for this finding is that poor learning strategies are used by alcoholics compared to non-alcoholics.

1434:

Gade, Miriam; Druey, Michel D.; Souza, Alessandra S.; Oberauer, Klaus (2014). "Interference within and between declarative and procedural representations in working memory".

56:

Procedural memory guides the processes we perform, and most frequently resides below the level of conscious awareness. When needed, procedural memories are automatically

252:

conscious awareness a concept of the desired result. Tadlock has applied the view successfully to reading remediation (Scott et al., 2010). The stages involved include:

1383:

Souza, Alessandra da Silva; Oberauer, Klaus; Gade, Miriam; Druey, Michel D. (1 May 2012). "Processing of representations in declarative and procedural working memory".

322:

to follow the target on a computer screen or a turntable. With the computer screen version, the participant follows a dot on a circular path like the one shown below.

2541:

Masters, R. S. (1992). "Knowledge, knerves and know-how: The role of explicit versus implicit knowledge in the breakdown of a complex motor skill under pressure".

4256:

Stickgold, R.; Whidbee, D.; Schirmer, B.; Patel, V.; Hobson, J.A. (2000b). "Visual discrimination task improvement: A multi-step process occurring during sleep".

3803:

Sarazin, M; Deweer, B; Merkl, A; Von Poser, N; Pillon, B; Dubois, B (March 2002). "Procedural learning and striatofrontal dysfunction in Parkinson's disease".

828:

system may be responsible for the cognitive deficits found in Alzheimer's and for the potential procedural memory problems that may develop as a result of the

808:

may be caused by changes in enzyme activity in memory-integrating brain regions such as the hippocampus. The specific enzyme linked to these changes is called

3071:

Saywell, N; Taylor, D (October 2008). "The role of the cerebellum in procedural learning – are there implications for physiotherapists' clinical practice?".

746:

procedural memory. Furthermore, they have been important for illuminating the structures of the brain that comprise the neural network of procedural memory.

79:

work together to automatically produce the activity. Implicit procedural learning is essential for the development of any motor skill or cognitive activity.

2668:

Fox, Paul W.; Hershberger, Scott L.; Bouchard, Thomas J. (28 November 1996). "Genetic and environmental contributions to the acquisition of a motor skill".

3735:

Sarazin, M; Deweer, B; Pillon, B; Merkl, A; Dubois, B (December 2001). "Procedural learning and Parkinson disease: implication of striato-frontal loops".

186:(1954) and his colleagues. This model proposed the idea that learning was possible through the completion of various stages. The stages involved include: 1046:

facilitates lower response times and increased procedural learning when compared to control participants and participants who have been administered the

214:

understanding how these parts come together as a whole for the correct performance of the task. The way an individual organizes these parts is known as

3588:"Deficits in complex motor functions, despite no evidence of procedural learning deficits, among HIV+ individuals with history of substance dependence" 1011:

abuse alters brain structures. Research has shown that the brain structures that are immediately affected by long-term cocaine abuse include: cerebral

3316:"Impaired bidirectional synaptic plasticity and procedural memory formation in striatum-specific cAMP response element-binding protein-deficient mice" 68:, from tying shoes, to reading, to flying an airplane. Procedural memories are accessed and used without the need for conscious control or attention. 142:

the words that they were reading. In the 1980s much was discovered about the anatomy physiology of the mechanisms involved in procedural memory. The

3879:

Schérer, H; Stip, E; Paquet, F; Bédard, MA (Winter 2003). "Mild procedural learning disturbances in neuroleptic-naive patients with schizophrenia".

133:("knowing what") and non-declarative or procedural ("knowing how") memory was from Milner (1962), by demonstrating that a severely amnesic patient, 4123:

Karni, A.; Tanne, D.; Rubenstein, B.S.; Askenasy, J.J.; Sagi, D. (1994). "Dependence on REM sleep of overnight improvement of a perceptual skill".

3692:

Roth, RM; Baribeau, J; Milovan, D; O'Connor, K; Todorov, C (September 2004). "Procedural and declarative memory in obsessive-compulsive disorder".

2752: 1774: 1727: 1680: 5555: 1604:

Scott, C. et al.: Evaluation of Read Right in Omaha Middle and High Schools 2009–2010 by C. Scott, K. Nelsestuen, E. Autio, T. Deussen, M. Hanita

4685:

Smith C. REM sleep and learning: some recent findings. In: Moffit A, Kramer M, Hoffman H, editors. The functions of dreaming. Albany:SUNY; 1993.

2952:

Smith, Y.; Raju, D. V.; Pare, J. F.; Sidibe, M. (2004). "The thalamostriatal system: a highly specific network of the basal ganglia circuitry".

4743:"Post training increases in REM sleep intensity implicate REM sleep in memory processing and provide a biological marker of learning potential" 3846:

Lang, DJ; Kopala; Smith, GN; et al. (1999). "MRI study of basal ganglia volumes in drug-naive first-episode patients with schizophrenia".

575:

striatum is associated with the acquisition of habits and is the main neuronal cell nucleus linked to procedural memory. Connecting excitatory

3141:

Shu, S.Y.; Bao, X.M.; Li, S.X.; Chan, W.Y.; Yew, D. (2000). "A New Subdivision, Marginal Division, in the Neostriatum of the Monkey Brain".

2061:

Packard, M.G.; Poldrack, R.A. (2003). "Competition among multiple memory systems: converging evidence from animal and human brain studies".

1802: 655: 5138: 4051:

Willuhn I, Steiner H. (2008) Motor-skill learning in a novel running-wheel task is dependent on D1 dopamine receptors in the striatum.

2611:

Baumeister, Roy F (1984). "Choking under pressure: Self-consciousness and paradoxical effects of incentives on skillful performance".

338:. The pursuit rotor task tests the fine-motor skills which are controlled by the motor cortex illustrated by the green section below. 5419: 3500:

Reger, M; Welsh, R; Razani, J; Martin, DJ; Boone, KB (2002). "A meta-analysis of the neuropsychological sequelae of HIV infection".

2815:

Alexander, GE; Crutcher, MD (1990). "Functional architecture of basal ganglia circuits; neural substrates of parallel processing".

489: 2222:

Chi, M. T.; Feltovich, P. J.; Glaser, R. (1981). "Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices".

4985: 900:

damage to the important brain pathways that help the inner subcortical and prefrontal cortex parts of the brain to communicate.

534:

and genetics has been limited to simple task learning, while a link to more complex forms of learning, such as the learning of

218:. Schemas are important in directing the acquisition process and the way an individual comes to choose schemas is described by 297:, which effectively gives the viewer new memories of a technique to draw upon for his or her future performances of the task. 824:

neurotransmitter levels vary in the cerebellum of patients that have this disease. Modern findings advance the idea that the

591:-related neurons found throughout most of the brain. Instead, it is categorized by a high concentration of a special type of 3916:"Effect of episodic and working memory impairments on semantic and cognitive procedural learning at alcohol treatment entry" 1463:"Analogous selection processes in declarative and procedural working memory: N-2 list-repetition and task-repetition costs" 1017: 658:" or the biological place where memory lives. The initial memory trace is thought to form here between parallel fibers and 472:

2019 President's Trophy winning Tampa Bay Lightning swept by 8th seed Columbus Blue Jackets in round 1 of the NHL playoffs.

2654: 1095:

memory is not only responsible for sequential unification, but for syntactic priming and grammatical processing as well.

17: 5629: 4893:"The role of nondeclarative memory in the skill for language: Evidence from syntactic priming in patients with amnesia" 1595:

Tadlock, D.: Read Right! Coaching Your Child to Excellence in Reading by Dee Tadlock, Ph.D. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005

1133: 1842:

Lang, Rudie J. (1981). "Learning and reminiscence in the pursuit rotor performance of normal and depressed subjects".

2728: 1750: 1703: 1656: 1631: 1315: 4892: 1533:

Fitts, P. M. (1954). "The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement".

6002: 5014: 3914:

Pitel, A. L.; Witkowski, T.; Vabret, F.; Guillery-Girard, B.; Desgranges, B.; Eustache, F.; Beaunieux, H. (2007).

2418:

Beilock, S.L.; Carr, T. (2001). "On the Fragility of Skilled Performance: What Governs Choking Under Pressure?".

2860:"Striatonigrostriatal pathways in primates form an ascending spiral from the shell to the dorsolateral striatum" 5502: 4586:"The acquisition of skilled motor performance: Fast and slow experience-driven changes in primarymotor cortex" 3114:

Nagao, S; Kitazawa, H (2008). "Role of the cerebellum in the acquisition and consolidation of motor memory".

4714:

Smith, C; Weeden, K (1990). "Post training REMs coincident auditory stimulation enhances memory in humans".

5550: 5451: 5338: 2463:

Lewis, B.; Linder, D. (1997). "Thinking about choking? Attentional processes and paradoxical performance".

870: 109: 3915: 3228:

Mizumori, SJ; Puryear, CB; Martig, AK (April 2009). "Basal ganglia contributions to adaptive navigation".

125:

and implicit memory. In the 1970s procedural and declarative knowledge was distinguished in literature on

2326:

Proctor, R. W., & Dutta, A. (1995). Skill acquisition and human performance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

983: 615:(A2A). Separate interneurons are known to communicate with striatal spiny neurons in the presence of the 4584:

Karni, A.; Meyer, G.; Rey-Hipolito, C.; Jezzard, P.; Adams, M.M.; Turner, R.; Ungerleider, L.G. (1998).

5676: 5601: 5434: 522: 278: 176: 4891:

Heyselaar, Evelien; Segaert, Katrien; Walvoort, Serge J.W.; Kessels, Roy P.C.; Hagoort, Peter (2017).

4695:

Smith, C; Fazekas, A (1997). "Amount of REM sleep and Stage 2 sleep required for efficient learning".

2339:

Langer, E.; Imber, G. (1979). "When practice makes imperfect: Debilitating effects of overlearning".

