1306:
45:
1947:
construction are not well-recorded, and most surviving records relate to royal castles. A castle with earthen ramparts, a motte, timber defences and buildings could have been constructed by an unskilled workforce. The source of man-power was probably from the local lordship, and the tenants would already have the necessary skills of felling trees, digging, and working timber necessary for an earth and timber castle. Possibly coerced into working for their lord, the construction of an earth and timber castle would not have been a drain on a client's funds. In terms of time, it has been estimated that an average sized motte – 5 m (16 ft) high and 15 m (49 ft) wide at the summit – would have taken 50 people about 40 working days. An exceptionally expensive motte and bailey was that of
1694:. The elite responsible for castle construction had to choose between the new type that could withstand cannon fire and the earlier, more elaborate style. The first was ugly and uncomfortable and the latter was less secure, although it did offer greater aesthetic appeal and value as a status symbol. The second choice proved to be more popular as it became apparent that there was little point in trying to make the site genuinely defensible in the face of cannon. For a variety of reasons, not least of which is that many castles have no recorded history, there is no firm number of castles built in the medieval period. However, it has been estimated that between 75,000 and 100,000 were built in western Europe; of these around 1,700 were in England and Wales and around 14,000 in German-speaking areas.
1103:
230:
370:
2137:
2294:
1442:
1396:. Most of the Armenian military sites in Cilicia are characterized by: multiple bailey walls laid with irregular plans to follow the sinuosities of the outcrops; rounded and especially horseshoe-shaped towers; finely-cut often rusticated ashlar facing stones with intricate poured cores; concealed postern gates and complex bent entrances with slot machicolations; embrasured loopholes for archers; barrel, pointed or groined vaults over undercrofts, gates and chapels; and cisterns with elaborate scarped drains. Civilian settlement are often found in the immediate proximity of these fortifications. After the First Crusade, Crusaders who did not return to their homes in Europe helped found the
791: – openings in the ceiling of the gateway passage – were used to pour boiling oil or molten lead on attackers; the price of oil and lead and the distance of the gatehouse from fires meant that this was impractical. This method was, however, a common practice in Middle Eastern and Mediterranean castles and fortifications, where such resources were abundant. They were most likely used to drop objects on attackers, or to allow water to be poured on fires to extinguish them. Provision was made in the upper storey of the gatehouse for accommodation so the gate was never left undefended, although this arrangement later evolved to become more comfortable at the expense of defence.
1503:
2420:
1188:
1758:
817:
2171:
1526:, the use of bricks and mortar was unknown in the region before the Crusaders. Until the 13th century and start of the 14th centuries, their design was heterogeneous, however this period saw the emergence of a standard plan in the region: a square plan, with four wings around a central courtyard. It was common for castles in the East to have arrowslits in the curtain wall at multiple levels; contemporary builders in Europe were wary of this as they believed it weakened the wall. Arrowslits did not compromise the wall's strength, but it was not until Edward I's programme of castle building that they were widely adopted in Europe.
2202:
architecture such as battlements for the same purpose. Castles have been compared with cathedrals as objects of architectural pride, and some castles incorporated gardens as ornamental features. The right to crenellate, when granted by a monarch – though it was not always necessary – was important not just as it allowed a lord to defend his property but because crenellations and other accoutrements associated with castles were prestigious through their use by the elite. Licences to crenellate were also proof of a relationship with or favour from the monarch, who was the one responsible for granting permission.
71:
1095:
stone did not necessarily make it immune to fire as it still had windows and a wooden door. This led to the elevation of windows to the second storey – to make it harder to throw objects in – and to move the entrance from ground level to the second storey. These features are seen in many surviving castle keeps, which were the more sophisticated version of halls. Castles were not just defensive sites but also enhanced a lord's control over his lands. They allowed the garrison to control the surrounding area, and formed a centre of administration, providing the lord with a place to hold
2285:, they formed a minority of sites in England. Because of the range of functions they had to fulfil, castles were built in a variety of locations. Multiple factors were considered when choosing a site, balancing between the need for a defendable position with other considerations such as proximity to resources. For instance many castles are located near Roman roads, which remained important transport routes in the Middle Ages, or could lead to the alteration or creation of new road systems in the area. Where available it was common to exploit pre-existing defences such as building with a
1915:
764:
2462:
658:
1622:
49 lb) – to fire from towers. These guns were too heavy for a man to carry and fire, but if he supported the butt end and rested the muzzle on the edge of the gun port he could fire the weapon. The gun ports developed in this period show a unique feature, that of a horizontal timber across the opening. A hook on the end of the gun could be latched over the timber so the gunner did not have to take the full recoil of the weapon. This adaptation is found across Europe, and although the timber rarely survives, there is an intact example at
554:
1935:
919:
1811:
612:
462:
1667:
1546:
2591:
1495: – who had himself been on Crusade – built castles in Wales in the late 13th century, four of the eight he founded had a concentric design. Not all the features of the Crusader castles from the 13th century were emulated in Europe. For instance, it was common in Crusader castles to have the main gate in the side of a tower and for there to be two turns in the passageway, lengthening the time it took for someone to reach the outer enclosure. It is rare for this
1785:
2506:
870:: gaps and solid blocks on top of a wall. Hoardings were wooden constructs that projected beyond the wall, allowing defenders to shoot at, or drop objects on, attackers at the base of the wall without having to lean perilously over the crenellations, thereby exposing themselves to retaliatory fire. Machicolations were stone projections on top of a wall with openings that allowed objects to be dropped on an enemy at the base of the wall in a similar fashion to hoardings.
389:
9656:
8874:
955:
2346:
2486:
Garrisons were expensive and as a result often small unless the castle was important. Cost also meant that in peacetime garrisons were smaller, and small castles were manned by perhaps a couple of watchmen and gate-guards. Even in war, garrisons were not necessarily large as too many people in a defending force would strain supplies and impair the castle's ability to withstand a long siege. In 1403, a force of 37 archers successfully defended
9666:
2262:
2374:
1588:
2413:, also in England; although it appears to be a state of the art, advanced castle it is in a site of little strategic importance, and the moat was shallow and more likely intended to make the site appear impressive than as a defence against mining. The approach was long and took the viewer around the castle, ensuring they got a good look before entering. Moreover, the gunports were impractical and unlikely to have been effective.
714:
2534:, which probably evolved from the petraria in the 13th century, was the most effective siege weapon before the development of cannons. These weapons were vulnerable to fire from the castle as they had a short range and were large machines. Conversely, weapons such as trebuchets could be fired from within the castle due to the high trajectory of its projectile, and would be protected from direct fire by the curtain walls.
1603:
1279:
881:, also commonly called loopholes, were narrow vertical openings in defensive walls which allowed arrows or crossbow bolts to be fired on attackers. The narrow slits were intended to protect the defender by providing a very small target, but the size of the opening could also impede the defender if it was too small. A smaller horizontal opening could be added to give an archer a better view for aiming. Sometimes a
2048:
coal; 200 quarrymen; 30 smiths; and carpenters for putting in the joists and floor boards and other necessary jobs. All this takes no account of the garrison ... nor of purchases of material. Of which there will have to be a great quantity ... The men's pay has been and still is very much in arrears, and we are having the greatest difficulty in keeping them because they have simply nothing to live on.
428:
also a place where a knight or lord could entertain his peers. Over time the aesthetics of the design became more important, as the castle's appearance and size began to reflect the prestige and power of its occupant. Comfortable homes were often fashioned within their fortified walls. Although castles still provided protection from low levels of violence in later periods, eventually they were succeeded by
1642:. The benefits of large guns over trebuchets – the most effective siege engine of the Middle Ages before the advent of gunpowder – were those of a greater range and power. In an effort to make them more effective, guns were made ever bigger, although this hampered their ability to reach remote castles. By the 1450s guns were the preferred siege weapon, and their effectiveness was demonstrated by
1229:, and sometimes incorporated double windows similar to those found in church bell towers. Donjons, which were the residence of the lord of the castle, evolved to become more spacious. The design emphasis of donjons changed to reflect a shift from functional to decorative requirements, imposing a symbol of lordly power upon the landscape. This sometimes led to compromising defence for the sake of display.
2498:
Sieges could last weeks, months, and in rare cases years if the supplies of food and water were plentiful. A long siege could slow down the army, allowing help to come or for the enemy to prepare a larger force for later. Such an approach was not confined to castles, but was also applied to the fortified towns of the day. On occasion, siege castles would be built to defend the besiegers from a sudden
1749:, were defended towers that were permanent residences built in the 14th to 17th centuries. Especially common in Ireland and Scotland, they could be up to five storeys high and succeeded common enclosure castles and were built by a greater social range of people. While unlikely to provide as much protection as a more complex castle, they offered security against raiders and other small threats.
1574:. These were the men who built all the most typical twelfth-century fortified castles remaining today". Despite this, by the beginning of the 15th century, the rate of castle construction in England and Wales went into decline. The new castles were generally of a lighter build than earlier structures and presented few innovations, although strong sites were still created such as that of
162:
from enemies. Although their military origins are often emphasised in castle studies, the structures also served as centres of administration and symbols of power. Urban castles were used to control the local populace and important travel routes, and rural castles were often situated near features that were integral to life in the community, such as mills, fertile land, or a water source.
1877:(1911–1930) – the last flicker of this movement in the British Isles. While churches and cathedrals in a Gothic style could faithfully imitate medieval examples, new country houses built in a "castle style" differed internally from their medieval predecessors. This was because to be faithful to medieval design would have left the houses cold and dark by contemporary standards.
643:. The enceinte was the castle's main defensive enclosure, and the terms "bailey" and "enceinte" are linked. A castle could have several baileys but only one enceinte. Castles with no keep, which relied on their outer defences for protection, are sometimes called enceinte castles; these were the earliest form of castles, before the keep was introduced in the 10th century.
2253:
castle, either on behalf of her husband or if she was widowed. Because of their influence within the medieval household, women influenced construction and design, sometimes through direct patronage; historian
Charles Coulson emphasises the role of women in applying "a refined aristocratic taste" to castles due to their long term residence.
2579:, sometimes called a belfry. Once ditches around a castle were partially filled in, these wooden, movable towers could be pushed against the curtain wall. As well as offering some protection for those inside, a siege tower could overlook the interior of a castle, giving bowmen an advantageous position from which to unleash missiles.
2187:
those immediately below them on the social scale, but absentees could expect to find their influence weakened. Larger lordships could be vast, and it would be impractical for a lord to visit all his properties regularly, so deputies were appointed. This especially applied to royalty, who sometimes owned land in different countries.
1291:
were no longer square but polygonal or cylindrical. Gateways were more strongly defended, with the entrance to the castle usually between two half-round towers which were connected by a passage above the gateway – although there was great variety in the styles of gateway and entrances – and one or more portcullis.
2365:, 166 houses were destroyed to clear space for the castle, and in York agricultural land was flooded to create a moat for the castle. As the military importance of urban castles waned from their early origins, they became more important as centres of administration, and their financial and judicial roles. When the
1184:, pebbles in cement, where timber was in short supply. Although stone construction would later become common elsewhere, from the 11th century onwards it was the primary building material for Christian castles in Spain, while at the same time timber was still the dominant building material in north-west Europe.
2552:. A mine leading to the wall would be dug and once the target had been reached, the wooden supports preventing the tunnel from collapsing would be burned. It would cave in and bring down the structure above. Building a castle on a rock outcrop or surrounding it with a wide, deep moat helped prevent this. A
2337:
in the Holy Land, the 260 villages benefitted from the inhabitants' newfound ability to move freely. When built, a castle could result in the restructuring of the local landscape, with roads moved for the convenience of the lord. Settlements could also grow naturally around a castle, rather than
2136:
1629:
This form is very common in castles adapted for guns, found in Egypt, Italy, Scotland, and Spain, and elsewhere in between. Other types of port, though less common, were horizontal slits – allowing only lateral movement – and large square openings, which allowed greater movement. The use of
775:
The entrance was often the weakest part in a circuit of defences. To overcome this, the gatehouse was developed, allowing those inside the castle to control the flow of traffic. In earth and timber castles, the gateway was usually the first feature to be rebuilt in stone. The front of the gateway was
200:
was introduced to Europe in the 14th century, it did not significantly affect castle building until the 15th century, when artillery became powerful enough to break through stone walls. While castles continued to be built well into the 16th century, new techniques to deal with improved
2247:
The purpose of marriage between the medieval elites was to secure land. Girls were married in their teens, but boys did not marry until they came of age. There is a popular conception that women played a peripheral role in the medieval castle household, and that it was dominated by the lord himself.
2201:
As social centres castles were important places for display. Builders took the opportunity to draw on symbolism, through the use of motifs, to evoke a sense of chivalry that was aspired to in the Middle Ages amongst the elite. Later structures of the
Romantic revival would draw on elements of castle
2057:
Not only were stone castles expensive to build in the first place, but their maintenance was a constant drain. They contained a lot of timber, which was often unseasoned and as a result needed careful upkeep. For example, it is documented that in the late 12th century repairs at castles such as
1887:
were similar, although they differed from artificial ruins in that they were not part of a planned landscape, but rather seemed to have no reason for being built. Both drew on elements of castle architecture such as castellation and towers, but served no military purpose and were solely for display.
1657:
Often, castles constructed before the age of gunpowder were incapable of using guns as their wall-walks were too narrow. A solution to this was to pull down the top of a tower and to fill the lower part with the rubble to provide a surface for the guns to fire from. Lowering the defences in this way
1290:
These later castles did not always have a keep, but this may have been because the more complex design of the castle as a whole drove up costs and the keep was sacrificed to save money. The larger towers provided space for habitation to make up for the loss of the donjon. Where keeps did exist, they
565:
A motte was an earthen mound with a flat top. It was often artificial, although sometimes it incorporated a pre-existing feature of the landscape. The excavation of earth to make the mound left a ditch around the motte, called a moat (which could be either wet or dry). Although the motte is commonly
427:
Towards the end of the Middle Ages, castles tended to lose their military significance due to the advent of powerful cannons and permanent artillery fortifications; as a result, castles became more important as residences and statements of power. A castle could act as a stronghold and prison but was
2544:
were siege engines that worked on the same principles as crossbows. With their origins in
Ancient Greece, tension was used to project a bolt or javelin. Missiles fired from these engines had a lower trajectory than trebuchets or mangonels and were more accurate. They were more commonly used against
2525:
If forced to assault a castle, there were many options available to the attackers. For wooden structures, such as early motte-and-baileys, fire was a real threat and attempts would be made to set them alight as can be seen in the Bayeux
Tapestry. Projectile weapons had been used since antiquity and
2497:
If it was necessary to seize control of a castle an army could either launch an assault or lay siege. It was more efficient to starve the garrison out than to assault it, particularly for the most heavily defended sites. Without relief from an external source, the defenders would eventually submit.
2289:
or the ramparts of an Iron Age hillfort. A prominent site that overlooked the surrounding area and offered some natural defences may also have been chosen because its visibility made it a symbol of power. Urban castles were particularly important in controlling centres of population and production,
2108:
Many countries had both timber and stone castles, however
Denmark had few quarries and as a result most of its castles are earth and timber affairs, or later on built from brick. Brick-built structures were not necessarily weaker than their stone-built counterparts. Brick castles are less common in
2047:
In case you should wonder where so much money could go in a week, we would have you know that we have needed – and shall continue to need 400 masons, both cutters and layers, together with 2,000 less-skilled workmen, 100 carts, 60 wagons, and 30 boats bringing stone and sea
1533:
into
Western architecture. Until the 13th century, the tops of towers had been surrounded by wooden galleries, allowing defenders to drop objects on assailants below. Although machicolations performed the same purpose as the wooden galleries, they were probably an Eastern invention rather than
1487:
The concept, which originated in castles such as Krak des
Chevaliers, was to remove the reliance on a central strongpoint and to emphasise the defence of the curtain walls. There would be multiple rings of defensive walls, one inside the other, with the inner ring rising above the outer so that its
1270:
structures). The design of castles was not uniform, but these were features that could be found in a typical castle in the mid-12th century. By the end of the 12th century or the early 13th century, a newly constructed castle could be expected to be polygonal in shape, with towers at
1168:
Despite the common period in which castles rose to prominence in Europe, their form and design varied from region to region. In the early 11th century, the motte and keep – an artificial mound with a palisade and tower on top – was the most common form of castle in Europe, everywhere
1078:
led to the privatisation of government, and local lords assumed responsibility for the economy and justice. However, while castles proliferated in the 9th and 10th centuries the link between periods of insecurity and building fortifications is not always straightforward. Some high concentrations of
1053:
In the medieval period, castles were influenced by earlier forms of elite architecture, contributing to regional variations. Importantly, while castles had military aspects, they contained a recognisable household structure within their walls, reflecting the multi-functional use of these buildings.
681:
in Latin. In motte-and-bailey castles, the keep was on top of the motte. "Dungeon" is a corrupted form of "donjon" and means a dark, unwelcoming prison. Although often the strongest part of a castle and a last place of refuge if the outer defences fell, the keep was not left empty in case of attack
638:
From the late 12th century there was a trend for knights to move out of the small houses they had previously occupied within the bailey to live in fortified houses in the countryside. Although often associated with the motte-and-bailey type of castle, baileys could also be found as independent
161:
resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes. These nobles built castles to control the area immediately surrounding them and the castles were both offensive and defensive structures: they provided a base from which raids could be launched as well as offered protection
1621:
Artillery powered by gunpowder was introduced to Europe in the 1320s and spread quickly. Handguns, which were initially unpredictable and inaccurate weapons, were not recorded until the 1380s. Castles were adapted to allow small artillery pieces – averaging between 19.6 and 22 kg (43 and
1364:
argued that the case for the influence of
Eastern fortification on the West has been overstated, and that Crusaders of the 12th century in fact learned very little about scientific design from Byzantine and Saracen defences. A well-sited castle that made use of natural defences and had strong
1159:
investigation which has dated the construction of castle sites through the examination of ceramics. The increase in Italy began in the 950s, with numbers of castles increasing by a factor of three to five every 50 years, whereas in other parts of Europe such as France and Spain the growth was
1094:
A bank and ditch enclosure was a simple form of defence, and when found without an associated motte is called a ringwork; when the site was in use for a prolonged period, it was sometimes replaced by a more complex structure or enhanced by the addition of a stone curtain wall. Building the hall in
635:. Over time the focus of high status accommodation shifted from the keep to the bailey; this resulted in the creation of another bailey that separated the high status buildings – such as the lord's chambers and the chapel – from the everyday structures such as the workshops and barracks.
626:
A bailey, also called a ward, was a fortified enclosure. It was a common feature of castles, and most had at least one. The keep on top of the motte was the domicile of the lord in charge of the castle and a bastion of last defence, while the bailey was the home of the rest of the lord's household
357:
where, in return for military service and the expectation of loyalty, the lord would grant the vassal land. In the late 20th century, there was a trend to refine the definition of a castle by including the criterion of feudal ownership, thus tying castles to the medieval period; however, this
2493:
Early on, manning a castle was a feudal duty of vassals to their magnates, and magnates to their kings, however this was later replaced with paid forces. A garrison was usually commanded by a constable whose peacetime role would have been looking after the castle in the owner's absence. Under him
2186:
Due to the lord's presence in a castle, it was a centre of administration from where he controlled his lands. He relied on the support of those below him, as without the support of his more powerful tenants a lord could expect his power to be undermined. Successful lords regularly held court with
2117:
in
England was built between 1430 and 1450, there was plenty of stone available nearby, but the owner, Lord Cromwell, chose to use brick. About 700,000 bricks were used to build the castle, which has been described as "the finest piece of medieval brick-work in England". Most Spanish castles
1946:
Once the site of a castle had been selected – whether a strategic position or one intended to dominate the landscape as a mark of power – the building material had to be selected. An earth and timber castle was cheaper and easier to erect than one built from stone. The costs involved in
1825:
According to archaeologists Oliver
Creighton and Robert Higham, "the great country houses of the seventeenth to twentieth centuries were, in a social sense, the castles of their day". Though there was a trend for the elite to move from castles into country houses in the 17th century, castles
1082:
It is likely that the castle evolved from the practice of fortifying a lordly home. The greatest threat to a lord's home or hall was fire as it was usually a wooden structure. To protect against this, and keep other threats at bay, there were several courses of action available: create encircling
909:
The great hall was a large, decorated room where a lord received his guests. The hall represented the prestige, authority, and richness of the lord. Events such as feasts, banquets, social or ceremonial gatherings, meetings of the military council, and judicial trials were held in the great hall.
698:
in Latin) close to the keep, and the donjon was a barracks and headquarters. Gradually, the two functions merged into the same building, and the highest residential storeys had large windows; as a result for many structures, it is difficult to find an appropriate term. The massive internal spaces
504:
was a masculine expression of their power. In scholarship the castle, as defined above, is generally accepted as a coherent concept, originating in Europe and later spreading to parts of the Middle East, where they were introduced by European Crusaders. This coherent group shared a common origin,
2485:
As a static structure, castles could often be avoided. Their immediate area of influence was about 400 metres (1,300 ft) and their weapons had a short range even early in the age of artillery. However, leaving an enemy behind would allow them to interfere with communications and make raids.
