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marginalized and unofficial languages; that there is not or cannot be a voice of reason, intelligence, love or even respect among its speakers. This then, may just be the reason as to why the language is being unrecognized by many communities and institutions. There is however a very distinct level of respect accompanied by the language that many may not understand. When a fellow tsotsi taal speaker sees and meets another; a very profound sense of respect and belonging can be witnessed. The term "ka" followed by what the western world would normally call a fist bump was traditionally a shortened versioned term for "kasi" meaning township - a proud expression indicating where one was from - the townships.
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as a South
African form of gangsta slang. However, the language is more than a mere slang, and is referred to by its speakers as "our language". With the advent of rising middle-class and elite Blacks in South Africa after apartheid and the significance of gold to the South African history and culture, the attitudes prevalent in kwaito music appropriate gold to notions of success and wealth. Because of their urban nature and form, tsotsitaals came to be emblematic of the attitudes of post-apartheid South African black poor youth that were largely apolitical, concerned mainly with a representation of success and wealth.
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of most youths, started to be spoken within households among the youths, and then between the youths and adults. In the course of the 1980s for the latest, Iscamtho reached the status of mother language for thousands of
Sowetan youths, meaning that children learnt Iscamtho in the cradle from their parents along with their family's other languages. Today, the distinction between Iscamtho and urban Zulu or urban Sotho in Soweto tends to be thinner as hundreds of thousands of youths actually speak Iscamtho as a first language.
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language, linguistic problems in the educational system are an important issue in Soweto: children considered by the authorities as being Zulu- or Sotho-speakers are educated in those languages. But the languages used at school are the standard ones. As a result, many pupils face comprehension problems, as they don't really know those rural standards. Some can miss up to 30% of the information which they receive. And teachers are so far not allowed to use
Iscamtho, although many of them do it informally.
598:, Iscamtho has been spreading to other township youths in the country, and different tsotsitaals have been enriched with typically Iscamtho material. Thus a form of "standardization" of tsotsitaals around the norm of Iscamtho might be on its way. This is largely the consequence of the presence of Iscamtho on the radio (through music but also because many national radios are based in Soweto and Johannesburg), on television (in series and entertainment shows) and in the kwaito culture.
33:
586:). Also, the taste of Tsotsitaal-speakers for word transformation, language-mixing and word creation has been transmitted to Iscamtho speakers. Thus, linguistic creativity is the main characteristic of the speakers of the Sowetan language. And although it has different varieties, Iscamtho carries a single identity for all of its speakers, who recognize it as one variety, whatever form it takes.
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gangster language to be used in the house. But it quickly became a symbol of the ethnically, culturally, and linguistically mixed culture of
Sophiatown. Tsotsitaal is now a moribund variety in the black townships, as its speakers are mainly above the age of 70. However, it has maintained in slightly different forms as a prison language and among the black communities who are Afrikaans-speaking.
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face inequalities compared to the rest of the population, as they might be tried in a language which is not the one they master best. On the contrary, when trying to use âtheirâ language at court, they rarely have the opportunity to be supported by a translator who can understand this language, as translators are recruited for their competence in one or more of the 11 official languages.
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African democracy (each language is represented in
Iscamtho) has become a language proper for both male and female speakers despite some remaining conservative behaviours and considerations towards female speakers. Especially among the younger lesbian community. Iscamtho is often used as a strong identity marker, and many young lesbians appreciate it and use it as their main language.
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and mastering it was the proof that one knew the urban environment well enough to cope and not be threatened. However, as
Tsotsitaal became the symbol of the cultural life of Sophiatown (before the area was cleared of its residents in the mid-1950s) it was adopted by a number of women. But only the most independent and self-affirmed women would then become Tsotsitaal-speakers.