311: 2432: 1250: 5714: 5659: 5634: 5464: 5441: 5391: 5296: 4370: 4003:

Serper, M. R.; Bermanc, A.; Copersinoa, M. L.; Choub, J. C. Y.; Richarmea, D.; Cancrob, R. (2000).

1154: – Organism's movements that reflect changes in the structure / function of the nervous system 1099: 3678:

Saint-Cyr JA, Taylor AE, Lang AE. (1988) "Procedural learning and neostriatal dysfunction in man"

1294: 1201:

Bullemer, P.; Nissen, MJ.; Willingham, D.B. (1989). "On the Development of Procedural Knowledge".

99:

began writing about memory over two centuries ago. "Mechanical memory" was first noted in 1804 by

5401: 5167: 896: 882: 126: 2768:"Principles derived from the study of simple skills do not generalize to complex skill learning" 2568:

Otten, M (2009). "Choking vs. Clutch Performance: A Study of Sport Performance Under Pressure".

1828: 1806: 1290: 5808: 5768: 5669: 5638: 5276: 5064: 4365: 2427: 2305:

Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

1512:

Zimbardo, P. G., and Gerring, R. J. (1999). Psychology and life. (15th ed.). New York: Longman.

1245: 1064: 933: 928: 848: 720:

dopamine pathway as the system most related to reward learning and psychological conditioning.

616: 294: 281:

can be an effective way to learn new skills if knowledge of the result, more commonly known as

5823: 5538: 5424: 5396: 5381: 5376: 5214: 1236:

Squire, L.R. (2004). "Memory systems of the brain: A brief history and current perspective".

286: 4643:

Mednick, S.C.; et al. (2003). "Sleep-dependent learning: a nap is as good as a night".

3452:"Is procedural memory enhanced in Tourette syndrome? Evidence from a sequence learning task" 728:

Recent findings could help explain the relationship between procedural memory, learning and

5707: 5691: 5570: 5328: 5281: 5271: 5059: 5007: 4911: 4597: 4532: 4473: 4418: 4357: 4132: 3420: 3314:

Pittenger, C; Fasano, S; Mazzocchi-Jones, D; Dunnett, SB; Kandel, ER; Brambilla, R (2006).

2677: 1169: 1130: – Ability to do things without occupying the mind with the low-level details required 1114: 809: 717: 682: 608: 576: 563: 404: 114: 4920: 4348:

Brashers-Krug, T.; Shadmehr, R.; Bizzi, E. (1996). "Consolidation in human motor memory".

8: 5838: 5738: 5429: 5313: 5261: 5229: 5209: 4005:"Learning and memory impairment in cocaine-dependent and comorbid schizophrenic patients" 729: 612: 596: 282: 215: 4601: 4536: 4477: 4422: 4361: 4136: 3049: 2681: 1461:

Gade, Miriam; Souza, Alessandra S.; Druey, Michel D.; Oberauer, Klaus (1 January 2017).

5935: 5920: 5758: 5703: 5696: 5664: 5565: 5560: 5512: 5490: 5459: 5286: 4933: 4868: 4841: 4668: 4566: 4553: 4520: 4442: 4391: 4330: 4281: 4197: 4034: 3946: 3828: 3717: 3661: 3612: 3587: 3568: 3525: 3482: 3432: 3389: 3377: 3340: 3315: 3296: 3253: 3210: 3166: 3096: 2977: 2934: 2886: 2876: 2859: 2840: 2746: 2701: 2636: 2593: 2554: 2488: 2391: 2288: 2167: 2086: 2040: 1990: 1941: 1924: 1768: 1721: 1674: 1558: 1416: 1365: 1321: 1271: 509: 315: 130: 88: 4817: 4800: 4767: 4742: 4496: 4461: 4317: 4300: 4021: 4004: 2074: 1307: 5971: 5959: 5930: 5778: 5649: 5624: 5580: 5507: 5485: 5386: 5323: 5291: 5266: 5234: 5129: 5099: 5037: 4968: 4925: 4873: 4822: 4772: 4723: 4660: 4625: 4620: 4585: 4558: 4501: 4434: 4383: 4322: 4273: 4238: 4189: 4148: 4105: 4026: 3985: 3938: 3934: 3896: 3820: 3785: 3744: 3709: 3653: 3617: 3560: 3556: 3517: 3474: 3424: 3381: 3345: 3288: 3245: 3202: 3158: 3123: 3100: 3088: 3053: 3018: 2969: 2926: 2922: 2891: 2832: 2828: 2797: 2789: 2734: 2724: 2693: 2628: 2585: 2523: 2480: 2445: 2356: 2280: 2198: 2159: 2121: 2078: 2032: 1982: 1946: 1905: 1855: 1756: 1746: 1709: 1699: 1662: 1652: 1627: 1550: 1492: 1484: 1408: 1400: 1357: 1311: 1263: 1218: 1103: 1079:, and the Mirror Tracing Task has been found to improve following REM sleep periods. 841: 4672: 4446: 4285: 4038: 3950: 3892: 3832: 3721: 3665: 3586:

Gonzalez, R; Jacobus, J; Amatya, AK; Quartana, PJ; Vassileva, J; Martin, EM (2008).

3529: 3436: 3393: 3300: 3284: 3214: 3170: 2981: 2640: 2597: 2395: 2292: 2171: 2044: 1994: 1420: 1369: 1325: 732:

at the level of the molecule. One study used small animals lacking normal levels of

495:

This phenomenon is based on the assumption that reducing or diverting the amount of

5910: 5863: 5833: 5788: 5644: 5575: 5528: 5333: 5308: 5194: 5154: 5042: 4960: 4937: 4915: 4907: 4863: 4853: 4812: 4762: 4754: 4652: 4615: 4605: 4570: 4548: 4540: 4491: 4481: 4426: 4395: 4375: 4334: 4312: 4265: 4228: 4201: 4179: 4140: 4097: 4016: 3977: 3930: 3888: 3812: 3775: 3701: 3645: 3607: 3599: 3572: 3552: 3509: 3486: 3466: 3416: 3373: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3280: 3257: 3237: 3194: 3150: 3080: 3045: 3008: 2961: 2938: 2918: 2881: 2871: 2844: 2824: 2779: 2705: 2685: 2620: 2577: 2550: 2515: 2492: 2472: 2437: 2383: 2348: 2272: 2231: 2194: 2155: 2151: 2113: 2090: 2070: 2024: 1974: 1936: 1895: 1885: 1851: 1619: 1542: 1474: 1443: 1392: 1353: 1349: 1303: 1275: 1255: 1210: 1175: 977: 581: 335: 42: 38: 2997:"Cholinergic Interneuron characteristics and nicotinic properties in the striatum" 1562: 5997: 5992: 5848: 5828: 5803: 5793: 5748: 5743: 5497: 5469: 5204: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5047: 5000: 4430: 3470: 2352: 1396: 1163: 1139: 1072: 1035: 1029: 829: 535: 122: 57: 34: 2028: 1872:

Allen, J.S.; Anderson, S.W.; Castro-Caldas, A.; Cavaco, S.; Damasio, H. (2004).

1214: 456: 75:, or repeating a complex activity over and over again until all of the relevant 5915: 5879: 5773: 5371: 5318: 5144: 5114: 5094: 5081: 4964: 3451: 2965: 2624: 2387: 2235: 1586:

Fitts, P. M., Posner, M. I. (1967). Human Performance. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole

1181: 1151: 1076: 1047: 989: 805: 755: 659: 439: 418: 134: 100: 76: 4299:

Walker, M.P.; Brakefield, T.; Morgan, A.; Hobson, J.A.; Stickgold, R. (2002).

4101: 3705: 3513: 3241: 3154: 3084: 1479: 1462: 1447: 1259: 5986: 5894: 5884: 5858: 5853: 5813: 5798: 5763: 5686: 5533: 5361: 5224: 5199: 5162: 5119: 5109: 5104: 5089: 4858: 2793: 2738: 2476: 1760: 1713: 1666: 1488: 1404: 1157: 1043: 1012: 952: 946: 821: 677: 671: 620: 558: 501: 485: 359: 219: 155: 104: 46: 4544: 4269: 4144: 2276: 265:

Implicitly decide how to change the next attempt so that success is achieved

5925: 5889: 5843: 5753: 5596: 5411: 5366: 5353: 5343: 5303: 5023: 4972: 4929: 4877: 4826: 4776: 4664: 4562: 4505: 4486: 4438: 4326: 4277: 4242: 4193: 4109: 4030: 3942: 3900: 3824: 3789: 3780: 3763: 3748: 3713: 3621: 3564: 3521: 3478: 3428: 3385: 3349: 3292: 3249: 3206: 3162: 3127: 3092: 3057: 3022: 2973: 2895: 2801: 2589: 2484: 2449: 2441: 2284: 2163: 2125: 2082: 1978: 1909: 1890: 1873: 1554: 1496: 1412: 1361: 1267: 1127: 572: 505: 466: 96: 4727: 4629: 4610: 4387: 4152: 3989: 3657: 3649: 2930: 2836: 2697: 2632: 2581: 2527: 2036: 1986: 1950: 1222: 5783: 5654: 5608: 4301:"Practice with sleep makes perfect: Sleep dependent motor skill learning" 2360: 1050: 460: 446: 151: 147: 65: 60:

and utilized for execution of the integrated procedures involved in both

3981: 3036:

Kreitzer, AC (2009). "Physiology and pharmacology of striatal neurons".

1900: 567:

Basal ganglia (red) and related structures (blue) shown within the brain

469:

started the final day first, but dropped 8 shots in 3 holes at the turn.

113:(1890), suggested that there was a difference between memory and habit. 45:

memory) which aids the performance of particular types of tasks without

5818: 5681: 5248: 2784: 2767: 1616:

How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition

662:

and then travel outwards to other cerebellar nuclei for consolidation.