2252:
of her husband's estates – usually about a third – which was hers for life, and her husband would inherit on her death. It was her duty to administer them directly, as the lord administered his own land. Despite generally being excluded from military service, a woman could be in charge of a
1740:
Although castle construction faded towards the end of the 16th century, castles did not necessarily all fall out of use. Some retained a role in local administration and became law courts, while others are still handed down in aristocratic families as hereditary seats. A particularly famous
1653:
The response towards more effective cannons was to build thicker walls and to prefer round towers, as the curving sides were more likely to deflect a shot than a flat surface. While this sufficed for new castles, pre-existing structures had to find a way to cope with being battered by cannon. An
2317:
ensured that a lord would get his due toll money from merchants. Rural castles were often associated with mills and field systems due to their role in managing the lord's estate, which gave them greater influence over resources. Others were adjacent to or in royal forests or deer parks and were
1537:
The greatest period of castle building in Spain was in the 11th to 13th centuries, and they were most commonly found in the disputed borders between Christian and Muslim lands. Conflict and interaction between the two groups led to an exchange of architectural ideas, and Spanish Christians
2198:; the castle kitchens would have been a busy place when the castle was occupied, called on to provide large meals. Without the presence of a lord's household, usually because he was staying elsewhere, a castle would have been a quiet place with few residents, focused on maintaining the castle.
1565:
Although France has been described as "the heartland of medieval architecture", the English were at the forefront of castle architecture in the 12th century. French historian François Gebelin wrote: "The great revival in military architecture was led, as one would naturally expect, by the
699:
seen in many surviving donjons can be misleading; they would have been divided into several rooms by light partitions, as in a modern office building. Even in some large castles the great hall was separated only by a partition from the lord's chamber, his bedroom and to some extent his office.
2360:
During and shortly after the Norman Conquest of England, castles were inserted into important pre-existing towns to control and subdue the populace. They were usually located near any existing town defences, such as Roman walls, although this sometimes resulted in the demolition of structures
1265:
At the same time there was a change in castle architecture. Until the late 12th century castles generally had few towers; a gateway with few defensive features such as arrowslits or a portcullis; a great keep or donjon, usually square and without arrowslits; and the shape would have been
1254:
earthwork sites, which meant it was preferable to build in more durable stone. Although superseded by their stone successors, timber and earthwork castles were by no means useless. This is evidenced by the continual maintenance of timber castles over long periods, sometimes several centuries;
2104:
was 16 metres (52 ft) high, 17.5 metres (57 ft) wide, and 10 metres (33 ft) long with walls averaging 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in). The walls contain 1,200 cubic metres (42,000 cu ft) of stone and have a total surface (both inside and out) of 1,600 square metres
1253:
Until the 12th century, stone-built and earth and timber castles were contemporary, but by the late 12th century the number of castles being built went into decline. This has been partly attributed to the higher cost of stone-built fortifications, and the obsolescence of timber and
508:
In different areas of the world, analogous structures shared features of fortification and other defining characteristics associated with the concept of a castle, though they originated in different periods and circumstances and experienced differing evolutions and influences. For example,
1164:
was home to 12 castles; by 1000, this figure had risen to 30, and by 1030 it was over 100. Although the increase was slower in Spain, the 1020s saw a particular growth in the number of castles in the region, particularly in contested border areas between Christian and Muslim lands.
784: – a wooden grille reinforced with metal to block a passage – and arrowslits to allow defenders to harry the enemy. The passage through the gatehouse was lengthened to increase the amount of time an assailant had to spend under fire in a confined space and unable to retaliate.
177:. Many new castles were polygonal or relied on concentric defence – several stages of defence within each other that could all function at the same time to maximise the castle's firepower. These changes in defence have been attributed to a mixture of castle technology from the
2419:
1133:
In some countries the monarch had little control over lords, or required the construction of new castles to aid in securing the land so was unconcerned about granting permission – as was the case in England in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest and the Holy Land during the
519:, underwent "a completely different developmental history, were built in a completely different way and were designed to withstand attacks of a completely different nature". While European castles built from the late 12th and early 13th century onwards were generally stone,
2824:
in the prior generation(s). And a 'pleasance' was built to resemble those remembered castles, even though to reduce expense, the walls were not adequate as fortifications, as-built; with the possible exception of those (if any) made by remodelling obsolete, formerly functional
1424:
While castles were used to hold a site and control movement of armies, in the Holy Land some key strategic positions were left unfortified. Castle architecture in the East became more complex around the late 12th and early 13th centuries after the stalemate of the
2401:. This signified a close relationship between feudal lords and the Church, one of the most important institutions of medieval society. Even elements of castle architecture that have usually been interpreted as military could be used for display. The water features of
2318:
important in their upkeep. Fish ponds were a luxury of the lordly elite, and many were found next to castles. Not only were they practical in that they ensured a water supply and fresh fish, but they were a status symbol as they were expensive to build and maintain.
1216:
pirates, and they were usually intended as coastal defences. The motte and bailey remained the dominant form of castle in England, Wales, and Ireland well into the 12th century. At the same time, castle architecture in mainland Europe became more sophisticated.
2207:"The castle, as a large and imposing architectural structure in the landscape, would have evoked emotions and attachments and created a legacy for those who built it, worked in it, and lived in and around it, as well as those who simply passed it on a daily basis."
2194:, while a treasurer took care of the estate's written records. Royal households took essentially the same form as baronial households, although on a much larger scale and the positions were more prestigious. An important role of the household servants was the
1658:
had the effect of making them easier to scale with ladders. A more popular alternative defence, which avoided damaging the castle, was to establish bulwarks beyond the castle's defences. These could be built from earth or stone and were used to mount weapons.
2388:, one of the northernmost castles in Europe. The exact date of construction of the castle is unclear, as far as it is known to have been built in the late 13th century, but the first mention of it in contemporary documents is from 1308. It was built close to
1578:
in Wales. At the same time, French castle architecture came to the fore and led the way in the field of medieval fortifications. Across Europe – particularly the Baltic, Germany, and Scotland – castles were built well into the 16th century.
732:
Curtain walls were defensive walls enclosing a bailey. They had to be high enough to make scaling the walls with ladders difficult and thick enough to withstand bombardment from siege engines which, from the 15th century onwards, included gunpowder
1138:. Switzerland is an extreme case of there being no state control over who built castles, and as a result there were 4,000 in the country. There are very few castles dated with certainty from the mid-9th century. Converted into a donjon around 950,
2494:
would have been knights who by benefit of their military training would have acted as a type of officer class. Below them were archers and bowmen, whose role was to prevent the enemy reaching the walls as can be seen by the positioning of arrowslits.
2235:
is one example of stories of courtly love told in the Middle Ages. It was an ideal of love between two people not married to each other, although the man might be married to someone else. It was not uncommon or ignoble for a lord to be adulterous –
1958:
The cost of building a castle varied according to factors such as their complexity and transport costs for material. It is certain that stone castles cost a great deal more than those built from earth and timber. Even a very small tower, such as
2248:
This derives from the image of the castle as a martial institution, but most castles in England, France, Ireland, and Scotland were never involved in conflicts or sieges, so the domestic life is a neglected facet. The lady was given a
1211:
shortly before the Norman Conquest in 1066. Before the 12th century castles were as uncommon in Denmark as they had been in England before the Norman Conquest. The introduction of castles to Denmark was a reaction to attacks from
802:, ditch, and possibly a tower, in front of the gatehouse which could be used to further protect the entrance. The purpose of a barbican was not just to provide another line of defence but also to dictate the only approach to the gate.
2338:
being planned, due to the benefits of proximity to an economic centre in a rural landscape and the safety given by the defences. Not all such settlements survived, as once the castle lost its importance – perhaps succeeded by a
1999:, but for lords of smaller areas, castle building was a very serious and costly undertaking. It was usual for a stone castle to take the best part of a decade to finish. The cost of a large castle built over this time (anywhere from
1729:, has been described as "the most medieval-looking fort built in Canada". The manor house and stables were within a fortified bailey, with a tall round turret in each corner. The "most substantial castle-like fort" near Montréal was
1154:
From 1000 onwards, references to castles in texts such as charters increased greatly. Historians have interpreted this as evidence of a sudden increase in the number of castles in Europe around this time; this has been supported by
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1224:
was at the centre of this change in castle architecture in the 12th century. Central towers proliferated, and typically had a square plan, with walls 3 to 4 m (9.8 to 13.1 ft) thick. Their decoration emulated
9950:
9920:
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1349:(1096–1099), rather than nearly 100 years later. Remains of Roman structures in Western Europe were still standing in many places, some of which had flanking round-towers and entrances between two flanking towers.
1302:. Probably developed in the 12th century, the towers provided flanking fire. They were connected to the castle by removable wooden bridges, so if the towers were captured the rest of the castle was not accessible.
1433:, the 13th-century ruler of the Saracens, created structures with large rectangular towers that influenced Muslim architecture and were copied again and again, however they had little influence on Crusader castles.
10206:
2369:
invaded Ireland, Scotland, and Wales in the 11th and 12th centuries, settlement in those countries was predominantly non-urban, and the foundation of towns was often linked with the creation of a castle.
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the garrison rather than the buildings of a castle. Eventually cannons developed to the point where they were more powerful and had a greater range than the trebuchet, and became the main weapon in siege warfare.
1169:
except Scandinavia. While Britain, France, and Italy shared a tradition of timber construction that was continued in castle architecture, Spain more commonly used stone or mud-brick as the main building material.
9631:
685:
At first, this was usual only in England, when after the Norman Conquest of 1066 the "conquerors lived for a long time in a constant state of alert"; elsewhere the lord's wife presided over a separate residence
1634:
in France. Defences against guns were not developed until a later stage. Ham is an example of the trend for new castles to dispense with earlier features such as machicolations, tall towers, and crenellations.
1488:
field of fire was not completely obscured. If assailants made it past the first line of defence they would be caught in the killing ground between the inner and outer walls and have to assault the second wall.
1345:, in France. If the innovations in fortification had derived from the East, it would have been expected for their influence to be seen from 1100 onwards, immediately after the Christians were victorious in the
9875:
1420:
which were square in plan and had square towers at each corner that did not project much beyond the curtain wall. The keep of these Crusader castles would have had a square plan and generally be undecorated.
10066:
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2800:. In particular, a 'pleasance' necessarily had extensive, elaborate gardens; these are sometimes called by the modern descriptive phrase "stately pleasure gardens". They were built in northern Europe after
9545:
2312:
As castles were not simply military buildings but centres of administration and symbols of power, they had a significant impact on the surrounding landscape. Placed by a frequently-used road or river, the
2396:
The location of castles in relation to high status features, such as fish ponds, was a statement of power and control of resources. Also often found near a castle, sometimes within its defences, was the
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in southern France have become the popular idea of where castles should be found because they are photogenic, where in reality castles were built in a variety of places due to a range of considerations.
9590:
1207:
Historians have interpreted the widespread presence of castles across Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries as evidence that warfare was common, and usually between local lords. Castles were
1024:
encountered fortified settlements such as hill forts and oppida when expanding their territory into northern Europe. Their defences were often effective, and were only overcome by the extensive use of
408:
Castles served a range of purposes, the most important of which were military, administrative, and domestic. As well as defensive structures, castles were also offensive tools which could be used as a
1733:, built in 1692 with square towers connected by thick stone walls, as well as a fortified windmill. Stone forts such as these served as defensive residences, as well as imposing structures to prevent
885:
was included; this could allow the garrison to leave the castle and engage besieging forces. It was usual for the latrines to empty down the external walls of a castle and into the surrounding ditch.
142:
and 19th- and 20th-century homes built to resemble castles. Over the Middle Ages, when genuine castles were built, they took on a great many forms with many different features, although some, such as
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The subject of the emergence of castles in Europe is a complex matter which has led to considerable debate. Discussions have typically attributed the rise of the castle to a reaction to attacks by
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A moat was a ditch surrounding a castle – or dividing one part of a castle from another – and could be either dry or filled with water. Its purpose often had a defensive purpose, preventing
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example of this is Windsor Castle in England which was founded in the 11th century and is home to the monarch of the United Kingdom. In other cases they still had a role in defence.
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1534:
an evolution of the wooden form. Machicolations were used in the East long before the arrival of the Crusaders, and perhaps as early as the first half of the 8th century in Syria.
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were also used, usually in the form of a tree trunk given an iron cap. They were used to force open the castle gates, although they were sometimes used against walls with less effect.
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especially with an invading force, for instance in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century the majority of royal castles were built in or near towns.
1341:
originated in the East. In the mid-20th century this view was cast into doubt. Legends were discredited, and in the case of James of Saint George it was proven that he came from
1083:
earthworks to keep an enemy at a distance; build the hall in stone; or raise it up on an artificial mound, known as a motte, to present an obstacle to attackers. While the concept of
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Historian Charles Coulson states that the accumulation of wealth and resources, such as food, led to the need for defensive structures. The earliest fortifications originated in the
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to prevent them from being used again. Some country residences, which were not meant to be fortified, were given a castle appearance to scare away potential invaders such as adding
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A keep was a great tower or other building that served as the main living quarters of the castle and usually the most strongly defended point of a castle before the introduction of
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towards the end of the 17th century. In Montreal the artillery was not as developed as on the battle-fields of Europe, some of the region's outlying forts were built like the
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2092:. When building in stone a prominent concern of medieval builders was to have quarries close at hand. There are examples of some castles where stone was quarried on site, such as
1686:
was developed in Italy. With developments such as these, Italy pioneered permanent artillery fortifications, which took over from the defensive role of castles. From this evolved
2190:
To allow the lord to concentrate on his duties regarding administration, he had a household of servants to take care of chores such as providing food. The household was run by a
2109:
England than stone or earth and timber constructions, and often it was chosen for its aesthetic appeal or because it was fashionable, encouraged by the brick architecture of the
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without his permission and ordered them all to be destroyed. This is perhaps the earliest reference to castles, though military historian R. Allen Brown points out that the word
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1713:, "these castles were essentially European medieval castles transposed to America". Among other defensive structures (including forts and citadels), castles were also built in
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could be dug towards the besiegers' tunnel; assuming the two converged, this would result in underground hand-to-hand combat. Mining was so effective that during the siege of
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741:, curtain walls were sometimes given a stone skirt around their bases. Walkways along the tops of the curtain walls allowed defenders to rain missiles on enemies below, and
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fire for the walls. The towers would have protruded from the walls and featured arrowslits on each level to allow archers to target anyone nearing or at the curtain wall.
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armies encountered walled settlements and forts that they indiscriminately referred to as castles, but which would not be considered as such under the modern definition.
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1416:. The castles they founded to secure their acquisitions were designed mostly by Syrian master-masons. Their design was very similar to that of a Roman fort or Byzantine
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in Wales covers over 30 acres (12 ha) and the water defences, created by flooding the valley to the south of the castle, are some of the largest in Western Europe.
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or country houses that were indefensible. From the 18th century onwards, there was a renewed interest in castles with the construction of mock castles, part of a
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evolved from their original purpose of defence into symbols of power. Some grand castles had long winding approaches intended to impress and dominate their landscape.
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In its simplest terms, the definition of a castle accepted amongst academics is "a private fortified residence". This contrasts with earlier fortifications, such as
173:. In the late 12th and early 13th centuries, a scientific approach to castle defence emerged. This led to the proliferation of towers, with an emphasis on
1883:, built to resemble remnants of historic edifices, were also a hallmark of the period. They were usually built as centre pieces in aristocratic planned landscapes.
1337:
who reputedly went to Wales after the Crusades and greatly enhanced the castles in the south of the country – and it was assumed that great architects such as
749:
fire along the wall. Arrowslits in the walls did not become common in Europe until the 13th century, for fear that they might compromise the wall's strength.
1709:. The first stage of Spanish fort construction has been termed the "castle period", which lasted from 1492 until the end of the 16th century. Starting with
2409:
entrance to take a very indirect route, walking around the defences before the final approach towards the gateway. Another example is that of the 14th-century
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in Italy, was developed around 1500. First used in Italy, it allowed the evolution of artillery forts that eventually took over the military role of castles.
526:
By the 16th century, when Japanese and European cultures met, fortification in Europe had moved beyond castles and relied on innovations such as the Italian
1484:. Design varied not just between orders, but between individual castles, though it was common for those founded in this period to have concentric defences.
780:. The gatehouse contained a series of defences to make a direct assault more difficult than battering down a simple gate. Typically, there were one or more
665:
near Paris towers above the castle's curtain wall. The wall exhibits features common to castle architecture: a gatehouse, corner towers, and machicolations.
627:
and gave them protection. The barracks for the garrison, stables, workshops, and storage facilities were often found in the bailey. Water was supplied by a
737:. A typical wall could be 3 m (10 ft) thick and 12 m (39 ft) tall, although sizes varied greatly between castles. To protect them from
500:
in their name while having few if any of the architectural characteristics, usually as their owners liked to maintain a link to the past and felt the term
6226:
4867:
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Fernández-Götz, Manuel (December 2019). "A World of 200 Oppida: Pre-Roman Urbanism in Temperate Europe Oppida". In de Ligt, Luuk; Bintliff, John (eds.).
1626:
in the Netherlands. Gunports were keyhole shaped, with a circular hole at the bottom for the weapon and a narrow slit on top to allow the gunner to aim.
138:
and are not primarily fortresses but may be fortified. Use of the term has varied over time and, sometimes, has also been applied to structures such as
3600:
2872:
6202:
2820:" – a reminder to those viewing it from the outside of the superior power and status of the resident nobility which had been dispatched from castle
416:
advanced through England, he fortified key positions to secure the land he had taken. Between 1066 and 1087, he established 36 castles such as
573:"Motte" refers to the mound alone, but it was often surmounted by a fortified structure, such as a keep, and the flat top would be surrounded by a
412:
in enemy territory. Castles were established by Norman invaders of England for both defensive purposes and to pacify the country's inhabitants. As
2575:
behind the battlements. In this instance, attackers would be vulnerable to arrow fire. A safer option for those assaulting a castle was to use a
2105:(17,000 sq ft). The tower is estimated to have taken 83,000 average working days to complete, most of which was unskilled labour.
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831:
from reaching walls making mining harder, but could also be ornamental. Water moats were found in low-lying areas and were usually crossed by a
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1241:
201:
cannon fire made them uncomfortable and undesirable places to live. As a result, true castles went into decline and were replaced by artillery
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or villages were created around a castle. The benefits of castle building on settlements was not confined to Europe. When the 13th-century
1208:
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Castellarium Anglicanum: An tndex and bibliography of the castles in England, Wales and the Islands: Volume I · Anglesey–Montgomery
5451:. Hämeen linna [Häme Castle]. Museot ja linnat (Museums and Castles) (Report) (in Finnish). Tervetuloa Suomen kansallismuseoon (
4908:
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was the eroticisation of love between the nobility. Emphasis was placed on restraint between lovers. Though sometimes expressed through
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a blind spot and to overcome this, projecting towers were added on each side of the gate in a style similar to that developed by the
5456:
1325:
found their answer in the Crusades. It seemed that the Crusaders had learned much about fortification from their conflicts with the
10801:
6981:
1042:) varied from simple temporary earthworks thrown up by armies on the move, to elaborate permanent stone constructions, notably the
673:. "Keep" was not a term used in the medieval period – the term was applied from the 16th century onwards – instead "
2530:
and petraria – from Eastern and Roman origins respectively – were the main two that were used into the Middle Ages. The
589:. Sometimes a motte covered an older castle or hall, whose rooms became underground storage areas and prisons beneath a new keep.
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9570:
1392:, where they discovered an extensive network of sophisticated fortifications which had a profound impact on the architecture of
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5809:(1991). "The Cost of Castle Building: The case of the tower at Langeais, 992–994". In Reyerson, Kathryn L.; Powe, Faye (eds.).
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2231:, where knights would fight wearing a token from their lady, it could also be private and conducted in secret. The legend of
1352:
The castle builders of Western Europe were aware of and influenced by Roman design; late Roman coastal forts on the English "
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2011:, severely impacting a lord's finances. Costs in the late 13th century were of a similar order, with castles such as
1118:
Building a castle sometimes required the permission of the king or other high authority. In 864 the King of West Francia,
169:. Early castles often exploited natural defences, lacking features such as towers and arrowslits and relying on a central
8678:
8373:
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against two assaults by Owain Glyndŵr's allies during a long siege, demonstrating that a small force could be effective.
2437:, England, which has been managed since the 13th century. The castle overlooks artificial lakes and ponds within a
2342:
as the centre of administration – the benefits of living next to a castle vanished and the settlement depopulated.
2325:
in England, it was more common for the villages nearby to have grown as a result of the presence of a castle. Sometimes
1518:
in the Baltic was the introduction of stone and brick fortifications. Although there were hundreds of wooden castles in
1452:
is a concentric castle built with both rectangular and rounded towers. It is one of the best-preserved Crusader castles.
9252:
9101:
9096:
6008:
2850:(recorded television program). Time Team. Tregruk settlement, Llangybi village, town of Pontypool, Monmouth shire, UK:
4293:
Edwards, Robert W., "Settlements and Toponymy in Armenian Cilicia", Revue des Études Arméniennes 24, 1993, pp.181-204.
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111:
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1020:. Some oppida walls were built on a massive scale, utilising stone, wood, iron and earth in their construction. The
728:, with curtain walls between the lower outer towers, and higher inner curtain walls between the higher inner towers.