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After the abolition of apartheid in South Africa in 1994, kwaito, already a popular music form in South Africa, and its artists came to embrace the use of tsotsitaal in lyrical content. Because they are associated with urban thugs and the criminal subculture, tsotsitaals and
Iscamtho are seen by many
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This is due to the way the language operates: from one grammar which serves as a matrix, the speaker adds words from other languages (including
English, Afrikaans, and different Bantu languages) or typically Iscamtho words. One can also create words by modifying existing ones or by coining completely
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Nowadays in Soweto, possibly up to 500,000 youths speak
Iscamtho as their main language or one of their main languages. Some of them have learnt it from birth, and master Iscamtho better than any other language. As the South African Constitution provides for everyone to be educated in his/her native
545:
grammars, mainly Zulu and Sotho. The Zulu-based and Sotho-based varieties are the most widespread in Soweto, but one can actually build
Iscamtho over any grammar of the South African Bantu languages, such as Xhosa, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda and others. But as Zulu is the dominant language in Soweto, and
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Through the media, and considering the symbolic power of Soweto over black township youths, Iscamtho is influencing young speakers of tsotsitaals in South Africa, and many adopt the words or expressions they discover on television or in kwaito. Thus, Iscamtho directly influences and reshapes local
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Due to the importance of gangsterism in Soweto over about four decades and due to the large numbers of Sowetan youths who experienced prison for criminal or political activities in the last two decades of apartheid, the status of Iscamtho changed: from a street language, it became the main language
606:
As a gangster language, Tsotsitaal originally was a male-only language. The same applies to Iscamtho. A female speaker would then be identified as either a gangster's girlfriend or a prostitute. For male speakers however, the language quickly acquired a meaning of city-slickness and street-wisdom,
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Iscamtho and Tsotsitaal are very similar in form and in the material which forms their vocabulary. But since the seventies and for political reasons, the use of Afrikaans as a matrix has been excluded in Iscamtho. Due to the popularity of Soweto among Black South African youth, and due also to the
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Tsotsitaal has been a model for Iscamtho, due to the cultural prestige of Sophiatown. But the youth abandoned it in the 1970s, when Afrikaans came to be no more associated with the power of the state, as it had been so far, but was recognized as the language of apartheid and oppression (especially
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Childs, G.T. 1997. The Status of Isicamtho, an Nguni-Based Urban Variety of Soweto, in Spears, A.K. and Winford, D. (ed.). The Structure and Status of Pidgins and Creoles, Including Selected Papers from the Meeting of the Society for Pidgin and Creole Linguistics, p. 341â367. Amsterdam: John
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Also, the issue of language in the judicial system suffers from the non-recognition of Iscamtho. South African citizens have the right to be tried in their language, but dispositions are only provided for the 11 official languages of the country. As a consequence, first-language Iscamtho-speakers
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In addition, a post-apartheid evolution has been the adoption of Iscamtho and other tsotsitaals by many female speakers. Especially, many girls in deep Soweto now have Iscamtho as (one of) their native language(s). Iscamtho as a symbol of youth, city-slickness and the multilingualism of the South
470:
From the original Tsotsitaal, the noun tsotsitaal came to refer to any gang or street language in South Africa. However, the specific variety behind the term would depend on the languages actually present in the specific urban environment were one tsotsitaal appears. The most important tsotsitaal
466:
Later, as a prestigious sign of rebellion against the state and its police, and as gangsters were admired by youths who would see in them examples of success, Tsotsitaal became a youth and street language. At the time, it would exceptionally be heard in households, as tradition did not allow a
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More often than not, when celebrated in the media capacity or space, tsotsi taal speakers are presented in a manner in which the older generations of such a culture would be described; fairly violent, conniving and restless. This kind of media portrayal usually spreads the logic; like all
634:
Today, kwaito music using tsotsitaal and more especially Iscamtho can be heard on national radio stations such as YFM (for Youth FM). Some prominent artists such as Zola7 speak Iscamtho when they appear in the media (Zola7 especially has its own regular TV show). Iscamtho is also used in
649:) and entertainment shows. From 2007, a local television station opened in Orlando West, Soweto. Called SowetoTV, this station uses Iscamtho as one of its main languages, together with English, Zulu and Sotho. A number of programs for the youths are in Iscamtho only, such as
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Satyo, S.C. 2001. Kwaito-speak: A Language Variety Created for the Youth by the Youth, in Ridge, E.; Makoni S. & Ridge, S. (ed.). Freedom and Discipline: Essays in Applied Linguistics from Southern Africa, p. 139-148. New Delhi: Bahri
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A tsotsitaal is built over the grammar of one or several languages, in which terms from other languages or specific terms created by the community of speakers are added. It is a permanent work of language-mix, language-switch, and
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One should consider that what occurs with native Iscamtho-speaking communities can also be applied to other tsotsitaal speaking communities in South Africa, in the Black townships as well as in the
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as Sotho in Soweto often unifies Sesotho, Setswana and Sepedi in one single variety and is the second most popular language in the township, Iscamtho is more often used "in" Zulu or "in" Sotho.
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new terms. Thus, Iscamtho and other tsotsitaals experience continuous evolution. Sometimes, new terms made famous by prominent artists can spread extremely quickly and replace older terms.
909:
Slabbert, S. and Myers-Scotton, C. 1996. The Structure of Tsotsitaal and Isicamtho: Code-Switching and In-Group Identity in South African Townships. Linguistics 34, p. 317â342.
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Aycard, P. 2008. Speak as You Want to Speak: Just Be Free!, A Linguistic-anthropological Monograph of First-language Iscamtho-speaking Youth in White City, Soweto: Master's thesis,
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The tsotsitaal phenomenon originates with one variety known as Flaaitaal or Flytaal, and then Tsotsitaal, which became popular under this latter name in the freehold township of
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Ntshangase, D.K. 2002. "Language and Language Practices in Soweto, in Mesthrie, R. (ed.), 2002, Language in South Africa, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 407â418.
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language. But as native speakers of Iscamtho refuse to be discriminated against, they often impose their language in exchanges, and consider it as respectful as any other.
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However, Iscamtho is quite different from the original Tsotsitaal. It originates in a different criminal argot created in the 1920s by the AmaLaita gang and known as
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slang word for a "thug" or "robber" or "criminal", possibly from the verb "ho lotsa" "to sharpen", whose meaning has been modified in modern times to include "to
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Hurst, Ellen (2009-09-01). "Tsotsitaal, global culture and local style: identity and recontextualisation in twentyâfirst century South African townships".