650: 636: 450: 183: 143: 50: 3816: 3198: 3013: 2996: 2056: 2054: 5054: 4758: 4379: 3603: 3313: 2689: 2519: 2117: 1546: 1083: 1068: 825: 817: 588: 496: 246: 231: 92: 61: 4168:"Early sleep triggers memory for early visual discrimination skills" 3966: 2141: 1148: – Detailed choreographed patterns of movements in martial arts 704: 5543: 4656: 3913: 2506:

Kimble, G. A.; Perlmuter, L. C. (1970). "The problem of volition".

2051: 1203:

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition

813: 795: 771: 761: 712: 699: 552: 531: 527: 4233: 4216: 4184: 4167: 3762:

Muslimovic, D; Post, B; Speelman, JD; Schmand, B (November 2007).

1623: 869:

Neural systems used by procedural memory are commonly targeted by

5256: 1160: – Consolidating a motor task into memory through repetition 1008: 1002: 956: 341: 138: 3634: 2909:

Parent, A (1990). "Extrinsic connections of the basal ganglia".

2010: 2008: 2006: 2004: 1871: 1788: 955:

patients not currently taking related medication have a smaller

783: 4992: 4890: 3691: 329:

Screenshot of a computerized version of the pursuit rotor task.

325: 319: 158:

were identified as being involved in memory acquisition tasks.

4255: 4217:"Visual discrimination learning requires sleep after training" 2317:

Anderson, J. R. (1993). Rules of mind. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

804:

Current Research indicates that procedural memory problems in

481: 314:

by requiring the participant to follow a moving object with a

182:

One model for understanding skill acquisition was proposed by

4583: 3761: 3585: 2001: 982:

Further information on the effects of alcohol on memory:

887: 641: 4460:

Fischer, S.; Hallschmid, M.; Elsner, A.L.; Born, J. (2002).

4298: 4122: 4002: 2374:

Anderson, J. R. (1982). "Acquisition of a cognitive skill".

1184: – Cognitive system for temporarily holding information 285:, is involved. There is an observed phenomenon known as the 4459: 4409:

McGaugh, J.L. (2000). "Memory—A century of consolidation".

3802: 3362: 2014: 1145: 1039: 733: 604: 600: 592: 508:

Gold Medal for Canada in men's ice hockey, a reporter with

205: 4347: 2719:

Eduardo., Mercado; E., Myers, Catherine (1 January 2014).

2261: 2185:

Chase, W. G.; Simon, H. A. (1973). "Perception in chess".

2103: 1647:

Eduardo., Mercado; E., Myers, Catherine (1 January 2014).

908:

Further information on obsessive–compulsive disorder:

3970:

The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences

3183: 915: 909: 864: 863:

Further information on human immunodeficiency virus:

273: 3734: 3542: 3406: 1200: 310:

A device used to study visual-motor tracking skills and

3878: 3502:

Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society

2313: 2311: 891:

Coronal FSPGR through the brain of Huntington's patient

91:

systems were first explored and understood with simple

3499: 2667: 1460: 1433: 1382: 1338: 798:

of normal (left) and Alzheimer's patient brain (right)

4801:"Awareness modifies skill-learning benefits of sleep" 4214: 3227: 1874:"The scope of preserved procedural memory in amnesia" 858: 4165: 4086: 2308: 243:

and factual knowledge store for the observed skill.

121:

McDougall (1923) first made the distinction between

4166:Gais, S.; Plihal, W.; Wagner, U.; Born, J. (2000). 2951: 2857: 1963: 1166: – Ability of the brain to continuously change 749: 196:

Autonomous phase (also called the procedural phase)