165:
Many northern European castles were originally built from earth and timber but had their defences replaced later by
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2114:
1139:
1342:
1305:
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was still in use by the start of the 15th century, its structure having been maintained for four centuries.
248:, exemplifies all uses of a castle including city defence, a residence, and a place of refuge in times of crisis.
1888:
A toy castle is used as a common children attraction in playing fields and fun parks, such as the castle of the
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17:
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2308:: inaccessibility of location with only a narrow bridge traversing deep canyon provides excellent protection.
1469:
768:
237:
1638:
Bigger guns were developed, and in the 15th century became an alternative to siege engines such as the
850:
were most often found surmounting curtain walls and the tops of gatehouses, and comprised several elements:
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516:
143:
1429:(1189–1192). Both Christians and Muslims created fortifications, and the character of each was different.
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9141:
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8263:
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emerged in the 2nd century BC; these were densely inhabited fortified settlements, such as the
213:
3775:
2170:
1566:
powerful kings and princes of the time; by the sons of William the Conqueror and their descendants, the
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1930:
mark the position of the scaffolding in earlier stages of construction. The tower was blown up in 1917.
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A peculiar feature of Muslim castles in the Iberian Peninsula was the use of detached towers, called
44:
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1955:
20. The high cost, relative to other castles of its type, was because labourers had to be imported.
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in England – comprising a moat and several satellite ponds – forced anyone approaching a
1457:
1393:
1369:. Although there were no scientific elements to its design, it was almost impregnable, and in 1187
1334:
1002:
910:
Sometimes the great hall existed as a separate building, in that case, it was called a hall-house.
577:. It was common for the motte to be reached over a flying bridge (a bridge over the ditch from the
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6028:
Castles in Medieval Society: Fortresses in England, France, and Ireland in the Central Middle Ages
3420:
1919:
1654:
earthen bank could be piled behind a castle's curtain wall to absorb some of the shock of impact.
557:
The wooden palisades on top of mottes were often later replaced with stone, as in this example at
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built to resemble a militarily-functional castle, so that it could serve as what one could call "
2273:
The positioning of castles was influenced by the available terrain. Whereas hill castles such as
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1948:
1401:
1226:
1088:
799:
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lords, either for themselves or for their monarch. Feudalism was the link between a lord and his
157:
European-style castles originated in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the
31:
3748:
2321:
Although sometimes the construction of a castle led to the destruction of a village, such as at
682:
but was used as a residence by the lord who owned the castle, or his guests or representatives.
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A History of the County of Warwick: Volume 8 · The City of Coventry and Borough of Warwick
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castle, this was not always the case and there are instances where a motte existed on its own.
229:
189:. Not all the elements of castle architecture were military in nature, so that devices such as
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were built from stone, whereas castles in Eastern Europe were usually of timber construction.
2101:
1102:
1091:, and stone walls as defensive measures is ancient, raising a motte is a medieval innovation.
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in the Middle East; castles were not communal defences but were built and owned by the local
174:
5834:
Barthélemy, Dominique (1988). "Civilizing the fortress: Eleventh to fourteenth century". In
3640:(in Serbo-Croatian). Sarajevo: Međunarodni centar za mir, Institut za istoriju. p. 27.
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2150:, Poland, is an example of medieval fortresses and built in the typical style of northern
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chose to lay siege to the castle and starve out its garrison rather than risk an assault.
897:
is a secondary door or gate in a concealed location, usually in a fortification such as a
763:
558:
8:
10621:
9610:
9281:
8632:
8368:
7724:
7102:
6787:
5448:
2089:
2077:
2028:
1905:
1814:
1492:
1473:
1461:
1445:
1377:
1299:
1017:
820:
234:
2518:
2514:
2097:
1984:
1923:
1111:
1050:. Roman forts were generally rectangular with rounded corners – a "playing-card shape".
586:
465:
10583:
10465:
8754:
8363:
8338:
8323:
8318:
8168:
8148:
7945:
7506:
7373:
7117:
6642:
6581:
6535:
5884:
5843:
2742:
2596:
2438:
2349:
2297:
2237:
2232:
1862:
1788:
1726:
1623:
1075:
855:
158:
3408:
1939:
1365:
ditches and walls had no need for a scientific design. An example of this approach is
1110:
contains one of the earliest representations of a castle. It depicts attackers of the
1079:
castles occur in secure places, while some border regions had relatively few castles.
816:
369:
10745:
10692:
9665:
8810:
8769:
8744:
8617:
8298:
8138:
7985:
7571:
7449:
7127:
7070:
6931:
6910:
6889:
6868:
6864:
6854:
6837:
6816:
6795:
6764:
6743:
6722:
6686:
6665:
6646:
6585:
6560:
6521:
6500:
6479:
6458:
6426:
6387:
6366:
6345:
6320:
6310:
6297:
6286:
6261:
6257:
6236:
6170:
6149:
6141:
6125:
6104:
6083:
6052:
6031:
5983:
5962:
5958:
5937:
5916:
5895:
5851:
5818:
5790:
5765:
5744:
4898:
4772:
4274:
4273:. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University. pp. 3–282.
3781:
3754:
3590:
3412:
2712:
2697:
2625:
2487:
2402:
2063:
1889:
1827:
1765:
1550:
1510:(built in the 1280s) in North Wales was influenced by his experience of the Crusades.
1413:
1283:
1047:
938:
836:
738:
358:
does not necessarily reflect the terminology used in the medieval period. During the
182:
4427:"Defending a Mediterranean island outpost of the Spanish Empire – the case of Malta"
1934:
1631:
1598:(built between 1446 and 1480) was one of the biggest in Eastern Europe at that time.
835:, although these were often replaced by stone bridges. The site of the 13th-century
447:, and as a result has been misapplied in the technical sense. An example of this is
10844:
10834:
10651:
10573:
10501:
9680:
8784:
8759:
8688:
8612:
8213:
8208:
8143:
7694:
7498:
7077:
6634:
6341:
6302:. Hart, H. Eaton (translator) (English ed.). Presses Universitaires de France.
6016:
6012:
5806:
2793:
2752:
2456:
2081:
2012:
1880:
1675:
1515:
1405:
1317:, England, was built in the 1220s, and has an entrance between two D-shaped towers.
1119:
1063:
1033:
978:
717:
567:
548:
510:
421:
282:
1810:
1255:
958:
918:
10765:
10521:
10485:
10475:
8673:
8525:
8498:
8438:
8408:
8293:
8258:
8238:
8223:
7778:
7773:
7741:
7502:
7444:
7432:
7414:
7281:
7262:
7188:
7165:
6403:
6316:
5999:
Coulson, Charles (1979). "Structural symbolism in Medieval castle architecture".
5891:
3663:
3635:
2762:
2640:
2630:
2572:
2071:
2067:
2036:
2032:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2004:
2000:
1992:
1988:
1980:
1972:
1964:
1952:
1777:
1730:
1710:
1465:
1397:
1385:
1295:
1246:
1107:
986:
616:
582:
245:
119:
1376:
During the late 11th and 12th centuries in what is now south-central Turkey the
1357:
611:
461:
10712:
10641:
10470:
10445:
8842:
8837:
8503:
8488:
8423:
8413:
8288:
8273:
8173:
8163:
8128:
8002:
7795:
7492:
7459:
7423:
7239:
7097:
7061:
2809:
2747:
2650:
2470:
2282:
2147:
1983:
7,000 between 1181 and 1191. Spending on the scale of the vast castles such as
1960:
1722:
1606:
1545:
1507:
1502:
1381:
1310:
985:, Europe, Egypt, and China where settlements were protected by large walls. In
417:
373:
342:
338:
2845:
2560:
in 1285 when the garrison were informed a sap was being dug they surrendered.
2381:
2377:
2084:, became indispensable during construction, and techniques of building wooden
745:
gave them further protection. Curtain walls were studded with towers to allow
657:
10828:
10775:
10677:
10631:
10611:
10435:
9659:
8847:
8800:
8708:
8698:
8652:
8622:
8607:
8576:
8557:
8418:
8358:
8313:
8228:
8187:
7997:
7630:
7625:
7358:
7321:
7306:
7257:
7202:
7181:
6990:
6165:
Ekdahl, Sven (2006). "Castles: The Baltic Region". In Murray, Alan V. (ed.).
5840:
A History of Private Life: Volume II · Revelations of the Medieval World
3416:
2792:
A 'pleasance' is a style of walled-in royal or noble residence, used by some
2645:
2561:
2466:
2410:
2398:
2195:
2165:
2110:
2059:
1968:
1870:
1839:
1591:
1575:
1530:
1496:
1441:
1426:
1346:
1096:
966:
859:
444:
429:
359:
99:
77:
9961:
8889:
6638:
3774:
Ralston, Ian (1995). "Fortifications and defence". In Green, Miranda (ed.).
2126:, written in the early 1260s, describes the construction of a new castle at
2100:
and Château Gaillard. When it was built in 992 in France the stone tower at
1321:
When seeking to explain this change in the complexity and style of castles,
10707:
10661:
10595:
10411:
8825:
8683:
8647:
8602:
8586:
8514:
8467:
8443:
8433:
8428:
8243:
8060:
7921:
7888:
7753:
7689:
7664:
7576:
7550:
7518:
7512:
7454:
7393:
7363:
7211:
5835:
4872:
2677:
2662:
2590:
2553:
2430:
2406:
2244:
for instance – but for a lady to be promiscuous was seen as dishonourable.
2220:
2151:
2130:. It is "one of the fullest" medieval accounts of a castle's construction.
1976:
1909:
1874:
1702:
1595:
1177:
1025:
1021:
777:
606:
602:
578:
409:
381:
331:
166:
70:
9273:
2277:
were common in Germany, where 66 per cent of all known medieval were
1914:
1784:
1542:, driving the Muslims out of the Iberian Peninsula, was complete in 1492.
1360:
imitated Roman architecture when it was built in 1091. Historian Smail in
10616:
10551:
9669:
8724:
8581:
8550:
8532:
8520:
8462:
8457:
8398:
8393:
8353:
8253:
8218:
8114:
8017:
7788:
7758:
7748:
7654:
7543:
7160:
7107:
2767:
2727:
2672:
2667:
2635:
2620:
2576:
2339:
2326:
2322:
2314:
2278:
2154:. On its completion in 1406 it was the largest brick castle in the world.
2085:
2008:
1927:
1850:
1792:
1742:
1718:
1614:
1567:
1539:
1353:
1322:
1267:
1156:
982:
828:
788:
725:
481:
275:
210:
103:
81:
7351:
6907:
The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: A social and political history
2502:
and would have been abandoned after the siege ended one way or another.
2461:
1757:
388:
10770:
10697:
10526:
10511:
8749:
8569:
8541:
8472:
8348:
8303:
8233:
8153:
8050:
7955:
7895:
7854:
7832:
7783:
7729:
7679:
7674:
7659:
7618:
7566:
7524:
7469:
7311:
7227:
6738:
Vann, Theresa M. (2006). "Castles – Iberia". In Murray, Alan V. (ed.).
6601:
Stephens, W.B., ed. (1969). "The castle and castle estate in Warwick".
6444:
Castles and Fortified Cities of Medieval Europe: An Illustrated History
2702:
2692:
2656:
2389:
2286:
1746:
1714:
1706:
1491:
Concentric castles were widely copied across Europe, for instance when
1187:
1043:
994:
990:
970:
954:
934:
882:
851:
847:
832:
781:
742:
628:
265:
151:
8729:
7274:
4339:
3709:
Fortifications of Malta#Ancient and Medieval fortifications (pre-1530)
2607:
2567:
As an alternative to the time-consuming task of creating a breach, an
2345:
1893:
1456:
In the early 13th century, Crusader castles were mostly built by
486:
294:
206:
10754:
10750:
10717:
10702:
10682:
10578:
10531:
10440:
8158:
8089:
7916:
7911:
7844:
7485:
7398:
7328:
7286:
7112:
7082:
7043:
7009:
5466:– via Kansallismuseo (National Museum) (www.kansallismuseo.fi).
5101:
4868:"Playmobil's theme park in Malta has captured children's imagination"
2880:
2851:
2801:
2687:
2614:
2541:
2531:
2510:
2301:
2274:
2261:
2043:, responsible for the construction of Beaumaris, explained the cost:
1996:
1831:
1687:
1643:
1639:
930:
898:
878:
863:
758:
734:
531:
455:
393:
202:
197:
147:
139:
4426:
4271:
The Fortifications of Armenian Cilicia: Dumbarton Oaks Studies XXIII
3702:
3589:. St. Cloud, Minn: North Star Press of St. Cloud. 1991. p. 17.
2373:
1587:
1333:. There were legends such as that of Lalys – an architect from
1176:
in the 8th century introduced a style of building developed in
670:
553:
10687:
8642:
8637:
8562:
8403:
8121:
8096:
8079:
8009:
7950:
7878:
7871:
7714:
7602:
7476:
7296:
7291:
7267:
7195:
7175:
7155:
7122:
6553:
Courtly Love, the Love of Courtliness, and the History of Sexuality
2821:
2568:
2537:
2527:
2474:
2353:
2224:
1854:
1734:
1698:
1571:
1430:
1314:
1272:
1266:
dictated by the lay of the land (the result was often irregular or
1259:
1161:
1135:
1009:
998:
795:
746:
721:
713:
640:
598:
581:
of the ditch to the edge of the top of the mound), as shown in the
574:
505:
dealt with a particular mode of warfare, and exchanged influences.
452:
178:
107:
30:
This article is about medieval fortifications. For other uses, see
10807:
Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association
1830:(1641–1651), many castles were refortified, although subsequently
1602:
1472:. The orders were responsible for the foundation of sites such as
1232:
866:. Crenellation is the collective name for alternating crenels and
10541:
10450:
8774:
8739:
8734:
8072:
8055:
8040:
8024:
7976:
7904:
7849:
7839:
7807:
7709:
7684:
7669:
7439:
7383:
7301:
7148:
7141:
7087:
6959:
2883:. 10 October 2010. season 17, episode 8. Archived from
2707:
2549:
2469:
showing contemporary warfare, including the use of castles (here
2385:
2366:
2334:
1843:
1818:
1683:
1671:
1630:
guns for defence gave rise to artillery castles, such as that of
1610:
1523:
1519:
1370:
1326:
1278:
1196:
1071:
1067:
1013:
942:
922:
894:
632:
620:
492:
346:
270:
123:
6710:] (in German). Vol. 1. Stuttgart, DE: Anton Hiersemann.
6455:
Castles in Context: Power, symbolism and landscape, 1066 to 1500
5886:
The Regions of Germany: A reference guide to history and culture
2571:
could be attempted to capture the walls with fighting along the
1838:
and using small windows. An example of this is the 16th century
523:
were predominantly timber buildings into the 16th century.
322:
to denote this type of building, which was then new to England.
10760:
10626:
10561:
10536:
10425:
10380:
8779:
8133:
7699:
7637:
7581:
7559:
7536:
7529:
7405:
7220:
7052:
7034:
7004:
6146:
Siege Warfare: The fortress in the early modern world 1494–1660
5105:
4345:
3378:(1). Rivista tal-Għaqda Maltija tal-Folklor: 19. Archived from
2805:
2757:
2557:
2478:
2305:
1849:
Revival or mock castles became popular as a manifestation of a
1477:
1221:
1200:
1143:
1038:
867:
674:
469:
397:
363:
354:
350:
186:
127:
59:
6625:
Taylor, Christopher (2000). "Medieval Ornamental Landscapes".
6235:("New Horizons") series. London, UK: Thames & Hudson Ltd.
639:
defensive structures. These simple fortifications were called
10722:
10590:
10546:
10506:
8820:
8764:
8508:
8033:
7864:
7704:
7025:
4859:
3627:
2452:
2330:
2249:
2127:
1884:
1826:
were not completely useless. In later conflicts, such as the
1558:
1449:
1366:
1213:
1029:
962:
929:, built around a prehistoric central fortified settlement or
401:
257:
131:
55:
2505:
1666:
310:, and a number of words in other languages also derive from
7802:
7644:
7611:
7586:
7378:
7368:
7337:
7316:
3750:
Regional Urban Systems in the Roman World, 150 BCE – 250 CE
2717:
2434:
1554:
811:
652:
334:
241:
190:
170:
85:
10792:
International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers
5934:
The Castle in England and Wales: An interpretative history
5781:
Aurell, Martin (2006). "Society". In Power, Daniel (ed.).
380:
and was one of the principal official residences of Queen
4493:
4491:
4252:
4250:
1661:
1012:
to accompany the ditches. In central and western Europe,
6423:
Castles and Residential Towers of the German Middle Ages
5867:
Burton, Peter (2007–2008). "Islamic Castles in Iberia".
5785:. The Central Middle Ages: Europe 950–1320. Oxford, UK:
4797:(in Spanish), Museo Nacional de Historia, archived from
4760:
5441:
5094:
5082:
3505:
1356:" were reused and in Spain the wall around the city of
1114:
in France using fire, a major threat to wooden castles.
443:
is sometimes used as a catch-all term for all kinds of
4488:
4247:
4237:
4235:
3493:
2178:
set against an agricultural scene, as depicted in the
1995:
20,000 between 1196 and 1198) was easily supported by
1008:
Many earthworks survive today, along with evidence of
771:, France. It connects the upper ward to the lower one.
4532:
4530:
3615:
1074:
and a need for private defence. The breakdown of the
376:
in England was founded as a fortification during the
9710:
6813:
Behind the Castle Gate: From Medieval to Renaissance
6384:
Behind the Castle Gate: From Medieval to Renaissance
4369:
4367:
4365:
3730:
3728:
2586:
1971:, which was built in the late 12th century for
1926:
in France, with scaffolding and masons at work. The
6221:
6070:Early European Castles: Aristocracy and authority,
5977:
5016:
5004:
4647:
4635:
4232:
3307:
3305:
1861:in architecture. Examples of these castles include
1745:, which are closely related to castles and include
1130:may have applied to any fortification at the time.
1057:
6740:The Crusades: An encyclopedia: Volume I · A–C
6167:The Crusades: An Encyclopedia: Volume I · A–C
5883:
4527:
3693:Zammit, Vincent (1984). "Maltese Fortifications".
3664:"The natural and architectural ensemble of Stolac"
2838:
2356:, which stands on a small islet in the Tejo River.
420:, which he used to guard against rebellion in the
27:Fortified residential structure of medieval Europe
6683:The Culture of Castles in Tudor England and Wales
6001:Journal of the British Archaeological Association
4928:
4926:
4771:. Vol. 2. Klabb Kotba Maltin. p. 1028.
4362:
4210:
4208:
4195:
4193:
3725:
1846:, Malta, which was modified in the 18th century.
933:(existed there cca. 17/16th c. to the end of the
185:, and inspiration from earlier defences, such as
10826:
5915:. London, UK: Kraus International Publications.
3302:
2812:military castles. In general, a 'pleasance' was
2039:95,000 between 1277 and 1329. Renowned designer
1752:
1538:adopted the use of detached towers. The Spanish
7231:
6478:. London, UK: English Heritage B.T. Batsford.
6419:Burgen und Wohntürme des deutschen Mittelalters
6098:
5559:
5557:
5435:
5423:
5351:
5296:
5294:
4884:
4742:
4706:
4096:
4094:
3365:"Il-Muxrabija, wirt l-Iżlam fil-Gżejjer Maltin"
3057:
2904:
2854:. 2013-03-11 . season 17, episode 8.
1975:1,400, and at the upper end were those such as
1233:Innovation and scientific design (12th century)
997:, which then proliferated across Europe in the
458:which had a very different origin and purpose.
318:was introduced into English shortly before the
7793:
7739:
7557:
7403:
5347:
5345:
4923:
4205:
4190:
3746:
3005:
3003:
10396:
9991:
9977:
9696:
9289:
8919:
8905:
8448:
8178:
8007:
7983:
7600:
7591:
7548:
7272:
7068:
7059:
6975:
6930:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
6909:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
6836:. Leicester, UK: Leicester University Press.
6618:– via Institute of Historical Research.
6425:] (in German). Stuttgart, DE: Thorbecke.
6276:
5931:
5910:
5722:
5647:
5575:
5548:
5476:
5052:
4608:
4536:
4509:
4497:
4482:
4470:
4458:
4412:
4373:
4326:
4314:
4302:
4256:
4241:
4199:
4184:
4148:
4085:
4073:
3947:
3920:
3896:
3860:
3656:
3311:
3248:
3236:
3137:
3033:
2919:
2031:'s campaign of castle-building in Wales cost
1529:The Crusades also led to the introduction of
1298:, around the perimeter as can be seen at the
396:built in the 9th century on the banks of the
8567:
8548:
8539:
8530:
8119:
8094:
8070:
8031:
8022:
7974:
7960:
7931:
7902:
7893:
7869:
7830:
7635:
7616:
7534:
7483:
7474:
7430:
7421:
7412:
7349:
7335:
7326:
7209:
7186:
6410:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
6360:
5978:Chartrand, René; Spedaliere, Donato (2006).
5955:French Fortresses in North America 1535–1763
5554:
5291:
5255:
5076:
5040:
4384:
4382:
4091:
4013:
4001:
3997:
3995:
3982:
3980:
3121:
3119:
3117:
3092:
3090:
2930:
2928:
1821:, Malta, designed with castle-like features.