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advertisement, for all products which aim at the youths. Finally, Iscamtho has spread on television, through youth programs such as series (especially
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Glaser C. 2005. Whistles and Sjamboks: Crime and Policing in Soweto, 1960â1976, in South African Historical Journal, n°52, p. 119â139.
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Iscamtho has also become a language used in exchanges with older people, who previously would have been offended to be addressed to in the
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Hurst, Ellen. 2015. "Overview of the tsotsitaals of South Africa; Their different base languages and common core lexical items."
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Brookes, Heather. 2016. Urban youth languages in South Africa: A Case Study of Tsotsitaal in a South African Township.
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Glaser C. 1991. Bo-Tsotsi: the Youth Gangs of Soweto, 1935â1976, Portsmouth, N.H.; Heinemann, Oxford: James Currey.
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Hurst-Harosh, Ellen. "South Africa: Tsotsitaal and urban vernacular forms of South African languages." In
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Junction Avenue Theater - Purkey, M. & Stein, P., 1993, Sophiatown Theatre play: Publisher unknown.
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Molamu, L. 2003. Tsotsitaal: A Dictionary of the Language of Sophiatown. Pretoria: UNISA.
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after the 1976 Soweto Uprising). Iscamtho then became the one youth language in Soweto.
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townships, where Afrikaans-speaking populations have their own tsotsitaals.
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importance of Soweto-based artists in the foremost post-apartheid culture,
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Speak as you want to speak: just be free! - Video documentary, 34 minutes.
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and other South African languages. Tsotsitaal spread first as a criminal
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Commission for Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Community Rights
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nowadays in South Africa is the one from the township of
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415:also means "cool" or "street smart". The word
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131:Learn how and when to remove this message
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1032:SothoâTswana
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338:Guthrie code
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268:South Africa
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235:Guthrie code
216:
171:Now L2 only.
160:South Africa
127:
118:
99:
64:
53:
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41:
1393:Angloromani
1332:LGBTQ slang
1143:(Tshivená¸a)
647:Generations
643:Rhythm City
539:Shalambombo
113:introducing
1417:Categories
1264:Portuguese
1213:Nhlangwini
1176:Indigenous
1161:Recognised
1124:(Xitsonga)
1114:TswaâRonga
1095:(isiXhosa)
1058:(Setswana)
873:Benjamins.
791:Ethnologue
755:Ethnologue
750:Tsotsitaal
717:Mapantsula
496:ukuqamunda
443:, west of
441:Sophiatown
409:tsetse fly
377:Soshanguve
357:vernacular
353:Tsotsitaal
146:Tsotsitaal
96:references
49:Tsotsitaal
1346:IsiNgqumo
1294:Religious
1103:(isiZulu)
1087:(siSwati)
1050:(Sesotho)
1008:Afrikaans
841:144138870
833:0253-3952
638:Yizo Yizo
554:Structure
484:Isicamtho
421:Afrikaans
365:townships
321:Glottolog
305:ISO 639-3
258:Isicamtho
218:Glottolog
202:ISO 639-3
151:Flaaitaal
1373:Fanagalo
1311:Sanskrit
1254:Gujarati
992:Official
725:Fanagalo
685:See also
675:Coloured
580:vriendin
512:Setsotsi
508:Isitsoti
480:Iscamtho
453:IsiXhosa
449:SeTswana
328:camt1236
225:tsot1242
1237:Foreign
1193:Khoisan
1122:Tsonga
1056:Tswana
1013:English
528:lokasie
504:ringers
457:IsiZulu
435:History
393:Sesotho
381:Tembisa
369:Gauteng
109:improve
60:discuss
1383:Scamto
1306:Hebrew
1301:Arabic
1280:Telugu
1244:German
1223:Phuthi
1141:Venda
1093:Xhosa
1085:Swazi
839:
831:
786:Camtho
697:Tsotsi
620:tsotsi
596:kwaito
564:vandag
532:i-taal
520:Sekasi
516:tsotsi
514:('the
500:Ringas
473:Soweto
401:Tswana
389:Tsotsi
373:Soweto
252:Camtho
189:creole
187:Tswana
98:, but
55:Camtho
18:Camtho
1398:Kaaps
1356:Other
1340:Gayle
1324:Other
1275:Tamil
1269:Malay
1259:Hindi
1249:Greek
1183:Bhaca
1134:Venda
1101:Zulu
1069:Nguni
837:S2CID
737:Notes
543:Bantu
413:flaai
391:is a
43:split
1285:Urdu
1208:Nama
1203:Lozi
1198:Lala
1188:Khoe
829:ISSN
584:mooi
576:vrou
572:maat
568:goed
560:niks
524:kasi
488:isi-
461:cant
417:taal
397:Pedi
345:S40B
52:and
1228:Tuu
821:doi
788:at
752:at
645:or
510:or
482:or
419:in
405:con
399:or
367:of
312:cmt
274:Era
209:fly
166:Era
62:)
58:. (
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766:^
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