3764:"Motor procedural learning in Parkinson's disease" 2334: 2332: 2221: 708:Dopamine Pathways in the brain highlighted in Blue 2814: 2721:Learning and memory : from brain to behavior 2137: 2135: 1743:Learning and memory : from brain to behavior 1696:Learning and memory : from brain to behavior 1649:Learning and memory : from brain to behavior 881:Further information on Huntington's disease: 5984: 4215:Stickgold, R.; James, L.; Hobson, J.A. (2000a). 3962: 3960: 2766:Wulf, Gabriele; Shea, Charles H. (1 June 2002). 1741:Eduardo., Mercado; E., Myers, Catherine (2014). 1694:Eduardo., Mercado; E., Myers, Catherine (2014). 1385:The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 927:Further information on Parkinson's disease: 903: 847:more functional level in the people affected by 754:Further information on Alzheimer's disease: 4842:"MUC (Memory, Unification, Control) and beyond" 4740: 4521:"The REM sleep-memory consolidation hypothesis" 3845: 2505: 2329: 2060: 1781: 118:acquisition, storage, and retrieval processes. 3270: 2994: 2132: 840:Further information on Tourette syndrome: 670:Further information on the limbic system: 557:Further information on the basal ganglia: 5008: 4055:, 22 April; 153 (1); 249-58. Epub 2008 Feb 6. 3957: 3113: 3070: 1614:Council, National Research (23 August 1999). 1178: – Relationship between sleep and memory 1028:Further information on psychostimulants: 968:determining the effects of an observed drug. 546: 504:'s overtime goal against the US, winning the 433: 4694: 3140: 2858:Haber, SN; Fudge, JL; McFarland, NR (2000). 2751:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2613:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2341:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2257: 2255: 1773:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1726:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1679:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1113:According to a study carried out in 2010 by 1082:Whether a skill is learned explicitly (with 1054:learning, dopamine levels must be balanced. 587:The striatum is unique because it lacks the 476: 352: 5139:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two 4713: 2462: 2420:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 2417: 2338: 2265:Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 2106:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 635:Further information on the cerebellum: 5015: 5001: 2718: 2610: 2465:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2413: 2411: 2409: 2407: 2405: 2184: 1740: 1693: 1646: 945:Further information on schizophrenia: 408:attention can be paid to other processes. 375: 209:A countless number of potential procedures 4919: 4867: 4857: 4816: 4798: 4766: 4619: 4609: 4552: 4495: 4485: 4369: 4316: 4232: 4183: 4020: 3779: 3611: 3339: 3012: 2885: 2875: 2783: 2655:"Sports News, Opinion, Scores, Schedules" 2431: 2252: 1940: 1899: 1889: 1478: 1296:The Psychology of Learning and Motivation 1249: 1102:to show that procedural memory subserves 1067:(NREM; stages 2–4) sleep, such as a nap. 551:Further information on the striatum: 424: 411: 4950: 4741:Smith, CT; Nixon, MR; Nader, RS (2004). 3449: 3035: 2765: 2570:Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 2373: 1867: 1865: 1582: 1580: 1578: 1576: 1574: 1572: 1288: 886: 703: 640: 562: 541: 480: 340: 324: 247:Alternative view: the "predictive cycle" 204: 27:Unconscious memory used to perform tasks 4839: 4642: 4408: 2995:Zhou, FM; Wilson, CJ; Dani, JA (2002). 2540: 2402: 1613: 1589: 1508: 1506: 1291:"Chapter 2 Design for a Working Memory" 876: 384: 170: 14: 5985: 4986:Languages use different parts of brain 4953:Research in Developmental Disabilities 4912:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.04.033 4518: 4462:"Sleep forms memory for finger skills" 3421:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.12.012 2908: 2723:. Worth Publishers. pp. 307–308. 1844:Personality and Individual Differences 1698:. Worth Publishers. pp. 311–312. 1528: 1526: 1524: 1522: 1520: 1518: 1235: 1142: – Type of long-term human memory 922: 366: 274:Practice and the power law of learning 87:The difference between procedural and 4996: 4799:Robertson, E.M.; et al. (2004). 2567: 1922: 1916: 1862: 1598: 1569: 1532: 760:Further information on dementia: 698:Further information on dopamine: 595:related inhibiting cell known as the 305: 71:Procedural memory is created through 1929:Canadian Medical Association Journal 1841: 1835: 1503: 1018:dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia 1001:Further information on cocaine: 976:Further information on alcohol: 835: 516: 397: 225: 3050:10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135422 1925:"Sleep Stages, Memory and Learning" 1829:"PEBL Blog: The Pursuit Rotor Task" 1515: 1238:Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 1023: 237: 24: 3378:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.09.025 3073:Physiotherapy: Theory and Practice 2877:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-06-02369.2000 2555:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1992.tb02446.x 1535:Journal of Experimental Psychology 1134:Dreyfus model of skill acquisition 859:Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 200: 175:The acquisition of skill requires 25: 6014: 5420:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm 2772:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 1745:. Worth Publishers. p. 312. 1651:. Worth Publishers. p. 311. 1302:. Vol. 51. pp. 45–100. 723: 645:The cerebellum is highlighted red 161: 5965: 5953: 5022: 4979: 4944: 4884: 4833: 3935:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00301.x 3557:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.07.067 3187:Journal of Neuroscience Research 1803:"Pursuit Rotor Task - Phenowiki" 940: 782: 770: 750:Alzheimer's disease and dementia 665: 4792: 4783: 4734: 4707: 4688: 4679: 4636: 4577: 4512: 4453: 4402: 4341: 4292: 4249: 4208: 4159: 4116: 4080: 4067: 4058: 4045: 3996: 3907: 3893:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.15.1.58 3872: 3858: 3839: 3796: 3755: 3728: 3685: 3672: 3628: 3579: 3536: 3493: 3443: 3400: 3356: 3307: 3285:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.11.011 3264: 3221: 3177: 3134: 3107: 3064: 3029: 2988: 2945: 2902: 2851: 2808: 2759: 2712: 2661: 2647: 2604: 2561: 2534: 2499: 2456: 2367: 2320: 2299: 2242: 2215: 2205: 2178: 2097: 1957: 1821: 1795: 1734: 1687: 1640: 1607: 1172: – Ability to do something 914:Neuroimaging studies show that 5630:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model 5503:Memory and social interactions 4921:11858/00-001M-0000-002D-4D0D-1 3332:10.1523/jneurosci.5406-05.2006 2156:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.03.048 1454: 1436:Journal of Memory and Language 1427: 1376: 1354:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2012.11.001 1332: 1282: 1229: 1194: 465:2011 Masters golf tournament, 455:1993 Wimbledon women's final, 445:1996 Masters golf tournament, 13: 1: 4818:10.1016/s0960-9822(04)00039-9 4318:10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00746-8 4075:Journal of Psychopharmacology 4022:10.1016/s0165-1781(99)00122-5 3364:turnover in the cerebellum". 3038:Annual Review of Neuroscience 2543:British Journal of Psychology 2075:10.1016/s0028-3932(02)00157-4 1308:10.1016/s0079-7421(09)51002-x 1098:One study used patients with 1007:It is evident that long-term 904:Obsessive compulsive disorder 688: 630: 262:Implicitly analyze the result 5339:Retrieval-induced forgetting 4431:10.1126/science.287.5451.248 3682:1988 Aug;111 ( Pt 4):941-59. 3471:10.1016/j.cortex.2017.08.037 3143:Biomedical and Life Sciences 2923:10.1016/0166-2236(90)90105-j 2829:10.1016/0166-2236(90)90107-l 2353:10.1037/0022-3514.37.11.2014 2199:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90004-2 1856:10.1016/0191-8869(81)90025-8 1397:10.1080/17470218.2011.640403 1188: 951:MRI studies have shown that 871:Human Immunodeficiency Virus 740: 392: 110:The Principles of Psychology 49:awareness of these previous 7: 3869:1995 Dec; 152 (12); 1724-9. 3450:Takács, A; et, al. (2017). 2029:10.1037/0735-7044.107.6.899 1215:10.1037/0278-7393.15.6.1047 1121: 1089: 984:Effect of Alcohol on Memory 693: 10: 6019: 5677:Levels of Processing model 5602:World Memory Championships 5435:Lost in the mall technique 5282:dissociative (psychogenic) 4965:10.1016/j.ridd.2017.10.015 4590:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 4466:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 3881:Journal of Neuropsychiatry 2966:10.1016/j.tins.2004.07.004 2625:10.1037/0022-3514.46.3.610 2388:10.1037/0033-295x.89.4.369 2236:10.1207/s15516709cog0502_2 1027: 1000: 996: 981: 975: 971: 944: 926: 907: 880: 862: 839: 759: 753: 697: 669: 634: 556: 550: 547:Striatum and basal ganglia 538:, has not been confirmed. 488:in Vancouver, playing for 437: 434:Famous examples of choking 107:, within his famous book: 82: 5948: 5903: 5872: 5731: 5724: 5617: 5589: 5521: 5478: 5450: 5410: 5352: 5247: 5153: 5128: 5080: 5073: 5030: 4102:10.1001/archpsyc.60.3.303 3706:10.1017/s1355617704105018 3514:10.1017/s1355617702813212 3242:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.11.014 3085:10.1080/09593980701884832 1480:10.3758/s13421-016-0645-4 1448:10.1016/j.jml.2014.07.002 1260:10.1016/j.nlm.2004.06.005 1136: – Model of learning 477:Expertise-induced amnesia 353:Serial reaction time task 5715:The Seven Sins of Memory 5660:Intermediate-term memory 5465:Indirect tests of memory 5442:Recovered-memory therapy 5392:Misattribution of memory 4859:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00416 2477:10.1177/0146167297239003 1289:Oberauer, Klaus (2009). 