515:in Japan, described as castles by historian
122:of a lord or noble. This is distinct from a
58:, is one of the most distinctive castles in
9303:
7218:
7200:
7146:
7132:
7050:
7041:
7032:
7023:
7014:
5866:
5762:The Architecture of Castles: A Visual Guide
5759:
5738:
5710:
5683:
5659:
5635:
5587:
5342:
4766:
4341:Crac des Chevaliers and Qal'at Salah El-Din
4226:
4214:
4136:
4124:
4025:
3959:
3932:
3908:
3872:
3824:
3483:
3481:
3472:
3436:
3081:
3000:
2256:
2007:10,000) would take the income from several
1938:Experimental archeology castle building at
1142:in France is the oldest standing castle in
325:
84:, England, is surrounded by a water-filled
50:Dating back to the early 12th century, the
10403:
10389:
9984:
9970:
9703:
9689:
9296:
9282:
8912:
8898:
6982:
6968:
6949:The Idea of the Castle in Medieval England
6856:Chateaux-forts et fortifications en France
6704:Lexikon der Deutschen Burgen und Schlösser
6540:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
6457:. Macclesfield, UK: Windgather Press Ltd.
6148:. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
6122:Prehistoric Europe: An illustrated history
6099:Creighton, Oliver; Higham, Robert (2003).
5833:
5605:
3943:
3941:
3284:
3272:
3260:
3212:
3176:
3149:
2123:On the Construction of the Castle of Safed
1922:of the construction of the large tower at
1682:Around 1500, the innovation of the angled
1005:rather than stone as a building material.
205:with no role in civil administration, and
6228:The Cathedral Builders of the Middle Ages
6067:
6046:
5952:
5706:
5704:
5536:
5512:
5500:
5488:
5411:
5399:
5375:
5363:
5336:
5324:
5300:
5102:"Castle of the Teutonic Order in Malbork"
5010:
4890:
4694:
4682:
4670:
4659:
4379:
3992:
3977:
3848:
3812:
3395:
3362:
3114:
3087:
2925:
2429:Movable panorama of the landscape around
1436:
134:, whose main purpose was exclusively for
10802:Mason Contractors Association of America
6946:
6716:
6708:Lexicon of German Castles and Fortresses
6680:
6655:
6600:
6578:The Crusaders in Syria and the Holy Land
6452:
6308:
6119:
5811:The Medieval Castle: Romance and reality
5805:
5599:
5524:
5237:
5213:
5028:
4841:
4829:
4718:
4623:
4596:
4584:
4572:
4560:
4548:
4521:
3734:
3633:
3499:
3478:
3108:
3096:
3069:
3045:
3021:
2994:
2982:
2946:
2504:
2460:
2372:
2344:
2292:
2260:
2212:
2169:
1967:200. In the middle were castles such as
1933:
1913:
1809:
1783:
1756:
1665:
1601:
1586:
1544:
1501:
1440:
1304:
1277:
1199:, England is an example of an elaborate
1186:
1174:Muslim invasion of the Iberian Peninsula
1101:
953:
917:
815:
762:
712:
677:" was used to refer to great towers, or
656:
610:
552:
460:
387:
368:
228:
10797:Master of Work to the Crown of Scotland
6701:
6607:. London, UK: Victoria County History.
6550:
6473:
6402:
6381:
6361:Higham, Robert; Barker, Philip (1992).
6335:
6295:
6124:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
6030:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
6025:
5998:
5285:
5273:
5261:
5249:
5225:
5201:
5189:
5177:
5153:
5141:
5088:
4992:
4980:
4968:
4956:
4944:
4932:
4865:
4619:
4454:
4268:
4262:
3938:
3836:
3773:
3719:
3571:
3460:
3350:
3346:
3344:
2958:
2934:
2148:Castle of the Teutonic Order in Malbork
794:During the 13th and 14th centuries the
14:
10827:
6624:
6515:
6494:
6441:
6164:
6078:. Debates in Archaeology. London, UK:
5780:
5701:
5306:
4897:. Dorling Kindersley Ltd. p. 53.
4424:
4400:
4172:
4100:
4061:
3986:
3971:
3692:
3621:
3511:
3356:
1817:, a 20th-century country residence in
1662:Bastions and star forts (16th century)
1582:
1001:. Hillforts in Britain typically used
592:
496:in German), many manor houses contain
10384:
9965:
9684:
9277:
8893:
6963:
6575:
6416:
6277:Gardberg, C.J.; Welin, P.O. (2003) .
6251:
6185:
6140:
5743:. Woodbridge, UK: The Boydell Press.
5695:
5671:
5623:
5611:
5563:
5387:
5312:
5165:
5129:
5064:
4911:from the original on 22 December 2016
4853:
4754:
4730:
4388:
4160:
4112:
4049:
3884:
3674:from the original on 15 November 2017
3644:from the original on 25 November 2021
3603:from the original on 25 November 2021
3559:
3547:
3535:
3523:
3487:
3448:
3398:"A Survey of the Maltese Muxrabijiet"
3335:
3323:
3296:
3224:
3200:
3188:
3164:
3160:
3158:
3125:
3009:
2970:
566:associated with the bailey to form a
472:, Portugal, with a bridge over a moat
6861:Castles and Fortifications in France
6758:
6737:
6309:Gies, Joseph; Gies, Frances (1974).
5881:
4891:Gallagher, Mary-Ann (1 March 2007).
4817:
4037:
3800:
3341:
1697:Some true castles were built in the
937:, cca. 9/8th c. BCE), surrounded by
823:in Scotland is surrounded by a moat.
480:has not become a generic term for a
216:, but they had no military purpose.
8374:Weapons Storage and Security System
5932:Cathcart King, David James (1988).
5911:Cathcart King, David James (1983).
1309:The gatehouse to the inner ward of
798:was developed. This consisted of a
24:
9712:List of castles in North America
6989:
6779:
6285:] (in Finnish). Helsinki, FI:
6009:British Archaeological Association
5783:The Short Oxford History of Europe
3155:
2180:Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry
2035:80,000 between 1277 and 1304, and
1036:. The Romans' own fortifications (
537:
25:
10856:
6794:. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing.
6685:. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press.
6417:Krahe, Friedrich-Wilhelm (2002).
2465:An early 13th-century drawing by
1561:, were built in the 15th century.
1258:'s 11th-century timber castle at
1122:, prohibited the construction of
274:, meaning "fortified place". The
10410:
10292:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
10062:Democratic Republic of the Congo
9826:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
9664:
9655:
9654:
8873:
8872:
6951:. York, UK: York Medieval Press.
6476:English Heritage Book of Castles
6442:Lepage, Jean-Denis G.G. (2002).
6195:The Castle Studies Group Journal
5869:The Castle Studies Group Journal
5716:
5689:
5677:
5665:
5653:
5641:
5629:
5617:
5593:
5581:
5569:
5542:
5530:
5518:
5506:
5494:
5482:
5470:
5429:
5417:
5405:
5393:
5381:
5369:
5357:
5330:
5318:
5279:
5267:
5243:
5231:
5219:
5207:
5195:
5183:
5171:
5159:
5147:
5135:
5123:
5070:
5058:
5046:
5034:
5022:
4998:
4986:
4974:
4962:
4950:
4938:
4847:
4835:
4823:
4811:
4785:
4748:
4736:
4724:
4712:
4700:
4688:
4676:
4664:
4653:
4641:
4629:
4613:
4602:
4590:
4578:
4566:
4554:
4542:
4515:
4503:
4476:
4464:
4448:
4418:
4406:
4394:
4332:
4320:
4308:
4296:
4287:
2589:
2418:
2159:
2135:
1853:interest in the Middle Ages and
1058:Origins (9th and 10th centuries)
767:A 13th-century gatehouse in the
615:A courtyard of the 14th-century
69:
43:
10647:Non-explosive demolition agents
6884:Monreal y Tejada, Luis (1999).
6611:from the original on 2021-05-18
6446:. McFarland & Company, Inc.
6254:The Sutton Companion to Castles
6208:from the original on 2011-07-28
5739:Allen Brown, Reginald (1976) .
5731:
5459:from the original on 2020-06-15
5112:from the original on 2020-11-01
4648:Chartrand & Spedaliere 2006
4636:Chartrand & Spedaliere 2006
4437:from the original on 2021-08-31
4352:from the original on 2019-12-02
4220:
4178:
4166:
4154:
4142:
4130:
4118:
4106:
4079:
4067:
4055:
4043:
4031:
4019:
4007:
3965:
3953:
3926:
3914:
3902:
3890:
3878:
3866:
3854:
3842:
3830:
3818:
3806:
3794:
3767:
3740:
3713:
3686:
3637:Urbano biće Bosne i Hercegovine
3577:
3565:
3553:
3541:
3529:
3517:
3466:
3454:
3442:
3430:
3389:
3329:
3317:
3290:
3278:
3266:
3254:
3242:
3230:
3218:
3206:
3194:
3182:
3170:
3143:
3131:
3102:
3075:
3063:
3051:
3039:
3027:
3015:
2988:
2858:from the original on 2021-10-30
2548:Walls could be undermined by a
2361:occupying the desired site. In
2281:while 34 per cent were on
1899:
1149:
702:
451:which, despite the name, is an
9622:British Indian Ocean Territory
6888:(English ed.). Konemann.
6863:] (in French). Paris, FR:
6763:. Chichester, UK: Phillimore.
6017:10.1080/00681288.1979.11895032
5760:Allen Brown, Reginald (1984).
4866:Kollewe, Julia (30 May 2011).
2976:
2964:
2952:
2940:
2913:
2898:
2786:
1951:in Ireland, built in 1211 for
1506:The design of Edward I's
1388:established themselves in the
949:
842:
435:
214:revival of Gothic architecture
114:. Scholars usually consider a
13:
1:
8269:British "hedgehog" road block
6365:. London, UK: B.T. Batsford.
6120:Cunliffe, Barry, ed. (1998).
5815:University of Minnesota Press
5741:Allen Brown's English Castles
4457:, pp. 43, 47, quoted in
3396:Azzopardi, Joe (April 2012).
2832:
1857:, and as part of the broader
1753:Later use and revival castles
1725:, built from 1695 to 1698 by
904:
873:
219:
10812:Worshipful Company of Masons
9951:United States Virgin Islands
6681:Thorstad, Audrey M. (2019).
3668:UNESCO World Heritage Centre
2779:
2080:and inventions, such as the
2041:Master James of Saint George
1918:A 19th-century depiction by
1570:, when they became dukes of
993:were first developed in the
752:
709:Curtain wall (fortification)
224:
7:
8679:Cities with defensive walls
8264:Defensive fighting position
8179:
7984:
7794:
7740:
7601:
7592:
7558:
7549:
7404:
6557:University of Chicago Press
6516:Nossov, Konstantin (2006).
6283:Medieval Castles in Finland
6279:Suomen keskiaikaiset linnat
5436:Creighton & Higham 2003
5424:Creighton & Higham 2003
5352:Creighton & Higham 2003
4767:Guillaumier, Alfie (2005).
4743:Creighton & Higham 2003
4707:Creighton & Higham 2003
4269:Edwards, Robert W. (1987).
3179:, pp. 408–410, 412–414
3058:Creighton & Higham 2003
2905:Creighton & Higham 2003
2582:
1390:Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
1140:Château de Doué-la-Fontaine
1032:techniques, such as at the
432:as high-status residences.
400:in the old capital city of
102:structure built during the
10:
10861:
9993:List of castles in Africa
8921:List of castles in Europe
6947:Wheatley, Abigail (2004).
6719:Japanese Castles 1540–1640
6717:Turnbull, Stephen (2003).
6662:Cambridge University Press
6656:Thompson, Michael (1987).
6296:Gebelin, François (1964).
6223:Erlande-Brandenburg, Alain
6068:Creighton, Oliver (2012).
6047:Creighton, Oliver (2002).
5980:The Spanish Main 1492–1800
5936:. London, UK: Croom Helm.
5453:National Museum of Finland
2450:
2446:
2163:
1903:
1549:The northern walls of the
1514:One of the effects of the
1343:Saint-Georges-d'Espéranche
945:) dated to the 4th c. BCE.
913:
888:
809:
787:It is a popular myth that
756:
706:
650:
596:
546:
29:
10784:
10733:
10670:
10637:Lewis (lifting appliance)
10604:
10494:
10418:
10305:
10280:
9999:
9926:Saint Pierre and Miquelon
9844:
9718:
9650:
9609:
9569:
9311:
9223:
9185:
8927:
8863:
8793:
8717:
8661:
8595:
8481:
8386:
8309:Hardened aircraft shelter
8284:Entry control point (ECP)
8196:
8107:
7823:
7816:
7248:
6997:
6886:Medieval Castles of Spain
6815:. London, UK: Routledge.
6811:Johnson, Matthew (2002).
6658:The Decline of the Castle
6453:Liddiard, Robert (2005).
6386:. London, UK: Routledge.
6382:Johnson, Matthew (2002).
6312:Life in a Medieval Castle
6051:. London, UK: Continuum.
6026:Coulson, Charles (2003).
5477:Gardberg & Welin 2003
4919:– via Google Books.
4622:, p. viii, cited in
3780:. Routledge. p. 75.
3753:. Brill. pp. 35–66.
3363:Jaccarini, C. J. (2002).
2265:Highland castles such as
1963:, would have cost around
661:The 14th-century keep of
10047:Central African Republic
9946:Turks and Caicos Islands
9371:East Timor (Timor-Leste)
9305:List of castles in Asia
8806:Continuity of government
6518:Indian Castles 1206–1526
6338:The History of Feudalism
6188:"Malbork Castle, Poland"
5953:Chartrand, René (2005).
5846:Belknap Press. pp.
5077:Higham & Barker 1992
5041:Higham & Barker 1992
5017:Erlande-Brandenburg 1995
5005:Erlande-Brandenburg 1995
4014:Higham & Barker 1992
4002:Higham & Barker 1992
2773:Castle Site of Montbazon
2257:Locations and landscapes
2088:were improved upon from
769:château de Châteaubriant
542:
326:Defining characteristics
183:concentric fortification
9632:Cocos (Keeling) Islands
8628:Motte-and-bailey castle
8334:Missile launch facility
8329:Main line of resistance
7024:
6926:Thompson, M.W. (1991).
6905:Pounds, N.J.G. (1994).
6834:Medieval Fortifications
6639:10.1179/lan.2000.1.1.38
6551:Schultz, James (2006).
6336:Herlihy, David (1970).
6252:Friar, Stephen (2003).
6186:Emery, Anthony (2007).
6080:Bristol Classical Press
5787:Oxford University Press
5650:, pp. 125–126, 169
5503:, pp. 110, 131–132
5414:, pp. 180–181, 217
5288:, pp. 297–299, 382
4894:Top 10 Malta & Gozo
4794:Antecedentes históricos
4425:Cassar, George (2014).
3815:, pp. 27–29, 45–48
3634:Brkljača, Seka (1996).
3072:, pp. 1–2, 158–159
2521:in the south of France.
1499:to be found in Europe.
1402:Principality of Antioch
1271:the corners to provide
1227:Romanesque architecture
1209:introduced into England
805:
646:
32:Castle (disambiguation)
9876:British Virgin Islands
8970:Bosnia and Herzegovina
8704:Military installations
8568:
8549:
8540:
8531:
8449:
8120:
8095:
8071:
8061:Scarp and Counterscarp
8032:
8023:
8008:
7975:
7961:
7932:
7903:
7894:
7870:
7831:
7636:
7617:
7535:
7484:
7475:
7431:
7422:
7413:
7350:
7336:
7327:
7273:
7232:
7219:
7210:
7201:
7187:
7147:
7133:
7069:
7060:
7051:
7042:
7033:
7015:
6928:The Rise of the Castle
6792:Medieval Siege Warfare
6702:Tillman, Curt (1958).
6499:. Stroud, UK: Tempus.
6299:The châteaux of France
6049:Castles and Landscapes
2723:Medieval fortification
2522:
2482:
2393:
2357:
2309:
2270:
2209:
2183:
2055:
1943:
1942:site in France (2015).
1931:
1822:
1807:
1804:Maximilian I of Mexico
1781:
1719:fortified manor houses
1679:
1648:Fall of Constantinople
1618:
1599:
1562:
1511:
1453:
1437:13th to 15th centuries
1331:Byzantine architecture
1318:
1287:
1204:
1115:
974:
946:
824:
772:
729:
666:
623:
562:
473:
405:
385:
249:
10207:São Tomé and Príncipe
10067:Republic of the Congo
9816:Saint Kitts and Nevis
8473:Floating water castle
8204:Admiralty scaffolding
7497:Fortified buildings (
6853:Mesqui, Jean (1997).
6721:. Osprey Publishing.
6520:. Osprey Publishing.
6495:Norris, John (2004).
6474:McNeill, Tom (1992).
6233:Découvertes Gallimard
6103:. Shire Archaeology.
5982:. Osprey Publishing.
5882:Buse, Dieter (2005).
2508:
2464:
2376:
2348:
2296:
2264:
2205:
2182:. Early 15th century.
2173:
2045:
1937:
1920:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc
1917:
1813:
1787:
1760:
1669:
1605:
1590:
1548:
1505:
1444:
1339:James of Saint George
1308:
1281:
1190:
1105:
957:
921:
819:
766:
716:
660:
614:
556:
464:
414:William the Conqueror
391:
372:
232:
106:predominantly by the
10461:Massive precut stone
10456:Post-tensioned stone
9546:United Arab Emirates
8816:Subterranean warfare
7769:Viking ring fortress
6788:Gravett, Christopher
6759:Ward, Simon (2009).
6576:Smail, R.C. (1973).
6497:Welsh Castles at War
5807:Bachrach, Bernard S.
5449:"Historia (History)"
5238:Gies & Gies 1974
5079:, pp. 79, 84–88
4769:Bliet u Rhula Maltin
3426:on 15 November 2015.
2961:, p. xvii–xviii
2873:"Time Team: Tregruk"
2865:– via YouTube.
2818:landscape propaganda
2798:late medieval period
2733:Similar structures:
2267:Château de Montségur
2113:. For example, when
2027:9,000 respectively.
1806:in the 19th century.
1774:Ludwig II of Bavaria
1410:Kingdom of Jerusalem
663:Château de Vincennes
256:is derived from the
154:, were commonplace.
10657:Stonemason's hammer
10622:Ceramic tile cutter
10282:States with limited
9831:Trinidad and Tobago
9726:Antigua and Barbuda
9573:limited recognition
9186:States with limited
8633:Quadrangular castle
8369:Weapon storage area
7725:Quadrangular castle
6832:Kenyon, J. (1991).
6582:Thames & Hudson
5674:, pp. 254, 262
5590:, pp. 132, 136
5551:, pp. xx–xxiii
4880:on 24 October 2016.
3586:The Medieval castle
3338:, pp. 126, 232
3191:, pp. 214, 216
3036:, pp. xvi–xvii
2196:preparation of food
2102:Château de Langeais
1979:, which cost about
1906:Medieval technology
1815:Castello Dei Baroni
1583:Advent of gunpowder
1493:Edward I of England
1474:Krak des Chevaliers
1462:Knights Hospitaller
1446:Krak des Chevaliers
1300:Alcazaba of Badajoz
1282:Albarrana tower in
1018:oppidum of Manching
969:and used until the
965:, built during the
821:Caerlaverock Castle
593:Bailey and enceinte
120:fortified residence
9766:Dominican Republic
8364:Underground hangar
8149:Fire control tower
7946:Gunpowder magazine
7374:Butter-churn tower
6761:Chester, a History
6142:Duffy, Christopher
5844:Harvard University
5817:. pp. 47–62.