1057: 962: 300: 6003:Technical communication 5402:Source-monitoring error 4846:Frontiers in Psychology 4840:Hagoort, Peter (2013). 4545:10.1126/science.1063049 4270:10.1162/089892900562075 4145:10.1126/science.8036518 3273:Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev 3155:10.1023/a:1007523520251 2277:10.1037/1076-898x.8.1.6 2017:Behavioral Neuroscience 376:Weather prediction task 127:artificial intelligence 5809:George Armitage Miller 5769:Patricia Goldman-Rakic 4519:Siegel, J. M. (2001). 4487:10.1073/pnas.182178199 3694:J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2442:10.1037/e501882009-391 1979:10.1006/brcg.1993.1013 1467:Memory & Cognition 1071:following a period of 1065:non-rapid eye movement 892: 709: 646: 617:somatic nervous system 568: 492: 425:Rising to the occasion 412:Choking under pressure 345: 330: 295:observational learning 210: 5972:Philosophy portal 5960:Psychology portal 5824:Henry L. Roediger III 5425:False memory syndrome 5397:Misinformation effect 5377:Imagination inflation 4611:10.1073/pnas.95.3.861 3650:10.1002/mds.870100110 2582:10.1123/jsep.31.5.583 890: 707: 644: 577:afferent nerve fibers 566: 542:Anatomical structures 484: 344: 328: 312:hand–eye coordination 287:power law of learning 208: 5329:Motivated forgetting 4716:Psychiatr J Univ Ott 3923:Alcohol Clin Exp Res 3781:10.1093/brain/awm211 2508:Psychological Review 2376:Psychological Review 2187:Cognitive Psychology 1891:10.1093/brain/awh208 1809:on 27 September 2013 1342:Cognitive Psychology 1170:Procedural knowledge 1115:Dalhousie University 1100:Korsakoff’s syndrome 897:Huntington's disease 883:Huntington's disease 877:Huntington's disease 810:acetylcholinesterase 683:immunohistochemistry 609:muscarinic receptors 405:procedural knowledge 385:Choice reaction task 171:Acquisition of skill 115:Cognitive psychology 95:. Psychologists and 5839:Arthur P. Shimamura 5739:Richard C. Atkinson 5556:Effects of exercise 5430:Memory implantation 5314:Interference theory 5230:Selective retention 5210:Meaningful learning 4602:1998PNAS...95..861K 4537:2001Sci...294.1058S 4531:(5544): 1058–1063. 4478:2002PNAS...9911987F 4472:(18): 11987–11991. 4423:2000Sci...287..248M 4362:1996Natur.382..252B 4137:1994Sci...265..679K 4090:Arch Gen Psychiatry 4009:Psychiatry Research 3982:10.1176/jnp.5.4.419 2682:1996Natur.384..356F 2144:Psychiatry Research 1967:Brain and Cognition 934:Parkinson's disease 929:Parkinson's disease 923:Parkinson's disease 849:Tourette's syndrome 730:synaptic plasticity 613:adenosine receptors 597:medium spiny neuron 367:Mirror tracing task 73:procedural learning 18:Procedural learning 5936:Andriy Slyusarchuk 5759:Hermann Ebbinghaus 5665:Involuntary memory 5566:Memory improvement 5551:Effects of alcohol 5513:Transactive memory 5491:Politics of memory 5460:Exceptional memory 2785:10.3758/BF03196276 990:effects of alcohol 893: 710: 647: 569: 493: 346: 331: 306:Pursuit rotor task 211: 131:declarative memory 89:declarative memory 5980: 5979: 5944: 5943: 5931:Cosmos Rossellius 5779:Marcia K. Johnson 5650:Exosomatic memory 5635:Context-dependent 5625:Absent-mindedness 5508:Memory conformity 5486:Collective memory 5387:Memory conformity 5324:Memory inhibition 5243: 5242: 5235:Tip of the tongue 4417:(5451): 248–251. 4356:(6588): 252–255. 4258:J. Cogn. Neurosci 4227:(12): 1237–1238. 4178:(12): 1335–1339. 4131:(5172): 679–682. 3817:10.1002/mds.10018 3199:10.1002/jnr.10518 3014:10.1002/neu.10150 2676:(6607): 356–358. 2347:(11): 2014–2024. 2224:Cognitive Science 1923:Dotto, L (1996). 1789:"Cognitive Atlas" 1104:syntactic priming 842:Tourette syndrome 836:Tourette syndrome 789:Alzheimer patient 718:mesocorticolimbic 619:neurotransmitter 517:Genetic influence 398:Divided attention 336:fine motor skills 226:Associative phase 193:Associative phase 31:Procedural memory 16:(Redirected from 6010: 5970: 5969: 5968: 5958: 5957: 5956: 5911:Jonathan Hancock 5864:Robert Stickgold 5834:Richard Shiffrin 5789:Elizabeth Loftus 5729: 5728: 5645:Childhood memory 5452:Research methods 5334:Repressed memory 5309:Forgetting curve 5297:transient global 5168:Autobiographical 5078: 5077: 5017: 5010: 5003: 4994: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4977: 4976: 4948: 4942: 4941: 4923: 4900:Neuropsychologia 4897: 4888: 4882: 4881: 4871: 4861: 4837: 4831: 4830: 4820: 4796: 4790: 4787: 4781: 4780: 4770: 4759:10.1101/lm.74904 4738: 4732: 4731: 4711: 4705: 4704: 4692: 4686: 4683: 4677: 4676: 4640: 4634: 4633: 4623: 4613: 4581: 4575: 4574: 4556: 4516: 4510: 4509: 4499: 4489: 4457: 4451: 4450: 4406: 4400: 4399: 4380:10.1038/382252a0 4373: 4345: 4339: 4338: 4320: 4296: 4290: 4289: 4253: 4247: 4246: 4236: 4212: 4206: 4205: 4187: 4163: 4157: 4156: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4084: 4078: 4071: 4065: 4062: 4056: 4049: 4043: 4042: 4024: 4000: 3994: 3993: 3964: 3955: 3954: 3920: 3911: 3905: 3904: 3876: 3870: 3862: 3856: 3855: 3843: 3837: 3836: 3800: 3794: 3793: 3783: 3759: 3753: 3752: 3732: 3726: 3725: 3689: 3683: 3676: 3670: 3669: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3615: 3604:10.1037/a0013404 3583: 3577: 3576: 3551:(4): 1336–1347. 3540: 3534: 3533: 3497: 3491: 3490: 3456: 3447: 3441: 3440: 3409:Neuropsychologia 3404: 3398: 3397: 3360: 3354: 3353: 3343: 3311: 3305: 3304: 3268: 3262: 3261: 3230:Behav. Brain Res 3225: 3219: 3218: 3181: 3175: 3174: 3138: 3132: 3131: 3111: 3105: 3104: 3068: 3062: 3061: 3033: 3027: 3026: 3016: 2992: 2986: 2985: 2949: 2943: 2942: 2906: 2900: 2899: 2889: 2879: 2870:(6): 2369–2382. 2855: 2849: 2848: 2812: 2806: 2805: 2787: 2763: 2757: 2756: 2750: 2742: 2716: 2710: 2709: 2690:10.1038/384356a0 2665: 2659: 2658: 2651: 2645: 2644: 2608: 2602: 2601: 2565: 2559: 2558: 2538: 2532: 2531: 2520:10.1037/h0029782 2503: 2497: 2496: 2460: 2454: 2453: 2435: 2415: 2400: 2399: 2371: 2365: 2364: 2336: 2327: 2324: 2318: 2315: 2306: 2303: 2297: 2296: 2259: 2250: 2246: 2240: 2239: 2219: 2213: 2209: 2203: 2202: 2182: 2176: 2175: 2139: 2130: 2129: 2118:10.1037/a0037190 2112:(5): 1837–1860. 2101: 2095: 2094: 2063:Neuropsychologia 2058: 2049: 2048: 2012: 1999: 1998: 1961: 1955: 1954: 1944: 1920: 1914: 1913: 1903: 1893: 1869: 1860: 1859: 1839: 1833: 1832: 1831:. 24 April 2010. 1825: 1819: 1818: 1816: 1814: 1805:. Archived from 1799: 1793: 1792: 1785: 1779: 1778: 1772: 1764: 1738: 1732: 1731: 1725: 1717: 1691: 1685: 1684: 1678: 1670: 1644: 1638: 1637: 1611: 1605: 1602: 1596: 1593: 1587: 1584: 1567: 1566: 1547:10.1037/h0055392 1530: 1513: 1510: 1501: 1500: 1482: 1458: 1452: 1451: 1431: 1425: 1424: 1391:(5): 1006–1033. 1380: 1374: 1373: 1336: 1330: 1329: 1301: 1286: 1280: 1279: 1253: 1233: 1227: 1226: 1209:(6): 1047–1060. 1198: 1176:Sleep and memory 1036:psychostimulants 1024:Psychostimulants 978:Alcohol beverage 786: 774: 582:ventral striatum 536:cognitive skills 238:Autonomous phase 21: 6018: 6017: 6013: 6012: 6011: 6009: 6008: 6007: 5983: 5982: 5981: 5976: 5966: 5964: 5954: 5952: 5940: 5921:Dominic O'Brien 5899: 5868: 5849:Susumu Tonegawa 5829:Daniel Schacter 5804:Eleanor Maguire 5794:Geoffrey Loftus 5749:Stephen J. Ceci 5744:Robert A. Bjork 5720: 5639:state-dependent 5613: 5585: 5517: 5498:Cultural memory 5474: 5470:Memory disorder 5446: 5406: 5348: 5239: 5149: 5124: 5069: 5026: 5021: 4991: 4984: 4980: 4949: 4945: 4895: 4889: 4885: 4838: 4834: 4797: 4793: 4788: 4784: 4739: 4735: 4712: 4708: 4693: 4689: 4684: 4680: 4641: 4637: 4582: 4578: 4517: 4513: 4458: 4454: 4407: 4403: 4346: 4342: 4297: 4293: 4254: 4250: 4213: 4209: 4164: 4160: 4121: 4117: 4085: 4081: 4077:129(3); 271–276 4072: 4068: 4063: 4059: 4050: 4046: 4001: 3997: 3965: 3958: 3918: 3912: 3908: 3877: 3873: 3867:Am J Psychiatry 3863: 3859: 3844: 3840: 3801: 3797: 3774:(11): 2887–97. 3760: 3756: 3733: 3729: 3690: 3686: 3677: 3673: 3633: 3629: 3592:Neuropsychology 3584: 3580: 3541: 3537: 3498: 3494: 3454: 3448: 3444: 3415:(10): 1456–65. 3405: 3401: 3361: 3357: 3326:(10): 2808–13. 3312: 3308: 3269: 3265: 3226: 3222: 3182: 3178: 3139: 3135: 3112: 3108: 3069: 3065: 3034: 3030: 2993: 2989: 2954:Trends Neurosci 2950: 2946: 2911:Trends Neurosci 2907: 2903: 2856: 2852: 2817:Trends Neurosci 2813: 2809: 2764: 2760: 2744: 2743: 2731: 2717: 2713: 2666: 2662: 2653: 2652: 2648: 2609: 2605: 2566: 2562: 2539: 2535: 2504: 2500: 2461: 2457: 2433:10.1.1.172.5140 2416: 2403: 2372: 2368: 2337: 2330: 2325: 2321: 2316: 2309: 2304: 2300: 2260: 2253: 2247: 2243: 2220: 2216: 2210: 2206: 2183: 2179: 2140: 2133: 2102: 2098: 2059: 2052: 2013: 2002: 1962: 1958: 1921: 1917: 1870: 1863: 1840: 1836: 1827: 1826: 1822: 1812: 1810: 1801: 1800: 1796: 1787: 1786: 1782: 1766: 1765: 1753: 1739: 1735: 1719: 1718: 1706: 1692: 1688: 1672: 1671: 1659: 1645: 1641: 1634: 1618:. p. 177. 