5723:Cathcart King 1988
5662:, pp. 126–127
5648:Cathcart King 1988
5576:Cathcart King 1988
5566:, pp. 123–124
5549:Cathcart King 1983
5378:, pp. 184–185
5366:, pp. 181–182
5053:Cathcart King 1988
5007:, pp. 121–126
4733:, pp. 286–287
4609:Cathcart King 1983
4537:Cathcart King 1988
4510:Cathcart King 1988
4500:, pp. 165–167
4498:Cathcart King 1988
4485:, pp. 164–165
4483:Cathcart King 1988
4473:, pp. 159–160
4471:Cathcart King 1988
4459:Cathcart King 1988
4413:Cathcart King 1988
4374:Cathcart King 1988
4327:Cathcart King 1988
4317:, pp. xx–xxii
4315:Cathcart King 1983
4303:Cathcart King 1988
4257:Cathcart King 1988
4242:Cathcart King 1988
4217:, pp. 241–243
4200:Cathcart King 1988
4185:Cathcart King 1988
4175:, pp. 122–123
4149:Cathcart King 1988
4139:, pp. 108–109
4086:Cathcart King 1988
4074:Cathcart King 1988
4028:, pp. 229–230
3948:Cathcart King 1988
3921:Cathcart King 1983
3897:Cathcart King 1988
3861:Cathcart King 1988
3550:, pp. 180–182
3526:, pp. 210–211
3326:, pp. 124–125
3312:Cathcart King 1988
3287:, pp. 416–422
3275:, pp. 402–406
3249:Cathcart King 1988
3237:Cathcart King 1988
3138:Cathcart King 1988
3034:Cathcart King 1983
2997:, pp. 452–475
2920:Cathcart King 1988
2808:had obsoleted the
2743:Dzong architecture
2603:Types of castles:
2597:Middle Ages portal
2523:
2483:
2439:medieval deer park
2394:
2358:
2310:
2298:Srebrenik Fortress
2271:
2238:Henry I of England
2233:Tristan and Iseult
2184:
2115:Tattershall Castle
1944:
1932:
1823:
1808:
1789:Chapultepec Castle
1782:
1776:, inspired by the
1772:) castle built by
1764:is a 19th-century
1680:
1624:Castle Doornenburg
1619:
1600:
1563:
1512:
1454:
1319:
1288:
1205:
1116:
1076:Carolingian Empire
975:
947:
825:
773:
730:
671:concentric defence
667:
624:
563:
474:
410:base of operations
406:
386:
250:
159:Carolingian Empire
118:to be the private
110:or royalty and by
52:Alcázar of Segovia
10840:Medieval defences
10820:
10819:
10746:Hardstone carving
10693:Polygonal masonry
10517:Decorative stones
10378:
10377:
10309:other territories
10082:Equatorial Guinea
9959:
9958:
9848:other territories
9678:
9677:
9615:other territories
9271:
9270:
8887:
8886:
8811:Military urbanism
8745:Fortified gateway
8618:Concentric castle
8382:
8381:
8299:Fire support base
8139:Coastal artillery
8014:(Spanish America)
7608:
7450:Concentric castle
6770:978-1-86077-499-7
6749:978-1-57607-862-4
6728:978-1-84176-429-0
6692:978-1-78327-384-3
6660:. Cambridge, UK:
6566:978-0-226-74089-8
6527:978-1-84603-065-9
6267:978-0-7509-3994-2
6258:Sutton Publishing
6242:978-0-500-30052-7
6176:978-1-57607-862-4
6089:978-1-78093-031-2
5989:978-1-84603-005-5
5968:978-1-84176-714-7
5959:Osprey Publishing
5901:978-0-313-32400-0
5857:978-0-674-40001-6
5842:. Cambridge, MA:
5824:978-0-8166-2003-6
5764:. B.T. Batsford.
5228:, pp. xv–xxi
4904:978-1-4053-1784-9
4229:, pp. 64, 67
3923:, pp. xvi–xx
3839:, pp. 18, 24
3760:978-90-04-41436-5
3705:: PEG Ltd: 22–25.
3514:, pp. 40–41.
3385:on 18 April 2016.
3024:, pp. 2, 6–7
2698:Drawbar (defense)
2683:Castle features:
2626:Concentric castle
2488:Caernarfon Castle
2403:Kenilworth Castle
2240:had over 20
2176:Château de Saumur
2078:Medieval machines
1890:Playmobil FunPark
1828:English Civil War
1727:a baronial family
1414:County of Tripoli
1362:Crusading warfare
1245:, French article
837:Caerphilly Castle
559:Château de Gisors
384:during her reign.
362:(1096–1099), the
16:(Redirected from
10852:
10652:Plug and feather
10502:Artificial stone
10405:
10398:
10391:
10382:
10381:
10370:
10369:(United Kingdom)
10365:Tristan da Cunha
10361:Ascension Island
10353:
10340:
10331:
10307:Dependencies and
10000:Sovereign states
9986:
9979:
9972:
9963:
9962:
9916:Saint Barthélemy
9846:Dependencies and
9719:Sovereign states
9705:
9698:
9691:
9682:
9681:
9668:
9658:
9657:
9627:Christmas Island
9313:Sovereign states
9298:
9291:
9284:
9275:
9274:
9224:Dependencies and
8928:Sovereign states
8914:
8907:
8900:
8891:
8890:
8876:
8875:
8869:
8760:National redoubt
8689:Fortified estate
8613:Circular rampart
8573:
8554:
8545:
8536:
8454:
8214:Anti-tank trench
8209:Air raid shelter
8184:
8144:Disappearing gun
8125:
8100:
8076:
8037:
8028:
8013:
7989:
7980:
7966:
7937:
7908:
7899:
7875:
7836:
7821:
7820:
7799:
7779:Bailey (or ward)
7745:
7650:Motte-and-bailey
7641:
7622:
7606:
7598:
7597:
7563:
7554:
7540:
7489:
7480:
7436:
7427:
7418:
7409:
7355:
7341:
7332:
7278:
7235:
7224:
7215:
7206:
7192:
7152:
7138:
7078:Circular rampart
7074:
7065:
7056:
7047:
7038:
7029:
7020:
6984:
6977:
6970:
6961:
6960:
6952:
6941:
6920:
6899:
6878:
6847:
6826:
6805:
6774:
6753:
6732:
6711:
6696:
6675:
6650:
6619:
6617:
6616:
6595:
6570:
6545:
6539:
6531:
6510:
6489:
6468:
6447:
6436:
6411:
6408:Crusader Castles
6397:
6376:
6355:
6342:Humanities Press
6330:
6317:Harper & Row
6315:. New York, NY:
6303:
6290:
6271:
6246:
6216:
6214:
6213:
6207:
6192:
6180:
6159:
6135:
6114:
6101:Medieval Castles
6093:
6075:
6074:
6062:
6041:
6020:
5993:
5972:
5947:
5926:
5905:
5889:
5876:
5861:
5828:
5800:
5775:
5754:
5726:
5720:
5714:
5711:Allen Brown 1976
5708:
5699:
5693:
5687:
5684:Allen Brown 1976
5681:
5675:
5669:
5663:
5660:Allen Brown 1976
5657:
5651:
5645:
5639:
5636:Allen Brown 1976
5633:
5627:
5621:
5615:
5609:
5603:
5597:
5591:
5588:Allen Brown 1976
5585:
5579:
5578:, pp. 15–18
5573:
5567:
5561:
5552:
5546:
5540:
5539:, pp. 79–80
5534:
5528:
5522:
5516:
5515:, pp. 76–79
5510:
5504:
5498:
5492:
5486:
5480:
5474:
5468:
5467:
5465:
5464:
5445:
5439:
5438:, pp. 59–63
5433:
5427:
5426:, pp. 58–59
5421:
5415:
5409:
5403:
5397:
5391:
5385:
5379:
5373:
5367:
5361:
5355:
5354:, pp. 55–56
5349:
5340:
5334:
5328:
5327:, pp. 35–41
5322:
5316:
5315:, pp. 21–23
5310:
5304:
5298:
5289:
5283:
5277:
5271:
5265:
5259:
5253:
5252:, pp. 19–21
5247:
5241:
5240:, pp. 87–90
5235:
5229:
5223:
5217:
5211:
5205:
5204:, pp. 84–85
5199:
5193:
5192:, pp. 74–76
5187:
5181:
5180:, pp. 28–29
5175:
5169:
5163:
5157:
5156:, pp. 22–24
5151:
5145:
5144:, pp. 16–18
5139:
5133:
5127:
5121:
5120:
5118:
5117:
5098:
5092:
5086:
5080:
5074:
5068:
5067:, pp. 38–40
5062:
5056:
5050:
5044:
5038:
5032:
5031:, pp. 47–52
5026:
5020:
5014:
5008:
5002:
4996:
4995:, pp. 40–41
4990:
4984:
4978:
4972:
4971:, pp. 42–43
4966:
4960:
4954:
4948:
4947:, pp. 41–42
4942:
4936:
4935:, pp. 39–40
4930:
4921:
4920:
4918:
4916:
4888:
4882:
4881:
4876:. Archived from
4863:
4857:
4851:
4845:
4839:
4833:
4827:
4821:
4815:
4809:
4808:
4807:
4806:
4789:
4783:
4782:
4764:
4758:
4752:
4746:
4740:
4734:
4728:
4722:
4716:
4710:
4704:
4698:
4692:
4686:
4680:
4674:
4668:
4662:
4657:
4651:
4645:
4639:
4633:
4627:
4617:
4611:
4606:
4600:
4594:
4588:
4582:
4576:
4575:, pp. 41–42
4570:
4564:
4563:, pp. 38–39
4558:
4552:
4546:
4540:
4534:
4525:
4524:, pp. 40–41
4519:
4513:
4507:
4501:
4495:
4486:
4480:
4474:
4468:
4462:
4452:
4446:
4445:
4443:
4442:
4422:
4416:
4415:, pp. 84–87
4410:
4404:
4398:
4392:
4386:
4377:
4371:
4360:
4359:
4358:
4357:
4336:
4330:
4329:, pp. 81–82
4324:
4318:
4312:
4306:
4300:
4294:
4291:
4285:
4284:
4266:
4260:
4254:
4245:
4244:, pp. 78–79
4239:
4230:
4227:Allen Brown 1976
4224:
4218:
4215:Burton 2007–2008
4212:
4203:
4202:, pp. 77–78
4197:
4188:
4182:
4176:
4170:
4164:
4158:
4152:
4151:, pp. 29–30
4146:
4140:
4137:Allen Brown 1976
4134:
4128:
4125:Allen Brown 1976
4122:
4116:
4115:, pp. 95–96
4110:
4104:
4103:, pp. 33–34
4098:
4089:
4083:
4077:
4076:, pp. 32–34
4071:
4065:
4059:
4053:
4047:
4041:
4035:
4029:
4026:Burton 2007–2008
4023:
4017:
4016:, pp. 78–79
4011:
4005:
3999:
3990:
3984:
3975:
3974:, pp. 32–33
3969:
3963:
3960:Allen Brown 1976
3957:
3951:
3950:, pp. 24–25
3945:
3936:
3933:Allen Brown 1984
3930:
3924:
3918:
3912:
3909:Allen Brown 1976
3906:
3900:
3899:, pp. 35–36
3894:
3888:
3882:
3876:
3873:Allen Brown 1976
3870:
3864:
3858:
3852:
3851:, pp. 44–45
3846:
3840:
3834:
3828:
3825:Allen Brown 1976
3822:
3816:
3810:
3804:
3798:
3792:
3791:
3777:The Celtic World
3771:
3765:
3764:
3744:
3738:
3732:
3723:
3717:
3711:
3706:
3690:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3679:
3660:
3654:
3653:
3651:
3649:
3631:
3625:
3619:
3613:
3612:
3610:
3608:
3581:
3575:
3569:
3563:
3557:
3551:
3545:
3539:
3533:
3527:
3521:
3515:
3509:
3503:
3497:
3491:
3485:
3476:
3473:Allen Brown 1976
3470:
3464:
3458:
3452:
3446:
3440:
3437:Allen Brown 1976
3434:
3428:
3427:
3425:
3419:. Archived from
3407:(41). Valletta:
3402:
3393:
3387:
3386:
3384:
3369:
3360:
3354:
3353:, pp. 98–99
3348:
3339:
3333:
3327:
3321:
3315:
3309:
3300:
3294:
3288:
3282:
3276:
3270:
3264:
3258:
3252:
3246:
3240:
3234:
3228:
3222:
3216:
3210:
3204:
3198:
3192:
3186:
3180:
3174:
3168:
3162:
3153:
3147:
3141:
3140:, pp. 55–56
3135:
3129:
3123:
3112:
3106:
3100:
3094:
3085:
3082:Allen Brown 1976
3079:
3073:
3067:
3061:
3055:
3049:
3043:
3037:
3031:
3025:
3019:
3013:
3012:, pp. 23–25
3007:
2998:
2992:
2986:
2980:
2974:
2968:
2962:
2956:
2950:
2949:, pp. 15–17
2944:
2938:
2932:
2923:
2917:
2911:
2902:
2896:
2895:
2893:
2892:
2866:
2864:
2863:
2842:
2826:
2790:
2753:Fortified church
2599:
2594:
2593:
2519:Bouches-du-Rhône
2515:Château des Baux
2509:A reconstructed
2457:Medieval warfare
2422:
2225:chivalric events
2216:
2139:
2098:Château de Coucy
2082:treadwheel crane
2053:
1985:Château Gaillard
1881:Artificial ruins
1869:in Germany, and
1690:, also known as
1676:Copertino Castle
1516:Livonian Crusade
1470:Teutonic Knights
1406:County of Edessa
1394:Crusader castles
1382:Teutonic Knights
1329:and exposure to
1296:Albarrana towers
1160:slower. In 950,
1120:Charles the Bald
1112:Château de Dinan
1034:Battle of Alesia
979:Fertile Crescent
718:Beaumaris Castle
587:Château de Dinan
585:'s depiction of
568:motte-and-bailey
549:Motte-and-bailey
517:Stephen Turnbull
466:São Jorge Castle
422:English Midlands
73:
47:
21:
10860:
10859:
10855:
10854:
10853:
10851:
10850:
10849:
10825:
10824:
10821:
10816:
10780:
10729:
10666:
10600:
10522:Dimension stone
10490:
10414:
10409:
10379:
10374:
10373:
10368:
10351:
10338:
10329:
10310:
10308:
10301:
10285:
10283:
10276:
9995:
9990:
9960:
9955:
9849:
9847:
9840:
9714:
9709:
9679:
9674:
9646:
9614:
9605:
9586:Northern Cyprus
9572:
9565:
9307:
9302:
9272:
9267:
9225:
9219:
9205:Northern Cyprus
9187:
9181:
9102:North Macedonia
8923:
8918:
8888:
8883:
8867:
8859:
8789:
8713:
8657:
8591:
8526:Imperial castle
8499:Coercion castle
8494:Coastal defence
8477:
8439:Promontory fort
8409:Hillside castle
8378:
8294:Fallout shelter
8259:Concertina wire
8239:Border security
8192:
8103:
7812:
7445:Coercion castle
7433:Cheval de frise
7415:Chemin de ronde
7263:Albarrana tower
7244:
7189:Schwedenschanze
7166:Promontory fort
6993:
6988:
6957:
6955:
6938:
6925:
6917:
6904:
6896:
6883:
6875:
6852:
6844:
6831:
6823:
6810:
6802:
6786:
6782:
6780:Further reading
6777:
6771:
6750:
6729:
6693:
6672:
6614:
6612:
6592:
6567:
6555:. Chicago, IL:
6533:
6532:
6528:
6507:
6486:
6465:
6433:
6394:
6373:
6352:
6327:
6268:
6243:
6211:
6209:
6205:
6190:
6177:
6156:
6132:
6111:
6090:
6076: 800–1200
6072:
6071:
6059:
6038:
5990:
5969:
5944:
5923:
5902:
5892:Greenwood Press
5858:
5825:
5797:
5772:
5751:
5734:
5729:
5721:
5717:
5709:
5702:
5694:
5690:
5682:
5678:
5670:
5666:
5658:
5654:
5646:
5642:
5634:
5630:
5622:
5618:
5610:
5606:
5598:
5594:
5586:
5582:
5574:
5570:
5562:
5555:
5547:
5543:
5535:
5531:
5527:, pp. 7–10
5523:
5519:
5511:
5507:
5499:
5495:
5487:
5483:
5475:
5471:
5462:
5460:
5447:
5446:
5442:
5434:
5430:
5422:
5418:
5410:
5406:
5398:
5394:
5386:
5382:
5374:
5370:
5362:
5358:
5350:
5343:
5335:
5331:
5323:
5319:
5311:
5307:
5299:
5292:
5284:
5280:
5272:
5268:
5260:
5256:
5248:
5244:
5236:
5232:
5224:
5220:
5212:
5208:
5200:
5196:
5188:
5184:
5176:
5172:
5164:
5160:
5152:
5148:
5140:
5136:
5128:
5124:
5115:
5113:
5100:
5099:
5095:
5087:
5083:
5075:
5071:
5063:
5059:
5051:
5047:
5039:
5035:
5027:
5023:
5015:
5011:
5003:
4999:
4991:
4987:
4979:
4975:
4967:
4963:
4955:
4951:
4943:
4939:
4931:
4924:
4914:
4912:
4905:
4889:
4885:
4864:
4860:
4852:
4848:
4840:
4836:
4828:
4824:
4816:
4812:
4804:
4802:
4791:
4790:
4786:
4779:
4765:
4761:
4753:
4749:
4741:
4737:
4729:
4725:
4717:
4713:
4705:
4701:
4693:
4689:
4681:
4677:
4669:
4665:
4658:
4654:
4646:
4642:
4634:
4630:
4618:
4614:
4607:
4603:
4595:
4591:
4583:
4579:
4571:
4567:
4559:
4555:
4547:
4543:
4535:
4528:
4520:
4516:
4508:
4504:
4496:
4489:
4481:
4477:
4469:
4465:
4453:
4449:
4440:
4438:
4423:
4419:
4411:
4407:
4399:
4395:
4387:
4380:
4372:
4363:
4355:
4353:
4338:
4337:
4333:
4325:
4321:
4313:
4309:
4301:
4297:
4292:
4288:
4281:
4267:
4263:
4255:
4248:
4240:
4233:
4225:
4221:
4213:
4206:
4198:
4191:
4183:
4179:
4171:
4167:
4159:
4155:
4147:
4143:
4135:
4131:
4123:
4119:
4111:
4107:
4099:
4092:
4084:
4080:
4072:
4068:
4060:
4056:
4048:
4044:
4036:
4032:
4024:
4020:
4012:
4008:
4000:
3993:
3985:
3978:
3970:
3966:
3958:
3954:
3946:
3939:
3931:
3927:
3919:
3915:
3907:
3903:
3895:
3891:
3883:
3879:
3871:
3867:
3859:
3855:
3847:
3843:
3835:
3831:
3823:
3819:
3811:
3807:
3799:
3795:
3788:
3772:
3768:
3761:
3745:
3741:
3733:
3726:
3718:
3714:
3691:
3687:
3677:
3675:
3662:
3661:
3657:
3647:
3645:
3632:
3628:
3620:
3616:
3606:
3604:
3597:
3583:
3582:
3578:
3570:
3566:
3558:
3554:
3546:
3542:
3534:
3530:
3522:
3518:
3510:
3506:
3498:
3494:
3486:
3479:
3471:
3467:
3459:
3455:
3447:
3443:
3435:
3431:
3423:
3409:Din l-Art Ħelwa
3400:
3394:
3390:
3382:
3367:
3361:
3357:
3349:
3342:
3334:
3330:
3322:
3318:
3310:
3303:
3295:
3291:
3285:Barthélemy 1988
3283:
3279:
3273:Barthélemy 1988
3271:
3267:
3261:Barthélemy 1988
3259:
3255:
3247:
3243:
3235:
3231:
3223:
3219:
3213:Barthélemy 1988
3211:
3207:
3199:
3195:
3187:
3183:
3177:Barthélemy 1988
3175:
3171:
3163:
3156:
3150:Barthélemy 1988
3148:
3144:
3136:
3132:
3124:
3115:
3107:
3103:
3095:
3088:
3080:
3076:
3068:
3064:
3056:
3052:
3044:
3040:
3032:
3028:
3020:
3016:
3008:
3001:
2993:
2989:
2981:
2977:
2969:
2965:
2957:
2953:
2945:
2941:
2933:
2926:
2918:
2914:
2903:
2899:
2890:
2888:
2871:
2861:
2859:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2830:
2829:
2791:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2763:Japanese castle
2738:African castles
2641:Hillside castle
2631:Fortified house
2595:
2588:
2585:
2479:mounted knights
2459:
2449:
2444:
2443:
2442:
2428:
2423:
2390:Lake Vanajavesi
2378:Tavastia Castle
2350:Almourol Castle
2333:was founded in
2259:
2218:
2211:
2168:
2162:
2157:
2156:
2155:
2145:
2140:
2054:
2052:
1940:Guédelon Castle
1912:
1902:
1778:neo-romanticism
1755:
1731:Fort Senneville
1711:Fortaleza Ozama
1707:French colonies
1692:trace italienne
1664:
1585:
1466:Knights Templar
1458:Military Orders
1439:
1398:Crusader states
1235:
1191:Built in 1138,
1152:
1108:Bayeux Tapestry
1060:
987:Northern Europe
952:
939:cyclopean walls
916:
907:
891:
876:
845:
814:
808:
761:
755:
711:
705:
655:
649:
617:Raseborg Castle
609:
595:
583:Bayeux Tapestry
551:
545:
540:
538:Common features
528:trace italienne
438:
378:Norman Conquest
328:
320:Norman Conquest
246:Tower of London
227:
222:
112:military orders
92:
91:
90:
89:
88:
76:Built in 1385,
74:
65:
64:
63:
48:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10858:
10848:
10847:
10842:
10837:
10818:
10817:
10815:
10814:
10809:
10804:
10799:
10794:
10788:
10786:
10782:
10781:
10779:
10778:
10773:
10768:
10763:
10758:
10748:
10743:
10737:
10735:
10731:
10730:
10728:
10727:
10726:
10725:
10715:
10710:
10705:
10700:
10695:
10690:
10685:
10680:
10674:
10672:
10668:
10667:
10665:
10664:
10659:
10654:
10649:
10644:
10639:
10634:
10629:
10624:
10619:
10614:
10608:
10606:
10602:
10601:
10599:
10598:
10593:
10588:
10587:
10586:
10576:
10571:
10570:
10569:
10559:
10554:
10549:
10544:
10539:
10534:
10529:
10524:
10519:
10514:
10509:
10504:
10498:
10496:
10492:
10491:
10489:
10488:
10483:
10478:
10473:
10468:
10463:
10458:
10453:
10448:
10446:Letter cutting
10443:
10438:
10433:
10428:
10422:
10420:
10416:
10415:
10408:
10407:
10400:
10393:
10385:
10376:
10375:
10372:
10371:
10354:
10341:
10332:
10318:Canary Islands
10314:
10313:
10311:
10306:
10303:
10302:
10300:
10299:
10294:
10288:
10286:
10281:
10278:
10277:
10275:
10274:
10269:
10264:
10259:
10254:
10249:
10244:
10239:
10234:
10229:
10224:
10219:
10214:
10209:
10204:
10199:
10194:
10189:
10184:
10179:
10174:
10169:
10164:
10159:
10154:
10149:
10144:
10139:
10134:
10129:
10124:
10119:
10114:
10109:
10104:
10099:
10094:
10089:
10084:
10079:
10074:
10069:
10064:
10059:
10054:
10049:
10044:
10039:
10034:
10029:
10024:
10019:
10014:
10009:
10003:
10001:
9997:
9996:
9989:
9988:
9981:
9974:
9966:
9957:
9956:
9954:
9953:
9948:
9943:
9938:
9936:Sint Eustatius
9933:
9928:
9923:
9918:
9913:
9908:
9903:
9898:
9893:
9888:
9883:
9881:Cayman Islands
9878:
9873:
9868:
9863:
9858:
9852:
9850:
9845:
9842:
9841:
9839:
9838:
9833:
9828:
9823:
9818:
9813:
9808:
9803:
9798:
9793:
9788:
9783:
9778:
9773:
9768:
9763:
9758:
9753:
9748:
9743:
9738:
9733:
9728:
9722:
9720:
9716:
9715:
9708:
9707:
9700:
9693:
9685:
9676:
9675:
9673:
9672:
9662:
9651:
9648:
9647:
9645:
9644:
9639:
9634:
9629:
9624:
9618:
9616:
9607:
9606:
9604:
9603:
9598:
9593:
9588:
9583:
9577:
9575:
9567:
9566:
9564:
9563:
9558:
9553:
9548:
9543:
9538:
9533:
9528:
9523:
9518:
9513:
9508:
9503:
9498:
9493:
9488:
9483:
9478:
9473:
9468:
9463:
9458:
9453:
9448:
9443:
9438:
9433:
9428:
9423:
9418:
9413:
9408:
9403:
9398:
9393:
9388:
9383:
9378:
9373:
9368:
9363:
9358:
9353:
9348:
9343:
9338:
9333:
9328:
9323:
9317:
9315:
9309:
9308:
9301:
9300:
9293:
9286:
9278:
9269:
9268:
9266:
9265:
9260:
9255:
9250:
9245:
9240:
9235:
9229:
9227:
9226:other entities
9221:
9220:
9218:
9217:
9212:
9207:
9202:
9197:
9191:
9189:
9183:
9182:
9180:
9179:
9177:United Kingdom
9174:
9169:
9164:
9159:
9154:
9149:
9144:
9139:
9134:
9129:
9124:
9119:
9114:
9109:
9104:
9099:
9094:
9089:
9084:
9079:
9074:
9069:
9064:
9059:
9054:
9049:
9044:
9042:
9037:
9032:
9027:
9022:
9017:
9012:
9007:
9002:
8997:
8992:
8990:Czech Republic
8987:
8982:
8977:
8972:
8967:
8962:
8957:
8952:
8947:
8942:
8937:
8931:
8929:
8925:
8924:
8917:
8916:
8909:
8902:
8894:
8885:
8884:
8882:
8881:
8864:
8861:
8860:
8858:
8857:
8856:
8855:
8845:
8843:Trench warfare
8840:
8838:Tunnel warfare
8835:
8834:
8833:
8823:
8818:
8813:
8808:
8803:
8797:
8795:
8791:
8790:
8788:
8787:
8782:
8777:
8772:
8767:
8762:
8757:
8752:
8747:
8742:
8737:
8732:
8727:
8721:
8719:
8715:
8714:
8712:
8711:
8706:
8701:
8696:
8694:Fortifications
8691:
8686:
8681:
8676:
8671:
8665:
8663:
8659:
8658:
8656:
8655:
8650:
8645:
8640:
8635:
8630:
8625:
8620:
8615:
8610:
8605:
8599:
8597:
8593:
8592:
8590:
8589:
8584:
8579:
8574:
8565:
8560:
8555:
8546:
8537:
8528:
8523:
8518:
8511:
8506:
8504:Counter-castle
8501:
8496:
8491:
8489:Border barrier
8485:
8483:
8479:
8478:
8476:
8475:
8470:
8465:
8460:
8455:
8446:
8441:
8436:
8431:
8426:
8424:Lowland castle
8421:
8416:
8414:Hilltop castle
8411:
8406:
8401:
8396:
8390:
8388:
8384:
8383:
8380:
8379:
8377:
8376:
8371:
8366:
8361:
8356:
8351:
8346:
8341:
8336:
8331:
8326:
8321:
8316:
8311:
8306:
8301:
8296:
8291:
8289:Electric fence
8286:
8281:
8279:Dragon's teeth
8276:
8274:Czech hedgehog
8271:
8266:
8261:
8256:
8251:
8246:
8241:
8236:
8231:
8226:
8221:
8216:
8211:
8206:
8200:
8198:
8194:
8193:
8191:
8190:
8188:Wire obstacles
8185:
8176:
8174:Polygonal fort
8171:
8166:
8164:Martello tower
8161:
8156:
8151:
8146:
8141:
8136:
8131:
8129:Border outpost
8126:
8117:
8111:
8109:
8105:
8104:
8102:
8101:
8092:
8087:
8082:
8077:
8068:
8063:
8058:
8053:
8048:
8043:
8038:
8029:
8020:
8015:
8005:
8003:Polygonal fort
8000:
7995:
7990:
7981:
7972:
7967:
7958:
7953:
7948:
7943:
7938:
7929:
7924:
7919:
7914:
7909:
7900:
7891:
7886:
7881:
7876:
7867:
7862:
7857:
7852:
7847:
7842:
7837:
7827:
7825:
7818:
7814:
7813:
7811:
7810:
7805:
7800:
7791:
7786:
7781:
7776:
7771:
7766:
7761:
7756:
7751:
7746:
7737:
7732:
7727:
7722:
7717:
7712:
7707:
7702:
7697:
7692:
7687:
7682:
7677:
7672:
7667:
7662:
7657:
7652:
7647:
7642:
7633:
7628:
7623:
7614:
7609:
7589:
7584:
7579:
7574:
7569:
7564:
7555:
7546:
7541:
7532:
7527:
7522:
7515:
7510:
7495:
7493:Flanking tower
7490:
7481:
7472:
7467:
7462:
7460:Counter-castle
7457:
7452:
7447:
7442:
7437:
7428:
7419:
7410:
7401:
7396:
7391:
7386:
7381:
7376:
7371:
7366:
7361:
7356:
7347:
7342:
7333:
7324:
7319:
7314:
7309:
7304:
7299:
7294:
7289:
7284:
7279:
7270:
7265:
7260:
7254:
7252:
7250:Post-classical
7246:
7245:
7243:
7242:
7240:Vitrified fort
7237:
7225:
7216:
7207:
7198:
7193:
7184:
7179:
7173:
7168:
7163:
7158:
7153:
7144:
7139:
7130:
7125:
7120:
7115:
7110:
7105:
7100:
7098:Defensive wall
7095:
7090:
7085:
7080:
7075:
7066:
7057:
7048:
7039:
7030:
7021:
7012:
7007:
7001:
6999:
6995:
6994:
6991:Fortifications
6987:
6986:
6979:
6972:
6964:
6954:
6953:
6943:
6942:
6936:
6922:
6921:
6915:
6901:
6900:
6894:
6880:
6879:
6873:
6849:
6848:
6842:
6828:
6827:
6821:
6807:
6806:
6800:
6783:
6781:
6778:
6776:
6775:
6769:
6755:
6754:
6748:
6734:
6733:
6727:
6713:
6712:
6698:
6697:
6691:
6677:
6676:
6670:
6652:
6651:
6621:
6620:
6597:
6596:
6590:
6580:. London, UK:
6572:
6571:
6565:
6547:
6546:
6526:
6512:
6511:
6505:
6491:
6490:
6484:
6470:
6469:
6463:
6449:
6448:
6438:
6437:
6431:
6413:
6412:
6399:
6398:
6392:
6378:
6377:
6371:
6363:Timber Castles
6357:
6356:
6350:
6340:. London, UK:
6332:
6331:
6325:
6305:
6304:
6292:
6291:
6273:
6272:
6266:
6256:. Stroud, UK:
6248:
6247:
6241:
6218:
6217:
6182:
6181:
6175:
6161:
6160:
6154:
6137:
6136:
6130:
6116:
6115:
6109:
6095:
6094:
6088:
6064:
6063:
6057:
6043:
6042:
6036:
6022:
6021:
6007:. London, UK:
5995:
5994:
5988:
5974:
5973:
5967:
5949:
5948:
5942:
5928:
5927:
5921:
5907:
5906:
5900:
5878:
5877:
5863:
5862:
5856:
5830:
5829:
5823:
5802:
5801:
5795:
5777:
5776:
5770:
5756:
5755:
5749:
5735:
5733:
5730:
5728:
5727:
5715:
5700:
5688:
5676:
5664:
5652:
5640:
5628:
5616:
5604:
5592:
5580:
5568:
5553:
5541:
5537:Creighton 2002
5529:
5517:
5513:Creighton 2002
5505:
5501:Creighton 2002
5493:
5489:Creighton 2002
5481:
5469:
5440:
5428:
5416:
5412:Creighton 2002
5404:
5400:Creighton 2002
5392:
5380:
5376:Creighton 2002
5368:
5364:Creighton 2002
5356:
5341:
5337:Creighton 2002
5329:
5325:Creighton 2002
5317:
5305:
5301:Creighton 2002
5290:
5278:
5266:
5254:
5242:
5230:
5218:
5206:
5194:
5182:
5170:
5158:
5146:
5134:
5122:
5093:
5091:, p. 190.
5081:
5069:
5057:
5045:
5033:
5021:
5009:
4997:
4985:
4973:
4961:
4949:
4937:
4922:
4903:
4883:
4858:
4846:
4834:
4822:
4810:
4784:
4777:
4759:
4747:
4735:
4723:
4711:
4699:
4695:Chartrand 2005
4687:
4683:Chartrand 2005
4675:
4671:Chartrand 2005
4663:
4660:Chartrand 2005
4652:
4640:
4638:, pp. 4–5
4628:
4612:
4601:
4589:
4577:
4565:
4553:
4541:
4526:
4514:
4502:
4487:
4475:
4463:
4447:
4417:
4405:
4393:
4378:
4361:
4331:
4319:
4307:
4295:
4286:
4279:
4261:
4246:
4231:
4219:
4204:
4189:
4177:
4165:
4153:
4141:
4129:
4117:
4105:
4090:
4078:
4066:
4054:
4042:
4030:
4018:
4006:
3991:
3976:
3964:
3962:, pp. 8–9
3952:
3937:
3925:
3913:
3901:
3889:
3877:
3865:
3853:
3849:Creighton 2012
3841:
3829:
3827:, pp. 6–8
3817:
3813:Creighton 2012
3805:
3793:
3786:
3766:
3759:
3739:
3737:, p. 420.
3724:
3712:
3685:
3655:
3626:
3624:, p. 123.
3614:
3595:
3576:
3564:
3552:
3540:
3528:
3516:
3504:
3492:
3477:
3465:
3453:
3441:
3429:
3388:
3374:(in Maltese).
3355:
3340:
3328:
3316:
3301:
3289:
3277:
3265:
3253:
3241:
3229:
3217:
3205:
3193:
3181:
3169:
3154:
3142:
3130:
3113:
3101:
3086:
3084:, pp. 2–6
3074:
3062:
3060:, pp. 6–7
3050:
3038:
3026:
3014:
2999:
2987:
2975:
2963:
2951:
2939:
2924:
2912:
2897:
2870:
2869:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2810:early medieval
2784:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2748:Forts in India
2745:
2740:
2731:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2681:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2653:
2651:Lowland castle
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2611:
2602:
2601:
2600:
2584:
2581:
2562:Battering rams
2471:Lincoln Castle
2448:
2445:
2425:
2424:
2417:
2416:
2415:
2283:low-lying land
2258:
2255:
2204:
2161:
2158:
2142:
2141:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2050:
1987:(an estimated
1961:Peveril Castle
1901:
1898:
1867:Neuschwanstein
1859:Gothic Revival
1840:Bubaqra Castle
1762:Neuschwanstein
1754:
1751:
1723:Fort Longueuil
1663:
1660:
1632:Château de Ham
1607:Castle De Haar
1584:
1581:
1531:machicolations
1508:Harlech Castle
1460:including the
1438:
1435:
1311:Beeston Castle
1284:Paderne Castle
1251:
1250:
1234:
1231:
1157:archaeological
1151:
1148:
1059:
1056:
1048:Hadrian's Wall
951:
948:
915:
912:
906:
903:
890:
887:
875:
872:
860:machicolations
844:
841:
810:Main article:
807:
804:
757:Main article:
754:
751:
707:Main article:
704:
701:
651:Main article:
648:
645:
594:
591:
544:
541:
539:
536:
490:in French and
445:fortifications
437:
434:
430:country houses
418:Warwick Castle
374:Windsor Castle
343:Constantinople
327:
324:
226:
223:
221:
218:
75:
68:
67:
66:
49:
42:
41:
40:
39:
38:
26:
18:Castle studies
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10857:
10846:
10843:
10841:
10838:
10836:
10833:
10832:
10830:
10823:
10813:
10810:
10808:
10805:
10803:
10800:
10798:
10795:
10793:
10790:
10789:
10787:
10785:Organizations
10783:
10777:
10776:Machicolation
10774:
10772:
10769:
10767:
10764:
10762:
10759:
10756:
10752:
10749:
10747:
10744:
10742:
10739:
10738:
10736:
10732:
10724:
10721:
10720:
10719:
10716:
10714:
10711:
10709:
10706:
10704:
10701:
10699:
10696:
10694:
10691:
10689:
10686:
10684:
10681:
10679:
10676:
10675:
10673:
10669:
10663:
10660:
10658:
10655:
10653:
10650:
10648:
10645:
10643:
10640:
10638:
10635:
10633:
10632:Diamond blade
10630:
10628:
10625:
10623:
10620:
10618:
10615:
10613:
10612:Angle grinder
10610:
10609:
10607:
10603:
10597:
10594:
10592:
10589:
10585:
10582:
10581:
10580:
10577:
10575:
10572:
10568:
10565:
10564:
10563:
10560:
10558:
10555:
10553:
10550:
10548:
10545:
10543:
10540:
10538:
10535:
10533:
10530:
10528:
10525:
10523:
10520:
10518:
10515:
10513:
10510:
10508:
10505:
10503:
10500:
10499:
10497:
10493:
10487:
10484:
10482:
10479:
10477:
10474:
10472:
10469:
10467:
10464:
10462:
10459:
10457:
10454:
10452:
10449:
10447:
10444:
10442:
10439:
10437:
10434:
10432:
10429:
10427:
10424:
10423:
10421:
10417:
10413:
10406:
10401:
10399:
10394:
10392:
10387:
10386:
10383:
10366:
10362:
10358:
10355:
10349:
10345:
10342:
10336:
10333:
10327:
10323:
10319:
10316:
10315:
10312:
10304:
10298:
10295:
10293:
10290:
10289:
10287:
10279:
10273:
10270:
10268:
10265:
10263:
10260:
10258:
10255:
10253:
10250:
10248:
10245:
10243:
10240:
10238:
10235:
10233:
10230:
10228:
10225:
10223:
10220:
10218:
10215:
10213:
10210:
10208:
10205:
10203:
10200:
10198:
10195:
10193:
10190:
10188:
10185:
10183:
10180:
10178:
10175:
10173:
10170:
10168:
10165:
10163:
10160:
10158:
10155:
10153:
10150:
10148:
10145:
10143:
10140:
10138:
10135:
10133:
10130:
10128:
10125:
10123:
10122:Guinea-Bissau
10120:
10118:
10115:
10113:
10110:
10108:
10105:
10103:
10100:
10098:
10095:
10093:
10090:
10088:
10085:
10083:
10080:
10078:
10075:
10073:
10070:
10068:
10065:
10063:
10060:
10058:
10055:
10053:
10050:
10048:
10045:
10043:
10040:
10038:
10035:
10033:
10030:
10028:
10025:
10023:
10020:
10018:
10015:
10013:
10010:
10008:
10005:
10004:
10002:
9998:
9994:
9987:
9982:
9980:
9975:
9973:
9968:
9967:
9964:
9952:
9949:
9947:
9944:
9942:
9939:
9937:
9934:
9932:
9929:
9927:
9924:
9922:
9919:
9917:
9914:
9912:
9909:
9907:
9904:
9902:
9899:
9897:
9894:
9892:
9889:
9887:
9884:
9882:
9879:
9877:
9874:
9872:
9869:
9867:
9864:
9862:
9859:
9857:
9854:
9853:
9851:
9843:
9837:
9836:United States
9834:
9832:
9829:
9827:
9824:
9822:
9819:
9817:
9814:
9812:
9809:
9807:
9804:
9802:
9799:
9797:
9794:
9792:
9789:
9787:
9784:
9782:
9779:
9777:
9774:
9772:
9769:
9767:
9764:
9762:
9759:
9757:
9754:
9752:
9749:
9747:
9744:
9742:
9739:
9737:
9734:
9732:
9729:
9727:
9724:
9723:
9721:
9717:
9713:
9706:
9701:
9699:
9694:
9692:
9687:
9686:
9683:
9671:
9667:
9663:
9661:
9653:
9652:
9649:
9643:
9640:
9638:
9635:
9633:
9630:
9628:
9625:
9623:
9620:
9619:
9617:
9612:
9608:
9602:
9599:
9597:
9596:South Ossetia
9594:
9592:
9589:
9587:
9584:
9582:
9579:
9578:
9576:
9574:
9568:
9562:
9559:
9557:
9554:
9552:
9549:
9547:
9544:
9542:
9539:
9537:
9534:
9532:
9529:
9527:
9524:
9522:
9519:
9517:
9514:
9512:
9509:
9507:
9504:
9502:
9499:
9497:
9494:
9492:
9489:
9487:
9484:
9482:
9479:
9477:
9474:
9472:
9469:
9467:
9464:
9462:
9459:
9457:
9454:
9452:
9449:
9447:
9444:
9442:
9439:
9437:
9434:
9432:
9429:
9427:
9424:
9422:
9419:
9417:
9414:
9412:
9409:
9407:
9404:
9402:
9399:
9397:
9394:
9392:
9389:
9387:
9384:
9382:
9379:
9377:
9374:
9372:
9369:
9367:
9364:
9362:
9359:
9357:
9354:
9352:
9349:
9347:
9344:
9342:
9339:
9337:
9334:
9332:
9329:
9327:
9324:
9322:
9319:
9318:
9316:
9314:
9310:
9306:
9299:
9294:
9292:
9287:
9285:
9280:
9279:
9276:
9264:
9261:
9259:
9256:
9254:
9251:
9249:
9246:
9244:
9241:
9239:
9238:Faroe Islands
9236:
9234:
9231:
9230:
9228:
9222:
9216:
9213:
9211:
9210:South Ossetia
9208:
9206:
9203:
9201:
9198:
9196:
9193:
9192:
9190:
9184:
9178:
9175:
9173:
9170:
9168:
9165:
9163:
9160:
9158:
9155:
9153:
9150:
9148:
9145:
9143:
9140:
9138:
9135:
9133:
9130:
9128:
9125:
9123:
9120:
9118:
9115:
9113:
9110:
9108:
9105:
9103:
9100:
9098:
9095:
9093:
9090:
9088:
9085:
9083:
9080:
9078:
9075:
9073:
9070:
9068:
9065:
9063:
9062:Liechtenstein
9060:
9058:
9055:
9053:
9050:
9048:
9045:
9043:
9041:
9038:
9036:
9033:
9031:
9028:
9026:
9023:
9021:
9018:
9016:
9013:
9011:
9008:
9006:
9003:
9001:
8998:
8996:
8993:
8991:
8988:
8986:
8983:
8981:
8978:
8976:
8973:
8971:
8968:
8966:
8963:
8961:
8958:
8956:
8953:
8951:
8948:
8946:
8943:
8941:
8938:
8936:
8933:
8932:
8930:
8926:
8922:
8915:
8910:
8908:
8903:
8901:
8896:
8895:
8892:
8880:
8879:
8866:
8865:
8862:
8854:
8851:
8850:
8849:
8848:Urban warfare
8846:
8844:
8841:
8839:
8836:
8832:
8829:
8828:
8827:
8824:
8822:
8819:
8817:
8814:
8812:
8809:
8807:
8804:
8802:
8801:Civil defense
8799:
8798:
8796:
8792:
8786:
8783:
8781:
8778:
8776:
8773:
8771:
8768:
8766:
8763:
8761:
8758:
8756:
8753:
8751:
8748:
8746:
8743:
8741:
8738:
8736:
8733:
8731:
8728:
8726:
8723:
8722:
8720:
8716:
8710:
8707:
8705:
8702:
8700:
8697:
8695:
8692:
8690:
8687:
8685:
8682:
8680:
8677:
8675:
8672:
8670:
8669:Bastion forts
8667:
8666:
8664:
8660:
8654:
8653:Z-plan castle
8651:
8649:
8646:
8644:
8641:
8639:
8636:
8634:
8631:
8629:
8626:
8624:
8623:L-plan castle
8621:
8619:
8616:
8614:
8611:
8609:
8608:Bridge castle
8606:
8604:
8601:
8600:
8598:
8594:
8588:
8585:
8583:
8580:
8578:
8577:Refuge castle
8575:
8572:
8571:
8566:
8564:
8561:
8559:
8558:Military base
8556:
8553:
8552:
8547:
8544:
8543:
8538:
8535:
8534:
8529:
8527:
8524:
8522:
8521:Hunting lodge
8519:
8517:
8516:
8512:
8510:
8507:
8505:
8502:
8500:
8497:
8495:
8492:
8490:
8487:
8486:
8484:
8480:
8474:
8471:
8469:
8466:
8464:
8461:
8459:
8456:
8453:
8452:
8447:
8445:
8442:
8440:
8437:
8435:
8434:Moated castle
8432:
8430:
8427:
8425:
8422:
8420:
8419:Island castle
8417:
8415:
8412:
8410:
8407:
8405:
8402:
8400:
8397:
8395:
8392:
8391:
8389:
8387:By topography
8385:
8375:
8372:
8370:
8367:
8365:
8362:
8360:
8359:Submarine pen
8357:
8355:
8352:
8350:
8347:
8345:
8342:
8340:
8337:
8335:
8332:
8330:
8327:
8325:
8322:
8320:
8317:
8315:
8314:Hesco bastion
8312:
8310:
8307:
8305:
8302:
8300:
8297:
8295:
8292:
8290:
8287:
8285:
8282:
8280:
8277:
8275:
8272:
8270:
8267:
8265:
8262:
8260:
8257:
8255:
8252:
8250:
8247:
8245:
8242:
8240:
8237:
8235:
8232:
8230:
8229:Blast shelter
8227:
8225:
8222:
8220:
8217:
8215:
8212:
8210:
8207:
8205:
8202:
8201:
8199:
8195:
8189:
8186:
8183:
8182:
8177:
8175:
8172:
8170:
8167:
8165:
8162:
8160:
8157:
8155:
8152:
8150:
8147:
8145:
8142:
8140:
8137:
8135:
8132:
8130:
8127:
8124:
8123:
8118:
8116:
8113:
8112:
8110:
8106:
8099:
8098:
8093:
8091:
8088:
8086:
8083:
8081:
8078:
8075:
8074:
8069:
8067:
8064:
8062:
8059:
8057:
8054:
8052:
8049:
8047:
8044:
8042:
8039:
8036:
8035:
8030:
8027:
8026:
8021:
8019:
8016:
8012:
8011:
8006:
8004:
8001:
7999:
7998:Place-of-arms
7996:
7994:
7991:
7988:
7987:
7982:
7979:
7978:
7973:
7971:
7968:
7965:
7964:
7959:
7957:
7954:
7952:
7949:
7947:
7944:
7942:
7939:
7936:
7935:
7930:
7928:
7925:
7923:
7920:
7918:
7915:
7913:
7910:
7907:
7906:
7901:
7898:
7897:
7892:
7890:
7887:
7885:
7882:
7880:
7877:
7874:
7873:
7868:
7866:
7863:
7861:
7858:
7856:
7853:
7851:
7848:
7846:
7843:
7841:
7838:
7835:
7834:
7829:
7828:
7826:
7822:
7819:
7815:
7809:
7806:
7804:
7801:
7798:
7797:
7792:
7790:
7787:
7785:
7782:
7780:
7777:
7775:
7772:
7770:
7767:
7765:
7762:
7760:
7757:
7755:
7752:
7750:
7747:
7744:
7743:
7738:
7736:
7733:
7731:
7728:
7726:
7723:
7721:
7718:
7716:
7713:
7711:
7708:
7706:
7703:
7701:
7698:
7696:
7693:
7691:
7688:
7686:
7683:
7681:
7678:
7676:
7673:
7671:
7668:
7666:
7663:
7661:
7658:
7656:
7653:
7651:
7648:
7646:
7643:
7640:
7639:
7634:
7632:
7631:Machicolation
7629:
7627:
7626:L-plan castle
7624:
7621:
7620:
7615:
7613:
7610:
7605:
7604:
7596:
7595:
7590:
7588:
7585:
7583:
7580:
7578:
7575:
7573:
7570:
7568:
7565:
7562:
7561:
7556:
7553:
7552:
7547:
7545:
7542:
7539:
7538:
7533:
7531:
7528:
7526:
7523:
7521:
7520:
7516:
7514:
7511:
7508:
7504:
7500:
7496:
7494:
7491:
7488:
7487:
7482:
7479:
7478:
7473:
7471:
7468:
7466:
7463:
7461:
7458:
7456:
7453:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7441:
7438:
7435:
7434:
7429:
7426:
7425:
7420:
7417:
7416:
7411:
7408:
7407:
7402:
7400:
7397:
7395:
7392:
7390:
7387:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7375:
7372:
7370:
7367:
7365:
7362:
7360:
7359:Bridge castle
7357:
7354:
7353:
7348:
7346:
7343:
7340:
7339:
7334:
7331:
7330:
7325:
7323:
7322:Bent entrance
7320:
7318:
7315:
7313:
7310:
7308:
7307:Battery tower
7305:
7303:
7300:
7298:
7295:
7293:
7290:
7288:
7285:
7283:
7280:
7277:
7276:
7271:
7269:
7266:
7264:
7261:
7259:
7258:Advanced work
7256:
7255:
7253:
7251:
7247:
7241:
7238:
7234:
7229:
7226:
7223:
7222:
7217:
7214:
7213:
7208:
7205:
7204:
7199:
7197:
7194:
7191:
7190:
7185:
7183:
7182:Refuge castle
7180:
7177:
7174:
7172:
7169:
7167:
7164:
7162:
7159:
7157:
7154:
7151:
7150:
7145:
7143:
7140:
7137:
7136:
7131:
7129:
7126:
7124:
7121:
7119:
7116:
7114:
7111:
7109:
7106:
7104:
7101:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7073:
7072:
7067:
7064:
7063:
7058:
7055:
7054:
7049:
7046:
7045:
7040:
7037:
7036:
7031:
7028:
7027:
7022:
7019:
7018:
7013:
7011:
7008:
7006:
7003:
7002:
7000:
6996:
6992:
6985:
6980:
6978:
6973:
6971:
6966:
6965:
6962:
6958:
6950:
6945:
6944:
6939:
6937:0-521-37544-4
6933:
6929:
6924:
6923:
6918:
6916:0-521-45828-5
6912:
6908:
6903:
6902:
6897:
6895:3-8290-2221-2
6891:
6887:
6882:
6881:
6876:
6874:2-08-012271-1
6870:
6866:
6862:
6858:
6857:
6851:
6850:
6845:
6843:0-7185-1392-4
6839:
6835:
6830:
6829:
6824:
6822:0-415-26100-7
6818:
6814:
6809:
6808:
6803:
6801:0-85045-947-8
6797:
6793:
6789:
6785:
6784:
6772:
6766:
6762:
6757:
6756:
6751:
6745:
6741:
6736:
6735:
6730:
6724:
6720:
6715:
6714:
6709:
6705:
6700:
6699:
6694:
6688:
6684:
6679:
6678:
6673:
6671:0-521-32194-8
6667:
6663:
6659:
6654:
6653:
6648:
6644:
6640:
6636:
6632:
6628:
6623:
6622:
6610:
6606:
6605:
6599:
6598:
6593:
6591:0-500-02080-9
6587:
6583:
6579:
6574:
6573:
6568:
6562:
6558:
6554:
6549:
6548:
6543:
6537:
6529:
6523:
6519:
6514:
6513:
6508:
6506:0-7524-2885-3
6502:
6498:
6493:
6492:
6487:
6485:0-7134-7025-9
6481:
6477:
6472:
6471:
6466:
6464:0-9545575-2-2
6460:
6456:
6451:
6450:
6445:
6440:
6439:
6434:
6432:3-7995-0104-5
6428:
6424:
6420:
6415:
6414:
6409:
6405:
6404:Kennedy, Hugh
6401:
6400:
6395:
6393:0-415-25887-1
6389:
6385:
6380:
6379:
6374:
6372:0-7134-2189-4
6368:
6364:
6359:
6358:
6353:
6351:0-391-00901-X
6347:
6343:
6339:
6334:
6333:
6328:
6326:0-06-090674-X
6322:
6318:
6314:
6313:
6307:
6306:
6301:
6300:
6294:
6293:
6288:
6284:
6280:
6275:
6274:
6269:
6263:
6259:
6255:
6250:
6249:
6244:
6238:
6234:
6230:
6229:
6224:
6220:
6219:
6204:
6200:
6196:
6189:
6184:
6183:
6178:
6172:
6168:
6163:
6162:
6157:
6155:0-7100-8871-X
6151:
6147:
6143:
6139:
6138:
6133:
6131:0-19-288063-2
6127:
6123:
6118:
6117:
6112:
6110:0-7478-0546-6
6106:
6102:
6097:
6096:
6091:
6085:
6081:
6077:
6066:
6065:
6060:
6058:0-8264-5896-3
6054:
6050:
6045:
6044:
6039:
6037:0-19-927363-4
6033:
6029:
6024:
6023:
6018:
6014:
6010:
6006:
6002:
5997:
5996:
5991:
5985:
5981:
5976:
5975:
5970:
5964:
5960:
5956:
5951:
5950:
5945:
5943:0-918400-08-2
5939:
5935:
5930:
5929:
5924:
5922:0-527-50110-7
5918:
5914:
5909:
5908:
5903:
5897:
5893:
5888:
5887:
5880:
5879:
5874:
5870:
5865:
5864:
5859:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5841:
5837:
5836:Duby, Georges
5832:
5831:
5826:
5820:
5816:
5812:
5808:
5804:
5803:
5798:
5796:0-19-925312-9
5792:
5788:
5784:
5779:
5778:
5773:
5771:0-7134-4089-9
5767:
5763:
5758:
5757:
5752:
5750:1-84383-069-8
5746:
5742:
5737:
5736:
5725:, p. 127
5724:
5719:
5713:, p. 131
5712:
5707:
5705:
5698:, p. 262
5697:
5692:
5686:, p. 130
5685:
5680:
5673:
5668:
5661:
5656:
5649:
5644:
5638:, p. 124
5637:
5632:
5626:, p. 263
5625:
5620:
5614:, p. 264
5613:
5608:
5601:
5600:Liddiard 2005
5596:
5589:
5584:
5577:
5572:
5565:
5560:
5558:
5550:
5545:
5538:
5533:
5526:
5525:Liddiard 2005
5521:
5514:
5509:
5502:
5497:
5491:, p. 221
5490:
5485:
5478:
5473:
5458:
5454:
5450:
5444:
5437:
5432:
5425:
5420:
5413:
5408:
5402:, p. 198
5401:
5396:
5389:
5384:
5377:
5372:
5365:
5360:
5353:
5348:
5346:
5338:
5333:
5326:
5321:
5314:
5309:
5302:
5297:
5295:
5287:
5282:
5275:
5270:
5264:, p. 382
5263:
5258:
5251:
5246:
5239:
5234:
5227:
5222:
5215:
5214:Liddiard 2005
5210:
5203:
5198:
5191:
5186:
5179:
5174:
5168:, p. 172
5167:
5162:
5155:
5150:
5143:
5138:
5132:, p. 139
5131:
5126:
5111:
5107:
5103:
5097:
5090:
5085:
5078:
5073:
5066:
5061:
5054:
5049:
5042:
5037:
5030:
5029:Bachrach 1991
5025:
5019:, p. 104
5018:
5013:
5006:
5001:
4994:
4989:
4982:
4977:
4970:
4965:
4958:
4953:
4946:
4941:
4934:
4929:
4927:
4910:
4906:
4900:
4896:
4895:
4887:
4879:
4875:
4874:
4869:
4862:
4855:
4850:
4844:, p. 164
4843:
4842:Thompson 1987
4838:
4832:, p. 166
4831:
4830:Thompson 1987
4826:
4819:
4814:
4801:on 2009-11-14
4800:
4796:
4795:
4788:
4780:
4778:99932-39-40-2
4774:
4770:
4763:
4756:
4751:
4744:
4739:
4732:
4727:
4720:
4719:Thompson 1987
4715:
4708:
4703:
4696:
4691:
4684:
4679:
4672:
4667:
4661:
4656:
4649:
4644:
4637:
4632:
4625:
4624:Thompson 1987
4621:
4616:
4610:
4605:
4598:
4597:Thompson 1987
4593:
4586:
4585:Thompson 1987
4581:
4574:
4573:Thompson 1987
4569:
4562:
4561:Thompson 1987
4557:
4550:
4549:Thompson 1987
4545:
4539:, p. 169
4538:
4533:
4531:
4523:
4522:Thompson 1987
4518:
4512:, p. 168
4511:
4506:
4499:
4494:
4492:
4484:
4479:
4472:
4467:
4460:
4456:
4451:
4436:
4433:(13): 59–68.
4432:
4431:Sacra Militia
4428:
4421:
4414:
4409:
4403:, p. 214
4402:
4397:
4390:
4385:
4383:
4375:
4370:
4368:
4366:
4351:
4347:
4343:
4342:
4335:
4328:
4323:
4316:
4311:
4304:
4299:
4290:
4282:
4280:0-88402-163-7
4276:
4272:
4265:
4258:
4253:
4251:
4243:
4238:
4236:
4228:
4223:
4216:
4211:
4209:
4201:
4196:
4194:
4186:
4181:
4174:
4169:
4163:, p. 215
4162:
4157:
4150:
4145:
4138:
4133:
4126:
4121:
4114:
4109:
4102:
4097:
4095:
4087:
4082:
4075:
4070:
4063:
4058:
4051:
4046:
4040:, p. 222
4039:
4034:
4027:
4022:
4015:
4010:
4003:
3998:
3996:
3988:
3983:
3981:
3973:
3968:
3961:
3956:
3949:
3944:
3942:
3934:
3929:
3922:
3917:
3910:
3905:
3898:
3893:
3887:, p. 246
3886:
3881:
3874:
3869:
3862:
3857:
3850:
3845:
3838:
3833:
3826:
3821:
3814:
3809:
3802:
3797:
3789:
3787:9781135632434
3783:
3779:
3778:
3770:
3762:
3756:
3752:
3751:
3743:
3736:
3735:Cunliffe 1998
3731:
3729:
3722:, p. 15.
3721:
3716:
3710:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3689:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3659:
3643:
3639:
3638:
3630:
3623:
3618:
3602:
3598:
3596:9780816620036
3592:
3588:
3587:
3580:
3573:
3568:
3562:, p. 254
3561:
3556:
3549:
3544:
3537:
3532:
3525:
3520:
3513:
3508:
3502:, p. 10.
3501:
3500:Liddiard 2005
3496:
3490:, p. 208
3489:
3484:
3482:
3474:
3469:
3463:, p. 101
3462:
3457:
3450:
3445:
3438:
3433:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3399:
3392:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3366:
3359:
3352:
3347:
3345:
3337:
3332:
3325:
3320:
3313:
3308:
3306:
3298:
3293:
3286:
3281:
3274:
3269:
3263:, p. 402
3262:
3257:
3251:, p. 190
3250:
3245:
3239:, p. 188
3238:
3233:
3227:, p. 163
3226:
3221:
3215:, p. 399
3214:
3209:
3203:, p. 105
3202:
3197:
3190:
3185:
3178:
3173:
3166:
3161:
3159:
3152:, p. 397
3151:
3146:
3139:
3134:
3128:, p. 214
3127:
3122:
3120:
3118:
3110:
3109:Turnbull 2003
3105:
3098:
3097:Turnbull 2003
3093:
3091:
3083:
3078:
3071:
3070:Thompson 1987
3066:
3059:
3054:
3047:
3046:Liddiard 2005
3042:
3035:
3030:
3023:
3022:Liddiard 2005
3018:
3011:
3006:
3004:
2996:
2995:Stephens 1969
2991:
2984:
2983:Liddiard 2005
2979:
2972:
2967:
2960:
2955:
2948:
2947:Liddiard 2005
2943:
2936:
2931:
2929:
2921:
2916:
2910:
2907:, p. 6,
2906:
2901:
2887:on 2013-01-23
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2848:
2841:
2837:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2814:intentionally
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2789:
2785:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2735:
2734:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2685:
2684:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2646:Island castle
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2616:
2612:
2610:
2609:
2605:
2604:
2598:
2592:
2587:
2580:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2565:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2546:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2507:
2503:
2501:
2495:
2491:
2489:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2467:Matthew Paris
2463:
2458:
2454:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2427:
2421:
2414:
2412:
2411:Bodiam Castle
2408:
2404:
2400:
2399:parish church
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2368:
2364:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2341:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2327:planned towns
2324:
2319:
2316:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2279:highland area
2276:
2268:
2263:
2254:
2251:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2217:
2215:, p. 210
2214:
2213:Thorstad 2019
2208:
2203:
2199:
2197:
2193:
2188:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2166:Court (royal)
2160:Social centre
2153:
2149:
2144:
2138:
2131:
2129:
2125:
2124:
2119:
2116:
2112:
2111:Low Countries
2106:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2074:50 annually.
2073:
2069:
2066:cost between
2065:
2061:
2049:
2044:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1956:
1954:
1950:
1941:
1936:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1897:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1876:
1872:
1871:Edwin Lutyens
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1847:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1805:
1802:residence of
1801:
1798:
1797:neo-classical
1794:
1790:
1786:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1770:neoromanesque
1767:
1763:
1759:
1750:
1748:
1744:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1677:
1674:, as used in
1673:
1668:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1636:
1633:
1627:
1625:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1597:
1593:
1592:Corvin Castle
1589:
1580:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1551:Gran Castello
1547:
1543:
1541:
1535:
1532:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1498:
1497:bent entrance
1494:
1489:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1427:Third Crusade
1422:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1372:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1350:
1348:
1347:First Crusade
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1316:
1312:
1307:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1292:
1285:
1280:
1276:
1274:
1269:
1263:
1261:
1257:
1256:Owain Glyndŵr
1249:
1248:
1243:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1230:
1228:
1223:
1218:
1215:
1210:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1193:Castle Rising
1189:
1185:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1166:
1163:
1158:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1131:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1100:
1098:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1055:
1051:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1040:
1035:
1031:
1030:siege warfare
1027:
1026:siege engines
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
972:
968:
967:Tarxien phase
964:
960:
959:Borġ in-Nadur
956:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
911:
902:
900:
896:
886:
884:
880:
871:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
852:crenellations
849:
840:
838:
834:
830:
822:
818:
813:
803:
801:
797:
792:
790:
785:
783:
779:
770:
765:
760:
750:
748:
744:
740:
736:
727:
723:
719:
715:
710:
700:
697:
693:
689:
683:
680:
676:
672:
664:
659:
654:
644:
642:
636:
634:
630:
622:
618:
613:
608:
604:
600:
590:
588:
584:
580:
576:
571:
569:
560:
555:
550:
535:
533:
529:
524:
522:
518:
514:
513:
506:
503:
499:
495:
494:
489:
488:
483:
479:
471:
467:
463:
459:
457:
454:
450:
449:Maiden Castle
446:
442:
433:
431:
425:
423:
419:
415:
411:
403:
399:
395:
392:The medieval
390:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
365:
361:
360:First Crusade
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
339:walled cities
336:
333:
323:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
302:, Portuguese
301:
297:
296:
291:
287:
284:
280:
277:
273:
272:
267:
264:, which is a
263:
259:
255:
247:
243:
239:
236:
231:
217:
215:
212:
208:
204:
199:
194:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
175:flanking fire
172:
168:
163:
160:
155:
153:
149:
145:
144:curtain walls
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
98:is a type of
97:
87:
83:
79:
78:Bodiam Castle
72:
61:
57:
53:
46:
37:
33:
19:
10822:
10740:
10708:Tuckpointing
10662:Straightedge
10596:Stone veneer
10412:Stonemasonry
10357:Saint Helena
10328:
10232:South Africa
10222:Sierra Leone
10027:Burkina Faso
9941:Sint Maarten
9921:Saint Martin
9611:Dependencies
9541:Turkmenistan
9506:Saudi Arabia
9215:Transnistria
8871:
8826:Siege engine
8794:Other topics
8718:Related word
8684:Defense line
8648:Tower castle
8603:Bastion fort
8587:Urban castle
8515:Ganerbenburg
8513:
8468:Water castle
8444:Ridge castle
8429:Marsh castle
8244:Bomb shelter
8224:Belgian gate
8197:20th century
8108:19th century
8046:Retrenchment
8018:Punji sticks
7927:Entrenchment
7922:Device Forts
7889:Counterguard
7824:Early modern
7754:Tower castle
7690:Powder tower
7665:Outer bailey
7577:Inner bailey
7551:Gulyay-gorod
7519:Ganerbenburg
7517:
7513:Fujian tulou
7455:Corner tower
7394:Chamber gate
7388:
7364:Bridge tower
7212:Trou de loup
6956:
6948:
6927:
6906:
6885:
6860:
6855:
6833:
6812:
6791:
6760:
6742:. ABC-CLIO.