1612: 1608: 1603: 1599: 1594: 1590: 1585: 1570: 1531: 1516: 1511: 1504: 1459: 1455: 1432: 1428: 1381: 1377: 1337: 1333: 1318: 1299: 1287: 1283: 1251:10.1.1.319.8326 1234: 1230: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1164:Neuroplasticity 1140:Explicit memory 1124: 1092: 1073:slow-wave sleep 1060: 1032: 1030:Psychostimulant 1026: 1005: 999: 986: 980: 974: 965: 949: 943: 931: 925: 912: 906: 885: 879: 867: 861: 844: 838: 830:psychopathology 802: 801: 800: 799: 792: 791: 790: 787: 779: 778: 775: 764: 758: 752: 743: 726: 702: 696: 691: 674: 668: 639: 633: 561: 555: 549: 544: 519: 479: 442: 436: 427: 414: 400: 395: 387: 378: 369: 355: 308: 303: 276: 249: 240: 228: 203: 201:Cognitive phase 190:Cognitive phase 173: 164: 85: 35:implicit memory 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6016: 6006: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5978: 5977: 5975: 5974: 5962: 5949: 5946: 5945: 5942: 5941: 5939: 5938: 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5916:Paul R. McHugh 5913: 5907: 5905: 5901: 5900: 5898: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5876: 5874: 5870: 5869: 5867: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5796: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5776: 5774:Ivan Izquierdo 5771: 5766: 5761: 5756: 5751: 5746: 5741: 5735: 5733: 5726: 5722: 5721: 5719: 5718: 5711: 5701: 5700: 5699: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5673: 5672: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5632: 5627: 5621: 5619: 5615: 5614: 5612: 5611: 5606: 5605: 5604: 5593: 5591: 5587: 5586: 5584: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5563: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5547: 5546: 5541: 5531: 5525: 5523: 5519: 5518: 5516: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5495: 5494: 5493: 5482: 5480: 5476: 5475: 5473: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5456: 5454: 5448: 5447: 5445: 5444: 5439: 5438: 5437: 5427: 5422: 5416: 5414: 5408: 5407: 5405: 5404: 5399: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5372:Hindsight bias 5369: 5364: 5358: 5356: 5350: 5349: 5347: 5346: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5319:Memory erasure 5316: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5300: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5277:post-traumatic 5274: 5269: 5264: 5253: 5251: 5245: 5244: 5241: 5240: 5238: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5215:Personal-event 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5191: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5170: 5165: 5159: 5157: 5151: 5150: 5148: 5147: 5145:Working memory 5142: 5134: 5132: 5126: 5125: 5123: 5122: 5117: 5115:Motor learning 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5086: 5084: 5075: 5071: 5070: 5068: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5051: 5050: 5045: 5040: 5034: 5032: 5031:Basic concepts 5028: 5027: 5020: 5019: 5012: 5005: 4997: 4990: 4989: 4978: 4943: 4883: 4832: 4811:(3): 208–212. 4791: 4782: 4733: 4706: 4687: 4678: 4657:10.1038/nn1078 4651:(7): 697–698. 4635: 4596:(3): 861–868. 4576: 4511: 4452: 4401: 4371:10.1.1.39.3383 4340: 4311:(1): 205–211. 4291: 4264:(2): 246–254. 4248: 4207: 4158: 4115: 4096:(3): 303–310. 4079: 4066: 4057: 4044: 3995: 3976:(4): 419–427. 3956: 3906: 3871: 3857: 3838: 3795: 3754: 3743:(12): 1513–8. 3727: 3684: 3671: 3627: 3578: 3535: 3508:(3): 410–424. 3492: 3442: 3399: 3372:(3): 532–541. 3355: 3306: 3279:(5): 769–780. 3263: 3220: 3193:(5): 751–757. 3176: 3133: 3106: 3063: 3028: 3007:(4): 590–605. 2987: 2960:(9): 520–527. 2944: 2917:(7): 254–258. 2901: 2850: 2823:(7): 266–271. 2807: 2778:(2): 185–211. 2758: 2729: 2711: 2660: 2646: 2619:(3): 610–620. 2603: 2576:(5): 583–601. 2560: 2549:(3): 343–358. 2533: 2514:(5): 361–384. 2498: 2471:(9): 937–944. 2455: 2426:(4): 701–725. 2401: 2382:(4): 369–406. 2366: 2328: 2319: 2307: 2298: 2251: 2241: 2230:(2): 121–152. 2214: 2204: 2177: 2131: 2096: 2069:(3): 245–251. 2050: 2023:(6): 899–910. 2000: 1973:(2): 163–180. 1956: 1915: 1884:(8): 1853–67. 1861: 1850:(3): 207–213. 1834: 1820: 1794: 1780: 1751: 1733: 1704: 1686: 1657: 1639: 1632: 1606: 1597: 1588: 1568: 1541:(6): 381–391. 1514: 1502: 1453: 1426: 1375: 1348:(2): 157–211. 1331: 1316: 1281: 1244:(3): 171–177. 1228: 1192: 1190: 1187: 1186: 1185: 1182:Working memory 1179: 1173: 1167: 1161: 1155: 1152:Motor learning 1149: 1143: 1137: 1131: 1123: 1120: 1091: 1088: 1077:Tower of Hanoi 1059: 1056: 1025: 1022: 998: 995: 973: 970: 964: 961: 942: 939: 924: 921: 905: 902: 878: 875: 860: 857: 837: 834: 794: 793: 788: 781: 780: 776: 769: 768: 767: 766: 765: 751: 748: 742: 739: 725: 724:At the synapse 722: 695: 692: 690: 687: 667: 664: 632: 629: 548: 545: 543: 540: 518: 515: 478: 475: 474: 473: 470: 463: 453: 440:Choke (sports) 435: 432: 426: 423: 419:working memory 413: 410: 399: 396: 394: 391: 386: 383: 377: 374: 368: 365: 354: 351: 307: 304: 302: 299: 275: 272: 267: 266: 263: 260: 257: 248: 245: 239: 236: 227: 224: 202: 199: 198: 197: 194: 191: 172: 169: 163: 162:Working memory 160: 135:Henry Molaison 101:Maine de Biran 84: 81: 77:neural systems 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6015: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5990: 5988: 5973: 5963: 5961: 5951: 5950: 5947: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5908: 5906: 5902: 5896: 5895:Clive Wearing 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5877: 5875: 5871: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5859:Endel Tulving 5857: 5855: 5854:Anne Treisman 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5814:Brenda Milner 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5799:James McGaugh 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5764:Sigmund Freud 5762: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5752: 5750: 5747: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5736: 5734: 5730: 5727: 5723: 5717: 5716: 5712: 5709: 5708:retrospective 5705: 5702: 5698: 5695: 5694: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5687:Muscle memory 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5671: 5668: 5667: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5640: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5622: 5620: 5616: 5610: 5607: 5603: 5600: 5599: 5598: 5595: 5594: 5592: 5588: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5536: 5535: 5534:Art of memory 5532: 5530: 5527: 5526: 5524: 5520: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5492: 5489: 5488: 5487: 5484: 5483: 5481: 5477: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5457: 5455: 5453: 5449: 5443: 5440: 5436: 5433: 5432: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5417: 5415: 5413: 5409: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5382:Memory biases 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5362:Confabulation 5360: 5359: 5357: 5355: 5354:Memory errors 5351: 5345: 5342: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5272:post-hypnotic 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5259: 5258: 5255: 5254: 5252: 5250: 5246: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5225:Rote learning 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5200:Hyperthymesia 5198: 5196: 5193: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5175: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5163:Active recall 5161: 5160: 5158: 5156: 5152: 5146: 5143: 5140: 5136: 5135: 5133: 5131: 5127: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5087: 5085: 5083: 5079: 5076: 5072: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5060:Consolidation 5058: 5056: 5053: 5052: 5049: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5039: 5036: 5035: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5018: 5013: 5011: 5006: 5004: 4999: 4998: 4995: 4987: 4982: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4947: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4922: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4894: 4887: 4879: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4836: 4828: 4824: 4819: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4795: 4786: 4778: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4737: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4710: 4702: 4698: 4691: 4682: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4645:Nat. Neurosci 4639: 4631: 4627: 4622: 4617: 4612: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4580: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4515: 4507: 4503: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4456: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4405: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4344: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4319: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4295: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4252: 4244: 4240: 4235: 4234:10.1038/81756 4230: 4226: 4222: 4221:Nat. Neurosci 4218: 4211: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4186: 4185:10.1038/81881 4181: 4177: 4173: 4172:Nat. Neurosci 4169: 4162: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4119: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4083: 4076: 4070: 4061: 4054: 4048: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4023: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 3999: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3963: 3961: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3929:(2): 238–48. 3928: 3924: 3917: 3910: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3875: 3868: 3861: 3853: 3849: 3848:Schizophr Res 3842: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3811:(2): 265–73. 3810: 3806: 3799: 3791: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3758: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3731: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3700:(5): 647–54. 3699: 3695: 3688: 3681: 3675: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3631: 3623: 3619: 3614: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3598:(6): 776–86. 3597: 3593: 3589: 3582: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3539: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3496: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3453: 3446: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3403: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3359: 3351: 3347: 3342: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3310: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3267: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3224: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3180: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3137: 3129: 3125: 3122:(7): 783–90. 3121: 3117: 3110: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3067: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3032: 3024: 3020: 3015: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2991: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2948: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2905: 2897: 2893: 2888: 2883: 2878: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2854: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2811: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2786: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2762: 2754: 2748: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2730:9781429240147 2726: 2722: 2715: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2664: 2656: 2650: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2607: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2564: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2537: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2502: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2459: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2434: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2414: 2412: 2410: 2408: 2406: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2370: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2335: 2333: 2323: 2314: 2312: 2302: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2258: 2256: 2245: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2218: 2208: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2181: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2138: 2136: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2100: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2057: 2055: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2011: 2009: 2007: 2005: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1960: 1952: 1948: 1943: 1938: 1935:(8): 1193–6. 1934: 1930: 1926: 1919: 1911: 1907: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1868: 1866: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1838: 1830: 1824: 1808: 1804: 1798: 1790: 1784: 1776: 1770: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1752:9781429240147 1748: 1744: 1737: 1729: 1723: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1705:9781429240147 1701: 1697: 1690: 1682: 1676: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1658:9781429240147 1654: 1650: 1643: 1635: 1633:9780309070362 1629: 1625: 1624:10.17226/9853 1621: 1617: 1610: 1601: 1592: 1583: 1581: 1579: 1577: 1575: 1573: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1529: 1527: 1525: 1523: 1521: 1519: 1509: 1507: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1457: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1430: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1379: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1335: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1317:9780123744890 1313: 1309: 1305: 1298: 1297: 1292: 1285: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1252: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1232: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1197: 1193: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1174: 1171: 1168: 1165: 1162: 1159: 1158:Muscle memory 1156: 1153: 1150: 1147: 1144: 1141: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1129: 1126: 1125: 1119: 1116: 1111: 1107: 1105: 1101: 1096: 1087: 1085: 1080: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1055: 1052: 1049: 1048:antipsychotic 1045: 1044:d-amphetamine 1041: 1037: 1031: 1021: 1019: 1014: 1013:hypoperfusion 1010: 1004: 994: 991: 985: 979: 969: 960: 958: 954: 953:schizophrenic 948: 947:Schizophrenia 941:Schizophrenia 938: 935: 930: 920: 917: 911: 901: 898: 889: 884: 874: 872: 866: 856: 852: 850: 843: 833: 831: 827: 823: 822:acetylcholine 819: 815: 811: 807: 797: 785: 773: 763: 757: 747: 738: 735: 731: 721: 719: 714: 706: 701: 686: 684: 679: 678:limbic system 673: 672:Limbic system 666:Limbic system 663: 661: 660:Purkinje cell 657: 652: 643: 638: 628: 624: 622: 621:acetylcholine 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 585: 583: 578: 574: 565: 560: 559:Basal ganglia 554: 539: 537: 533: 529: 524: 514: 511: 507: 503: 502:Sidney Crosby 498: 491: 487: 486:Sidney Crosby 483: 471: 468: 464: 462: 458: 454: 452: 448: 444: 443: 441: 431: 422: 420: 409: 406: 390: 382: 373: 364: 361: 360:reaction time 350: 343: 339: 337: 327: 323: 321: 317: 313: 298: 296: 290: 288: 284: 280: 271: 264: 261: 258: 255: 254: 253: 244: 235: 233: 223: 221: 220:metacognition 217: 207: 195: 192: 189: 188: 187: 185: 180: 178: 168: 159: 157: 156:basal ganglia 153: 149: 145: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 119: 116: 112: 111: 106: 105:William James 102: 98: 94: 90: 80: 78: 74: 69: 67: 63: 59: 54: 52: 48: 44: 40: 36: 33:is a type of 32: 19: 5926:Ben Pridmore 5844:Larry Squire 5754:Susan Clancy 5713: 5597:Memory sport 5522:Other topics 5412:False memory 5367:Cryptomnesia 5344:Weapon focus 5304:Decay theory 5219: 5065:Neuroanatomy 5024:Human memory 4981: 4956: 4952: 4946: 4903: 4899: 4886: 4849: 4845: 4835: 4808: 4804: 4794: 4785: 4753:(6): 714–9. 4750: 4746: 4736: 4722:(2): 85–90. 4719: 4715: 4709: 4700: 4696: 4690: 4681: 4648: 4644: 4638: 4593: 4589: 4579: 4528: 4524: 4514: 4469: 4465: 4455: 4414: 4410: 4404: 4353: 4349: 4343: 4308: 4304: 4294: 4261: 4257: 4251: 4224: 4220: 4210: 4175: 4171: 4161: 4128: 4124: 4118: 4093: 4089: 4082: 4074: 4069: 4060: 4053:Neuroscience 4052: 4047: 4015:(1): 21–32. 4012: 4008: 3998: 3973: 3969: 3926: 3922: 3909: 3887:(1): 58–63. 3884: 3880: 3874: 3866: 3860: 3851: 3847: 3841: 3808: 3804: 3798: 3771: 3767: 3757: 3740: 3736: 3730: 3697: 3693: 3687: 3679: 3674: 3644:(1): 51–65. 3641: 3637: 3630: 3595: 3591: 3581: 3548: 3544: 3538: 3505: 3501: 3495: 3462: 3458: 3445: 3412: 3408: 3402: 3369: 3366:Neuroscience 3365: 3358: 3323: 3319: 3309: 3276: 3272: 3266: 3236:(1): 32–42. 3233: 3229: 3223: 3190: 3186: 3179: 3149:(2): 231–7. 3146: 3142: 3136: 3119: 3115: 3109: 3079:(5): 321–8. 3076: 3072: 3066: 3041: 3037: 3031: 3004: 3001:J. Neurobiol 3000: 2990: 2957: 2953: 2947: 2914: 2910: 2904: 2867: 2863: 2853: 2820: 2816: 2810: 2775: 2771: 2761: 2720: 2714: 2673: 2669: 2663: 2649: 2616: 2612: 2606: 2573: 2569: 2563: 2546: 2542: 2536: 2511: 2507: 2501: 2468: 2464: 2458: 2423: 2419: 2379: 2375: 2369: 2344: 2340: 2322: 2301: 2268: 2264: 2244: 2227: 2223: 2217: 2207: 2190: 2186: 2180: 2147: 2143: 2109: 2105: 2099: 2066: 2062: 2020: 2016: 1970: 1966: 1959: 1932: 1928: 1918: 1901:10400.16/509 1881: 1877: 1847: 1843: 1837: 1823: 1811:. Retrieved 1807:the original 1797: 1783: 1742: 1736: 1695: 1689: 1648: 1642: 1615: 1609: 1600: 1591: 1538: 1534: 1473:(1): 26–39. 1470: 1466: 1456: 1439: 1435: 1429: 1388: 1384: 1378: 1345: 1341: 1334: 1295: 1284: 1241: 1237: 1231: 1206: 1202: 1196: 1128:Automaticity 1112: 1108: 1097: 1093: 1081: 1061: 1033: 1006: 987: 966: 950: 932: 913: 894: 868: 853: 845: 803: 777:Normal brain 744: 727: 711: 675: 648: 625: 586: 573:dorsolateral 570: 520: 506:2010 Olympic 494: 467:Rory McIlroy 457:Jana Novotná 428: 415: 401: 388: 379: 370: 356: 347: 332: 309: 291: 277: 268: 250: 241: 229: 212: 181: 174: 165: 120: 108: 97:philosophers 86: 72: 70: 66:motor skills 55: 30: 29: 5784:Eric Kandel 5732:Researchers 5704:Prospective 5655:Free recall 5609:Shas Pollak 5262:anterograde 5178:Declarative 4959:: 237–247. 3116:Brain Nerve 2864:J. Neurosci 2271:(1): 6–16. 2212:Associates. 2150:: 197–204. 1813:27 February 1442:: 174–194. 1051:haloperidol 806:Alzheimer's 756:Alzheimer's 490:Team Canada 461:Steffi Graf 447:Greg Norman 152:neostriatum 148:hippocampus 51:experiences 39:unconscious 5987:Categories 5819:Lynn Nadel 5697:intertrial 5682:Metamemory 5670:flashbacks 5590:In society 5287:retrograde 5249:Forgetting 5220:Procedural 5130:Short-term 5100:Eyewitness 4906:: 97–105. 4805:Curr. Biol 3805:Mov Disord 3737:Rev Neurol 3638:Mov Disord 3545:NeuroImage 3320:J Neurosci 3044:: 127–47. 2249:Macmillan. 988:While the 689:Physiology 685:research. 656:the engram 651:cerebellum 637:Cerebellum 631:Cerebellum 451:Nick Faldo 438:See also: 144:cerebellum 5571:Nutrition 5479:In groups 5292:selective 5267:childhood 5195:Flashbulb 5155:Long-term 5055:Attention 4747:Learn Mem 4697:Sleep Res 4366:CiteSeerX 3465:: 84–94. 3101:205654506 2794:1069-9384 2747:cite book 2739:900627172 2428:CiteSeerX 2193:: 55–81. 