6739:
6718:
6707:
6703:
6682:
6657:
6630:
6626:
6613:. Retrieved
6603:
6577:
6552:
6517:
6496:
6475:
6454:
6443:
6422:
6418:
6407:
6383:
6362:
6337:
6311:
6298:
6282:
6278:
6253:
6227:
6210:. Retrieved
6198:
6194:
6169:. ABC-CLIO.
6166:
6145:
6121:
6100:
6069:
6048:
6027:
6004:
6000:
5979:
5954:
5933:
5912:
5885:
5872:
5868:
5839:
5810:
5782:
5761:
5740:
5732:Bibliography
5718:
5691:
5679:
5667:
5655:
5643:
5631:
5619:
5607:
5602:, p. 84
5595:
5583:
5571:
5544:
5532:
5520:
5508:
5496:
5484:
5479:, p. 51
5472:
5461:. Retrieved
5443:
5431:
5419:
5407:
5395:
5390:, p. 90
5383:
5371:
5359:
5339:, p. 36
5332:
5320:
5308:
5303:, p. 64
5286:Coulson 2003
5281:
5276:, p. 19
5274:McNeill 1992
5269:
5262:Coulson 2003
5257:
5250:McNeill 1992
5245:
5233:
5226:Schultz 2006
5221:
5209:
5202:Coulson 1979
5197:
5190:Coulson 1979
5185:
5178:McNeill 1992
5173:
5161:
5154:McNeill 1992
5149:
5142:McNeill 1992
5137:
5125:
5114:. Retrieved
5096:
5089:Kennedy 1994
5084:
5072:
5060:
5055:, p. 25
5048:
5043:, p. 78
5036:
5024:
5012:
5000:
4993:McNeill 1992
4988:
4983:, p. 43
4981:McNeill 1992
4976:
4969:McNeill 1992
4964:
4959:, p. 42
4957:McNeill 1992
4952:
4945:McNeill 1992
4940:
4933:McNeill 1992
4913:. Retrieved
4893:
4886:
4878:the original
4873:The Guardian
4871:
4861:
4856:, p. 17
4849:
4837:
4825:
4820:, p. 32
4813:
4803:, retrieved
4799:the original
4793:
4787:
4768:
4762:
4757:, p. 59
4750:
4745:, p. 63
4738:
4726:
4721:, p. 22
4714:
4709:, p. 64
4702:
4697:, p. 37
4690:
4685:, p. 38
4678:
4673:, p. 39
4666:
4655:
4643:
4631:
4620:Tillman 1958
4615:
4604:
4592:
4587:, p. 42
4580:
4568:
4556:
4551:, p. 38
4544:
4517:
4505:
4478:
4466:
4461:, p. 91
4455:Gebelin 1964
4450:
4439:. Retrieved
4430:
4420:
4408:
4396:
4391:, p. 77
4376:, p. 83
4354:, retrieved
4340:
4334:
4322:
4310:
4305:, p. 80
4298:
4289:
4270:
4264:
4259:, p. 29
4222:
4187:, p. 77
4180:
4168:
4156:
4144:
4132:
4127:, p. 13
4120:
4108:
4088:, p. 26
4081:
4069:
4064:, p. 34
4057:
4052:, p. 95
4045:
4033:
4021:
4009:
4004:, p. 79
3989:, p. 33
3967:
3955:
3935:, p. 13
3928:
3916:
3904:
3892:
3880:
3875:, p. 12
3868:
3863:, p. 35
3856:
3844:
3837:Coulson 2003
3832:
3820:
3808:
3803:, p. 7.
3796:
3776:
3769:
3749:
3742:
3720:Coulson 2003
3715:
3698:
3695:Civilization
3694:
3688:
3676:. Retrieved
3667:
3658:
3646:. Retrieved
3636:
3629:
3617:
3605:. Retrieved
3585:
3579:
3574:, p. 20
3572:Johnson 2002
3567:
3555:
3543:
3538:, p. 32
3531:
3519:
3507:
3495:
3475:, p. 68
3468:
3461:McNeill 1992
3456:
3451:, p. 25
3444:
3439:, p. 64
3432:
3421:the original
3404:
3391:
3380:the original
3375:
3371:
3358:
3351:McNeill 1992
3331:
3319:
3314:, p. 84
3299:, p. 86
3292:
3280:
3268:
3256:
3244:
3232:
3220:
3208:
3196:
3184:
3172:
3167:, p. 22
3145:
3133:
3104:
3077:
3065:
3053:
3041:
3029:
3017:
2990:
2985:, p. 18
2978:
2973:, p. 47
2966:
2959:Herlihy 1970
2954:
2942:
2937:, p. 16
2935:Coulson 2003
2922:, p. 32
2915:
2900:
2889:. Retrieved
2885:the original
2877:channel4.com
2876:
2860:. Retrieved
2846:
2840:
2817:
2813:
2788:
2732:
2682:
2678:Water castle
2663:Ridge castle
2655:
2613:
2606:
2566:
2554:counter-mine
2547:
2536:
2524:
2496:
2492:
2484:
2431:Leeds Castle
2407:water castle
2395:
2359:
2331:Safad Castle
2320:
2311:
2272:
2246:
2221:Courtly love
2219:
2210:
2206:
2200:
2189:
2185:
2152:Brick Gothic
2121:
2120:
2107:
2076:
2056:
2046:
1957:
1945:
1928:putlog holes
1924:Coucy Castle
1910:Stonemasonry
1900:Construction
1879:
1875:Castle Drogo
1848:
1824:
1780:of the time.
1743:Tower houses
1739:
1737:incursions.
1696:
1691:
1681:
1656:
1652:
1637:
1628:
1620:
1596:Transylvania
1568:Plantagenets
1564:
1536:
1528:
1513:
1490:
1486:
1455:
1423:
1417:
1378:Hospitallers
1375:
1361:
1351:
1323:antiquarians
1320:
1293:
1289:
1264:
1252:
1244:
1242:maison forte
1238:
1219:
1206:
1181:
1178:North Africa
1171:
1167:
1153:
1150:11th century
1132:
1127:
1123:
1117:
1093:
1081:
1061:
1052:
1037:
1007:
983:Indus Valley
976:
941:(similar to
908:
892:
877:
846:
829:siege towers
826:
793:
789:murder holes
786:
782:portcullises
774:
731:
703:Curtain wall
695:
691:
687:
684:
678:
668:
637:
625:
607:Outer bailey
603:Inner bailey
579:counterscarp
572:
564:
527:
525:
520:
511:
507:
501:
497:
491:
485:
477:
475:
440:
439:
426:
407:
394:Vidin Castle
382:Elizabeth II
329:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
293:
289:
285:
278:
269:
268:of the word
261:
253:
251:
195:
164:
156:
152:portcullises
135:
115:
95:
93:
36:
10617:Bush hammer
10552:Lime mortar
10431:Rustication
10284:recognition
10237:South Sudan
10127:Ivory Coast
9911:Puerto Rico
9821:Saint Lucia
9771:El Salvador
9670:Asia portal
9571:States with
9491:Philippines
9431:South Korea
9426:North Korea
9321:Afghanistan
9253:Isle of Man
9188:recognition
9162:Switzerland
9097:Netherlands
8725:Castle town
8582:Toll castle
8551:Lustschloss
8533:Kaiserpfalz
8463:Spur castle
8458:Rock castle
8399:Hill castle
8394:Cave castle
8354:Spider hole
8254:Bremer wall
8219:Barbed tape
8115:Barbed wire
7789:Witch tower
7759:Tower house
7749:Toll castle
7735:Shield wall
7655:Murder hole
7544:Guard tower
7161:Pincer gate
7108:Faussebraye
6201:: 138–156.
5216:, p. 9
4650:, p. 4
4626:, p. 4
4599:, p. 4
4401:Ekdahl 2006
4173:Norris 2004
4101:Aurell 2006
4062:Aurell 2006
3987:Aurell 2006
3972:Aurell 2006
3911:, p. 9
3622:Lepage 2002
3512:Taylor 2000
3111:, p. 4
3099:, p. 5
3048:, p. 2
2768:Tower house
2728:Murder hole
2673:Toll castle
2668:Spur castle
2636:Hill castle
2621:Cave castle
2577:siege tower
2475:crossbowmen
2382:Hämeenlinna
2340:manor house
2323:Eaton Socon
2315:toll castle
2229:tournaments
2192:chamberlain
2086:scaffolding
2023:14,500 and
1865:in Mexico,
1863:Chapultepec
1793:Mexico City
1766:historicist
1747:pele towers
1721:of France.
1670:The angled
1615:Netherlands
1540:Reconquista
1418:tetrapyrgia
1354:Saxon Shore
1268:curvilinear
1180:reliant on
1044:milecastles
950:Antecedents
848:Battlements
843:Battlements
743:battlements
739:undermining
726:North Wales
482:manor house
436:Terminology
332:Anglo-Saxon
314:. The word
276:Old English
238:White Tower
187:Roman forts
104:Middle Ages
82:East Sussex
10829:Categories
10771:Stone wall
10698:Repointing
10671:Techniques
10527:Fieldstone
10512:Cast stone
10466:Monumental
10339:(Portugal)
10297:Somaliland
10217:Seychelles
10182:Mozambique
10167:Mauritania
10152:Madagascar
10107:The Gambia
10042:Cape Verde
9906:Montserrat
9901:Martinique
9896:Guadeloupe
9751:Costa Rica
9551:Uzbekistan
9526:Tajikistan
9441:Kyrgyzstan
9421:Kazakhstan
9341:Bangladesh
9331:Azerbaijan
9132:San Marino
9092:Montenegro
9072:Luxembourg
9052:Kazakhstan
8955:Azerbaijan
8750:Gatekeeper
8570:Ordensburg
8542:Landesburg
8349:Sentry gun
8304:Flak tower
8234:Blast wall
8154:Gun turret
8051:Sally port
7956:Kotta mara
7896:Couvreface
7860:Breastwork
7855:Blockhouse
7833:Abwurfdach
7784:Watchtower
7774:Wall tower
7730:Shell keep
7680:Portcullis
7675:Peel tower
7660:Neck ditch
7619:Landesburg
7567:Half tower
7525:Gate tower
7470:Drawbridge
7312:Battlement
7228:Wagon fort
7071:Chengqiang
6865:Flammarion
6627:Landscapes
6615:2021-06-24
6212:2010-11-01
5875:: 228–244.
5696:Friar 2003
5672:Friar 2003
5624:Friar 2003
5612:Friar 2003
5564:Friar 2003
5463:2020-06-15
5388:Smail 1973
5313:Krahe 2002
5166:Friar 2003
5130:Emery 2007
5116:2009-10-16
5065:Friar 2003
4854:Friar 2003
4805:2009-11-24
4755:Friar 2003
4731:Friar 2003
4441:2019-06-30
4389:Friar 2003
4356:2009-10-20
4161:Friar 2003
4113:Friar 2003
4050:Friar 2003
3885:Friar 2003
3678:28 October
3648:28 October
3607:9 February
3560:Friar 2003
3548:Friar 2003
3536:Friar 2003
3524:Friar 2003
3488:Friar 2003
3449:Friar 2003
3336:Friar 2003
3324:Friar 2003
3297:Friar 2003
3225:Friar 2003
3201:Friar 2003
3189:Friar 2003
3165:Friar 2003
3126:Friar 2003
3010:Duffy 1979
2971:Friar 2003
2891:2021-08-14
2862:2021-08-14
2833:References
2703:Drawbridge
2693:Battlement
2657:Ordensburg
2542:springalds
2451:See also:
2287:Roman fort
2164:See also:
2064:Gloucester
1991:15,000 to
1904:See also:
1715:New France
1688:star forts
1412:, and the
1286:, Portugal
1273:enfilading
1028:and other
1003:earthworks
995:Bronze Age
991:hill forts
971:Bronze Age
935:Bronze Age
905:Great hall
883:sally port
879:Arrowslits
874:Arrowslits
833:drawbridge
747:enfilading
597:See also:
561:in France.
547:See also:
532:star forts
306:, Italian
298:, Spanish
266:diminutive
220:Definition
203:star forts
181:, such as
148:arrowslits
140:hill forts
10766:Sculpture
10755:Footstone
10751:Headstone
10718:Brickwork
10703:Scabbling
10683:Flushwork
10579:Sandstone
10557:Limestone
10532:Flagstone
10495:Materials
10476:Sculpture
10441:Dry stone
10172:Mauritius
9891:Greenland
9806:Nicaragua
9781:Guatemala
9637:Hong Kong
9591:Palestine
9516:Sri Lanka
9511:Singapore
9391:Indonesia
9243:Gibraltar
9067:Lithuania
8853:Guerrilla
8596:By design
8344:Revetment
8159:Land mine
8090:Star fort
7917:Crownwork
7912:Covertway
7845:Barricade
7486:Embrasure
7399:Chartaque
7329:Bergfried
7287:Arrowslit
7113:Gatehouse
7083:City gate
7044:Castellum
7010:Acropolis
6647:144179571
6633:: 38–55.
6536:cite book
6011:: 73–90.
4818:Buse 2005
4038:Vann 2006
3801:Ward 2009
3707:See also
3417:1026-132X
3411:: 26–33.
2881:Channel 4
2852:Channel 4
2822:garrisons
2802:gunpowder
2780:Footnotes
2688:Arrowslit
2615:Burgstall
2538:Ballistas
2532:trebuchet
2511:trebuchet
2302:Srebrenik
2275:Marksburg
2090:Antiquity
2013:Beaumaris
2003:1,000 to
1997:The Crown
1896:, Malta.
1644:Mehmed II
1640:trebuchet
1335:Palestine
1239:See also
1010:palisades
931:acropolis
899:city wall
864:loopholes
856:hoardings
759:Gatehouse
753:Gatehouse
735:artillery
641:ringworks
476:Although
456:hill fort
312:castellum
292:, French
262:castellum
252:The word
225:Etymology
198:gunpowder
196:Although
136:pleasance
100:fortified
10734:Products
10688:Knapping
10481:Slipform
10363: /
10359: /
10352:(France)
10346: /
10324: /
10320: /
10272:Zimbabwe
10247:Tanzania
10097:Ethiopia
10092:Eswatini
10072:Djibouti
10037:Cameroon
10022:Botswana
9856:Anguilla
9791:Honduras
9761:Dominica
9736:Barbados
9660:Category
9581:Abkhazia
9531:Thailand
9486:Pakistan
9466:Mongolia
9461:Maldives
9456:Malaysia
9356:Cambodia
9263:Svalbard
9248:Guernsey
9195:Abkhazia
9147:Slovenia
9142:Slovakia
9117:Portugal
8975:Bulgaria
8878:Category
8868:See also
8755:Loophole
8643:Ringwork
8638:Ringfort
8563:Obstacle
8404:Hillfort
8324:Loophole
8122:Barbette
8097:Tenaille
8080:Sea fort
8010:Presidio
7970:Magazine
7951:Hornwork
7884:Cavalier
7879:Casemate
7872:Caponier
7715:Ringwork
7603:Detinets
7572:Hoarding
7477:Enceinte
7352:Bretèche
7297:Bartizan
7292:Barbican
7268:Alcazaba
7196:Stockade
7176:Ringfort
7156:Palisade
7128:Landwehr
7123:Hillfort
6790:(1990).
6609:Archived
6406:(1994).
6225:(1995).
6203:Archived
6144:(1979).
5457:Archived
5110:Archived
4909:Archived
4435:Archived
4350:archived
3672:Archived
3642:Archived
3601:Archived
3372:L-Imnara
2856:Archived
2825:castles.
2794:nobility
2713:Hoarding
2583:See also
2573:walkways
2569:escalade
2528:mangonel
2354:Portugal
2242:bastards
2227:such as
2051:—
2029:Edward I
2019:costing
2017:Rhuddlan
1855:chivalry
1851:Romantic
1832:slighted
1800:imperial
1735:Iroquois
1699:Americas
1572:Normandy
1431:Saphadin
1386:Templars
1327:Saracens
1315:Cheshire
1260:Sycharth
1162:Provence
1136:Crusades
1128:castella
1124:castella
1089:ramparts
999:Iron Age
961:fort in
796:barbican
722:Anglesey
599:Enceinte
575:palisade
453:Iron Age
364:Frankish
341:such as
308:castello
300:castillo
211:Romantic
179:Crusades
108:nobility
10845:Masonry
10835:Castles
10678:Flaming
10542:Granite
10486:Snecked
10451:Masonry
10436:Carving
10348:Réunion
10344:Mayotte
10335:Madeira
10330:(Spain)
10326:Melilla
10257:Tunisia
10227:Somalia
10212:Senegal
10197:Nigeria
10187:Namibia
10177:Morocco
10142:Liberia
10137:Lesotho
10087:Eritrea
10057:Comoros
10032:Burundi
10007:Algeria
9886:Curaçao
9871:Bonaire
9866:Bermuda
9796:Jamaica
9776:Grenada
9731:Bahamas
9556:Vietnam
9471:Myanmar
9451:Lebanon
9381:Georgia
9336:Bahrain
9326:Armenia
9172:Ukraine
9122:Romania
9082:Moldova
9040:Ireland
9035:Iceland
9030:Hungary
9020:Germany
9015:Georgia
9005:Finland
9000:Estonia
8995:Denmark
8980:Croatia
8965:Belgium
8960:Belarus
8950:Austria
8945:Armenia
8940:Andorra
8935:Albania
8785:Vedette
8775:Schloss
8740:Festung
8735:Dungeon
8730:Château
8674:Castles
8482:By role
8339:Pillbox
8169:Outpost
8085:Station
8073:Schanze
8056:Sandbag
8041:Redoubt
8025:Ravelin
7993:Palanka
7977:Orillon
7963:Lunette
7905:Coupure
7850:Bastion
7840:Arsenal
7808:Zwinger
7720:Roundel
7710:Ricetto
7685:Postern
7670:Outwork
7594:Kremlin
7465:Curtain
7440:Citadel
7424:Chemise
7384:Caltrop
7302:Bastion
7275:Alcázar
7171:Rampart
7149:Oppidum
7142:Nuraghe
7088:Crannog
7062:Castros
6998:Ancient
5848:397–423
5838:(ed.).
2847:Tregruk
2796:in the
2708:Dungeon
2608:Alcázar
2447:Warfare
2386:Finland
2367:Normans
2363:Lincoln
2335:Galilee
2070:20 and
1894:Ħal Far
1885:Follies
1844:Bubaqra
1836:turrets
1819:Wardija
1703:Spanish
1701:by the
1684:bastion
1672:bastion
1646:at the
1611:Utrecht
1524:Livonia
1520:Prussia
1482:Belvoir
1400:of the
1371:Saladin
1214:Wendish
1197:Norfolk
1085:ditches
1072:Vikings
1068:Muslims
1064:Magyars
943:Mycenae
923:Daorson
914:History
895:postern
889:Postern
868:merlons
800:rampart
633:cistern
621:Finland
493:Schloss
487:château
347:Antioch
304:castelo
295:château
290:chastel
283:Occitan
271:castrum
244:of the
207:château
124:mansion
10761:Mosaic
10741:Castle
10713:Veneer
10642:Trowel
10627:Chisel
10574:Mortar
10562:Marble
10537:Gabion
10471:Rubble
10426:Ashlar
10367:
10350:
10337:
10267:Zambia
10262:Uganda
10202:Rwanda
10157:Malawi
10117:Guinea
10012:Angola
9811:Panama
9801:Mexico
9746:Canada
9741:Belize
9601:Taiwan
9536:Turkey
9501:Russia
9436:Kuwait
9416:Jordan
9406:Israel
9366:Cyprus
9351:Brunei
9346:Bhutan
9258:Jersey
9200:Kosovo
9167:Turkey
9157:Sweden
9137:Serbia
9127:Russia
9112:Poland
9107:Norway
9087:Monaco
9057:Latvia
9025:Greece
9010:France
8985:Cyprus
8780:Trench
8770:Picket
8181:Sangar
8134:Bunker
8066:Sconce
7986:Ostrog
7934:Flèche
7817:Modern
7796:Yagura
7764:Turret
7700:Reduit
7638:Merlon
7582:Kasbah
7560:Gusuku
7537:Glacis
7530:Gabion
7499:church
7406:Chashi
7389:Castle
7233:Laager
7221:Vallum
7178:(Rath)
7053:Castra
7035:Burgus
7005:Abatis
6934:
6913:
6892:
6871:
6840:
6819:
6798:
6767:
6746:
6725:
6689:
6668:
6645:
6588:
6563:
6524:
6503:
6482:
6461:
6429:
6390:
6369:
6348:
6323:
6264:
6239:
6173:
6152:
6128:
6107:
6086:
6055:
6034:
5986:
5965:
5940:
5919:
5898:
5854:
5821:
5793:
5768:
5747:
5106:UNESCO
4915:3 July
4901:
4775:
4346:UNESCO
4277:
3784:
3757:
3703:Ħamrun
3593:
3415:
3405:Vigilo
2909:chpt 1
2806:cannon
2758:Gusuku
2558:Margat
2306:Bosnia
2094:Chinon
2060:Exeter
2009:manors
1969:Orford
1949:Clones
1795:, the
1576:Raglan
1480:, and
1478:Margat
1468:, and
1408:, the
1404:, the
1222:donjon
1201:donjon
1182:tapial
1144:Europe
1070:, and
1039:castra
1022:Romans
1014:oppida
981:, the
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