1769:cite book 1761:961181739 1722:cite book 1714:961181739 1675:cite book 1667:900627172 1489:0090-502X 1405:1747-0218 1246:CiteSeerX 1189:Footnotes 1084:attention 1069:REM sleep 826:histamine 818:serotonin 741:Disorders 611:(M4) and 589:glutamate 497:attention 393:Expertise 318:or use a 232:automated 93:semantics 62:cognitive 58:retrieved 47:conscious 43:long-term 5873:Patients 5544:mnemonic 5539:chunking 5205:Implicit 5188:Semantic 5183:Episodic 5173:Explicit 5038:Encoding 4973:29073489 4930:28465069 4878:23874313 4827:14761652 4777:15576889 4673:16348039 4665:12819785 4563:11691984 4506:12193650 4447:40693856 4439:10634773 4327:12123620 4286:37714158 4278:10771409 4243:11100141 4194:11100156 4110:12622664 4039:44527373 4031:10699225 3951:11560947 3943:17250615 3901:12556572 3833:32165795 3825:11921111 3790:17855374 3749:11924447 3722:29064519 3714:15327712 3666:38578307 3622:18999351 3565:15589098 3530:30520253 3522:11939699 3479:28964503 3437:43393976 3429:15989936 3394:25761772 3386:18926883 3350:16525060 3301:23468580 3293:19914285 3250:19056429 3215:21343863 3207:12584733 3171:11876741 3163:10786707 3128:18646618 3093:18821439 3058:19400717 3023:12436423 2982:22202019 2974:15331233 2896:10704511 2802:12120783 2641:43839986 2598:17296824 2590:20016110 2485:29506446 2450:11757876 2396:18877678 2293:15358285 2285:12009178 2172:13070999 2164:28390295 2126:25000446 2083:12457750 2045:18015440 1995:36405765 1910:15215216 1555:13174710 1497:27517876 1421:27824663 1413:22332900 1370:20150745 1362:23276689 1326:53933457 1268:15464402 1122:See also 1090:Language 895:Despite 814:dopamine 796:PET scan 762:Dementia 713:Dopamine 700:Dopamine 694:Dopamine 553:Striatum 532:learning 523:practice 459:lost to 449:lost to 283:feedback 279:Practice 177:practice 123:explicit 5692:Priming 5618:Related 5561:Emotion 5257:Amnesia 5095:Eidetic 5082:Sensory 5043:Storage 4938:4109634 4869:3709422 4852:: 416. 4728:2374793 4630:9448252 4598:Bibcode 4571:2214566 4554:8760621 4533:Bibcode 4525:Science 4474:Bibcode 4419:Bibcode 4411:Science 4396:4316225 4388:8717039 4358:Bibcode 4335:7025533 4202:2075857 4153:8036518 4133:Bibcode 4125:Science 3990:8286941 3658:7885356 3613:2630709 3573:2664814 3487:3634434 3341:6675171 3258:2934467 2939:3995498 2931:1695399 2887:6772499 2845:3990601 2837:1695401 2706:4354381 2698:8934520 2678:Bibcode 2633:6707866 2528:4319166 2493:3702775 2091:1054952 2037:8136066 1987:8442933 1951:8612256 1942:1487644 1276:9008932 1223:2530305 1009:cocaine 1003:Cocaine 997:Cocaine 972:Alcohol 957:putamen 256:Attempt 216:schemas 139:amnesia 83:History 5998:Skills 5993:Memory 5725:People 5710:memory 5641:memory 5581:Trauma 5120:Visual 5110:Iconic 5105:Haptic 5090:Echoic 5048:Recall 4971: 4936: 4928: 4876: 4866: 4825: 4775: 4768:534700 4765: 4726: 4703:: 690. 4671: 4663: 4628: 4618: 4569: 4561: 4551: 4504: 4497:129381 4494: 4445: 4437: 4394: 4386: 4368: 4350:Nature 4333: 4325: 4305:Neuron 4284: 4276: 4241: 4200: 4192: 4151: 4108: 4037: 4029: 3988: 3949: 3941: 3899: 3854:: 202. 3831: 3823: 3788: 3747: 3720: 3712: 3664: 3656: 3620: 3610: 3571: 3563: 3528: 3520: 3485: 3477: 3459:Cortex 3435: 3427: 3392: 3384: 3348: 3338: 3299: 3291: 3256: 3248: 3213: 3205: 3169: 3161: 3126: 3099: 3091: 3056: 3021: 2980: 2972: 2937: 2929: 2894: 2884: 2843: 2835: 2800: 2792: 2737: 2727: 2704: 2696: 2670:Nature 2639: 2631: 2596: 2588: 2526: 2491: 2483: 2448: 2430: 2394: 2361:521900 2359: 2291: 2283: 2170: 2162: 2124: 2089: 2081: 2043: 2035: 1993: 1985: 1949: 1939: 1908: 1759: 1749: 1712: 1702: 1665: 1655: 1630: 1563:501599 1561: 1553: 1495: 1487: 1419: 1411: 1403: 1368: 1360: 1324: 1314: 1274: 1266: 1248: 1221: 528:talent 363:time. 320:stylus 316:cursor 154:, and 5904:Other 5576:Sleep 5529:Aging 5074:Types 4934:S2CID 4896:(PDF) 4669:S2CID 4621:33809 4567:S2CID 4443:S2CID 4392:S2CID 4331:S2CID 4282:S2CID 4198:S2CID 4035:S2CID 3947:S2CID 3919:(PDF) 3829:S2CID 3768:Brain 3718:S2CID 3680:Brain 3662:S2CID 3569:S2CID 3526:S2CID 3483:S2CID 3455:(PDF) 3433:S2CID 3390:S2CID 3297:S2CID 3254:S2CID 3211:S2CID 3167:S2CID 3097:S2CID 2978:S2CID 2935:S2CID 2841:S2CID 2702:S2CID 2637:S2CID 2594:S2CID 2489:S2CID 2392:S2CID 2289:S2CID 2168:S2CID 2087:S2CID 2041:S2CID 1991:S2CID 1878:Brain 1559:S2CID 1417:S2CID 1366:S2CID 1322:S2CID 1300:(PDF) 1272:S2CID 1058:Sleep 1034:Most 963:Drugs 301:Tests 184:Fitts 5706:and 5637:and 4969:PMID 4926:PMID 4874:PMID 4823:PMID 4773:PMID 4724:PMID 4661:PMID 4626:PMID 4559:PMID 4502:PMID 4435:PMID 4384:PMID 4323:PMID 4274:PMID 4239:PMID 4190:PMID 4149:PMID 4106:PMID 4027:PMID 3986:PMID 3939:PMID 3897:PMID 3821:PMID 3786:PMID 3745:PMID 3710:PMID 3654:PMID 3618:PMID 3561:PMID 3518:PMID 3475:PMID 3425:PMID 3382:PMID 3346:PMID 3289:PMID 3246:PMID 3203:PMID 3159:PMID 3124:PMID 3089:PMID 3054:PMID 3019:PMID 2970:PMID 2927:PMID 2892:PMID 2833:PMID 2798:PMID 2790:ISSN 2753:link 2735:OCLC 2725:ISBN 2694:PMID 2629:PMID 2586:PMID 2524:PMID 2481:PMID 2446:PMID 2357:PMID 2281:PMID 2160:PMID 2122:PMID 2079:PMID 2033:PMID 1983:PMID 1947:PMID 1906:PMID 1815:2012 1775:link 1757:OCLC 1747:ISBN 1728:link 1710:OCLC 1700:ISBN 1681:link 1663:OCLC 1653:ISBN 1628:ISBN 1551:PMID 1493:PMID 1485:ISSN 1409:PMID 1401:ISSN 1358:PMID 1312:ISBN 1264:PMID 1219:PMID 1146:Kata 1040:ADHD 820:and 734:CREB 676:The 649:The 605:DRD2 601:DRD1 593:GABA 571:The 259:Fail 64:and 4961:doi 4916:hdl 4908:doi 4904:101 4864:PMC 4854:doi 4813:doi 4763:PMC 4755:doi 4653:doi 4616:PMC 4606:doi 4549:PMC 4541:doi 4529:294 4492:PMC 4482:doi 4427:doi 4415:287 4376:doi 4354:382 4313:doi 4266:doi 4229:doi 4180:doi 4141:doi 4129:265 4098:doi 4017:doi 3978:doi 3931:doi 3889:doi 3813:doi 3776:doi 3772:130 3741:157 3702:doi 3646:doi 3608:PMC 3600:doi 3553:doi 3510:doi 3467:doi 3463:100 3417:doi 3374:doi 3370:157 3336:PMC 3328:doi 3281:doi 3238:doi 3234:199 3195:doi 3151:doi 3081:doi 3046:doi 3009:doi 2962:doi 2919:doi 2882:PMC 2872:doi 2825:doi 2780:doi 2686:doi 2674:384 2621:doi 2578:doi 2551:doi 2516:doi 2473:doi 2438:doi 2424:130 2384:doi 2349:doi 2273:doi 2232:doi 2195:doi 2152:doi 2148:253 2114:doi 2110:143 2071:doi 2025:doi 2021:107 1975:doi 1937:PMC 1933:154 1896:hdl 1886:doi 1882:127 1852:doi 1620:doi 1543:doi 1475:doi 1444:doi 1393:doi 1350:doi 1304:doi 1256:doi 1211:doi 916:OCD 910:OCD 865:HIV 607:), 510:TSN 5989:: 5890:NA 5885:KC 5880:HM 4967:. 4957:71 4955:. 4932:. 4924:. 4914:. 4902:. 4898:. 4872:. 4862:. 4848:. 4844:. 4821:. 4809:14 4807:. 4803:. 4771:. 4761:. 4751:11 4749:. 4745:. 4720:15 4718:. 4701:26 4699:. 4667:. 4659:. 4647:. 4624:. 4614:. 4604:. 4594:95 4592:. 4588:. 4565:. 4557:. 4547:. 4539:. 4527:. 4523:. 4500:. 4490:. 4480:. 4470:99 4468:. 4464:. 4441:. 4433:. 4425:. 4413:. 4390:. 4382:. 4374:. 4364:. 4352:. 4329:. 4321:. 4309:35 4307:. 4303:. 4280:. 4272:. 4262:12 4260:. 4237:. 4223:. 4219:. 4196:. 4188:. 4174:. 4170:. 4147:. 4139:. 4127:. 4104:. 4094:60 4092:. 4033:. 4025:. 4013:93 4011:. 4007:. 3984:. 3972:. 3959:^ 3945:. 3937:. 3927:31 3925:. 3921:. 3895:. 3885:15 3883:. 3852:36 3850:. 3827:. 3819:. 3809:17 3807:. 3784:. 3770:. 3766:. 3739:. 3716:. 3708:. 3698:10 3696:. 3660:. 3652:. 3642:10 3640:. 3616:. 3606:. 3596:22 3594:. 3590:. 3567:. 3559:. 3549:23 3547:. 3524:. 3516:. 3504:. 3481:. 3473:. 3461:. 3457:. 3431:. 3423:. 3413:43 3411:. 3388:. 3380:. 3368:. 3344:. 3334:. 3324:26 3322:. 3318:. 3295:. 3287:. 3277:34 3275:. 3252:. 3244:. 3232:. 3209:. 3201:. 3191:71 3189:. 3165:. 3157:. 3147:25 3145:. 3120:60 3118:. 3095:. 3087:. 3077:24 3075:. 3052:. 3042:32 3040:. 3017:. 3005:53 3003:. 2999:. 2976:. 2968:. 2958:27 2956:. 2933:. 2925:. 2915:13 2913:. 2890:. 2880:. 2868:20 2866:. 2862:. 2839:. 2831:. 2821:13 2819:. 2796:. 2788:. 2774:. 2770:. 2749:}} 2745:{{ 2733:. 2700:. 2692:. 2684:. 2672:. 2635:. 2627:. 2617:46 2615:. 2592:. 2584:. 2574:31 2572:. 2547:83 2545:. 2522:. 2512:77 2510:. 2487:. 2479:. 2469:23 2467:. 2444:. 2436:. 2422:. 2404:^ 2390:. 2380:89 2378:. 2355:. 2345:37 2343:. 2331:^ 2310:^ 2287:. 2279:. 2267:. 2254:^ 2226:. 2189:. 2166:. 2158:. 2146:. 2134:^ 2120:. 2108:. 2085:. 2077:. 2067:41 2065:. 2053:^ 2039:. 2031:. 2019:. 2003:^ 1989:. 1981:. 1971:21 1969:. 1945:. 1931:. 1927:. 1904:. 1894:. 1880:. 1876:. 1864:^ 1846:. 1771:}} 1767:{{ 1755:. 1724:}} 1720:{{ 1708:. 1677:}} 1673:{{ 1661:. 1626:. 1571:^ 1557:. 1549:. 1539:47 1537:. 1517:^ 1505:^ 1491:. 1483:. 1471:45 1469:. 1465:. 1440:76 1438:. 1415:. 1407:. 1399:. 1389:65 1387:. 1364:. 1356:. 1346:66 1344:. 1320:. 1310:. 1293:. 1270:. 1262:. 1254:. 1242:82 1240:. 1217:. 1207:15 1205:. 832:. 816:, 623:. 603:, 222:. 150:, 146:, 103:. 53:. 41:, 5141:" 5137:" 5016:e 5009:t 5002:v 4975:. 4963:: 4940:. 4918:: 4910:: 4880:. 4856:: 4850:4 4829:. 4815:: 4779:. 4757:: 4730:. 4675:. 4655:: 4649:6 4632:. 4608:: 4600:: 4573:. 4543:: 4535:: 4508:. 4484:: 4476:: 4449:. 4429:: 4421:: 4398:. 4378:: 4360:: 4337:. 4315:: 4288:. 4268:: 4245:. 4231:: 4225:3 4204:. 4182:: 4176:3 4155:. 4143:: 4135:: 4112:. 4100:: 4041:. 4019:: 3992:. 3980:: 3974:5 3953:. 3933:: 3903:. 3891:: 3835:. 3815:: 3792:. 3778:: 3751:. 3724:. 3704:: 3668:. 3648:: 3624:. 3602:: 3575:. 3555:: 3532:. 3512:: 3506:8 3489:. 3469:: 3439:. 3419:: 3396:. 3376:: 3352:. 3330:: 3303:. 3283:: 3260:. 3240:: 3217:. 3197:: 3173:. 3153:: 3130:. 3103:. 3083:: 3060:. 3048:: 3025:. 3011:: 2984:. 2964:: 2941:. 2921:: 2898:. 2874:: 2847:. 2827:: 2804:. 2782:: 2776:9 2755:) 2741:. 2708:. 2688:: 2680:: 2657:. 2643:. 2623:: 2600:. 2580:: 2557:. 2553:: 2530:. 2518:: 2495:. 2475:: 2452:. 2440:: 2398:. 2386:: 2363:. 2351:: 2295:. 2275:: 2269:8 2238:. 2234:: 2228:5 2201:. 2197:: 2191:4 2174:. 2154:: 2128:. 2116:: 2093:. 2073:: 2047:. 2027:: 1997:. 1977:: 1953:. 1912:. 1898:: 1888:: 1858:. 1854:: 1848:2 1817:. 1791:. 1777:) 1763:. 1730:) 1716:. 1683:) 1669:. 1636:. 1622:: 1565:. 1545:: 1499:. 1477:: 1450:. 1446:: 1423:. 1395:: 1372:. 1352:: 1328:. 1306:: 1278:. 1258:: 1225:. 1213:: 37:( 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index