974:
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43:
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63:
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83:
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vary â sometimes significantly â which can lead to some lobes being overgrown by others. When this happens, the overgrown lobes stop growing and are ultimately swallowed up by the expanding lichen. As with other crustose lichens, placodioid lichens have a cortex on their upper surface, but not their lower one. This allows them to be distinguished from foliose lichens, which can be similar in appearance but have both an upper and a lower cortex. Crustose lichens may be both placodioid and areolate, as in, for example,
624:
706:
887:
209:; lichens with similar growth forms are not necessarily related, and some of those which are related do not have similar growth forms. Not every species can be easily categorized. Some show characteristics of two growth forms, and different authors may place such species in different groups. In general, a particular species shows same overall growth form wherever it is found, but this is not always the case. Traditionally, crustose, foliose and fruticose are considered to be the three main forms.
1493:
690:
846:, they are completely unattached to a substrate. Unlike a foliose lichen, a fruticose lichen does not have a distinct upper and lower surface. Instead, a cortex covers its entire surface, and the photobiont layer lies just below this, on all sides of the lichen's branches. The centre of a fruticose lichen's branches varies depending on the genus involved. In most, the centre is hollow. However, lichens in the genus
229:. This layer, which is usually dark, generally grows faster than the thallus which rides above it. This growth form is an adaptation which allows the lichen to cope with alternating periods of wet and dry. During wet periods, the lichen can absorb water, its tissues can swell, and the cracks close. The term "areolate" is derived from the
185:
need to survive. The yeast (where present) appears to help ward off microbes and potential predators through the production of various chemicals. Thallus types have evolved to provide the lichen's photobiont with optimal levels of light, water, and carbon dioxide, with different environmental conditions favouring different forms.
767:, typically located near the lichen's centre. Lichens with this structure are called "umbilicate". In general, medium to large epiphytic foliose lichens are moderately sensitive to air pollution, while smaller or ground-dwelling foliose lichens are more tolerant. The term "foliose" derives from the Latin word
576:
A crustose lichen, as its name suggests, is crust-like and two-dimensional, closely and completely bound at nearly all points to the substrate on which it grows. It typically cannot be removed from the substrate without at least partial destruction of one or the other. Some crustose lichens are thick
319:
green alga â sprinkled throughout. In the other, the thallus is dominated by photobiont filaments which have a thin fungal coating. Byssoid lichens are not particularly common, but they occur across a range of orders and families. Though they are found in a variety of habitats, they appear to be most
1077:
A placodioid lichen is a form of crustose lichen with lobed margins. These lobed edges, which radiate from the central part of the lichen, are its only growing sections; the central part of the lichen typically contains reproductive structures and does not expand. The growth rates of these lobes can
841:
A fruticose lichen is typically shrubby or coral-like in appearance, though some are hair-like or strap-like instead. Some grow upright while others hang. They attach to the substrate only at a single point at their base (or at most a very few points), and can be easily removed. Sometimes, as in the
742:
that are generally not firmly bonded to the substrate on which it grows. It typically has distinct upper and lower surfaces, each of which is typically covered with a cortex; some, however, lack a lower cortex. The photobiont layer lies just below the upper cortex. Where present, the lower cortex is
925:
A gelatinous lichen, also widely known as a "jelly lichen", is one with a cyanobacterial species ("blue-green alga") as the principal photobiont. Chains of the photobiont, rather than fungal hyphae, make up the bulk of the thallus, which is unlayered (and undifferentiated) as a result. Such lichens
1176:
on a roof. A squamulose lichen typically has no cortex on its lower surface, though a few species do. Some lichenologists consider squamulose lichens to be crustose lichens which peel up at their outer edges. Others consider them to be intermediate between crustose and foliose lichens. Squamulose
184:
relationship, to which each partner contributes. In most cases, the fungal partner provides the structure in which the various partners live; this structure helps to protect the photobiont from environmental pressures. The photosynthetic partner(s) provide the nutrients which the various partners
663:
Unlike most of the other forms detailed here (the exception being some byssoid lichens), a filamentous lichen's morphology is determined by its algal partner rather than its fungal partner. A thin layer of fungal hyphae surrounds an algal chain, resulting in a thread-like or hair-like structure.
418:, is typically brown or black, and spores are dispersed passively from it. Most calicioid lichens are crustose with tiny stalked fruiting bodies. However, because the fundamental characteristic of a calicioid lichen is the presence of a mazaedium rather than a stalked fruiting body, a handful of
1012:
A leprose lichen, which is typically considered to be a form of crustose lichen, is one with a powdery or dust-like appearance. Its undifferentiated thallus is an irregular mix of fungal hyphae and scattered photobiont cells, lacking a cortex or any definable layers. Morphologically, it is the
324:
or the underside of branches in rainforests. Their loose thallus structure and lack of a cortex may allow them to absorb water vapor directly from the air. Some lichenologists consider byssoid lichens to be a specialised type of fruticose lichen. The term "byssoid" is derived from the
1261:
In addition to the above forms, lichenologists have named a handful of informal growth forms for their resemblance to members of particular genera. Each of these is a subset of one of the growth forms described above. For an indication of what they look like, see the gallery below.
668:, growing on trees in forested areas, but are also common in some alpine zones. Lichenologists tend to consider filamentous lichens to be a type of fruticose lichen. This is an uncommon growth form, found in only a handful of genera. The term "filamentous" is derived from the Latin
926:
lack a cortex. Despite this lack of internal structure, gelatinous lichens usually have external growth forms that resemble those of fungal-dominated lichens. Gelatinous lichens are particularly common in areas with erratic rainfall or periodic inundation (such as
1017:, and thus largely water repellent. However, the lack of a cortex allows them to absorb water directly from humid air. Leprose lichens often grow in damp, shaded places generally untouched by rain. They may be completely covered in
314:
appearance due to the loosely woven hyphae in its thallus. It has no outer cortex. Lichens with this growth type can be split into two types. In one type, the thallus is dominated by fungal hyphae, with a photobiont â typically a
488:
and fruticose. The primary thallus is composed of small, overlapping scales, while the secondary thallus (which supports the lichen's fruiting structures) is fruticose in appearance. These secondary thalli, which are known as
1382:; many have now been moved to other genera within the family Parmeliaceae. They are primarily foliose, often closely attached to the substrate upon which they grow, and have apothecia and pycnidia over their entire surface (
577:
and lumpy, others thin and smooth, and some are almost completely submerged into the substrate with only apothecia emerging to the surface. Crustose lichens lack a lower cortex, though most have an upper cortex. The
852:
have a fairly elastic cord running through the middle. This is the most three-dimensional of the lichen growth forms, and the most sensitive to air pollution. The term "fruticose" is derived from the Latin word
152:(shrubby) are considered to be the three main forms. In addition to these more formalised, traditional growth types, there are a handful of informal types named for their resemblance to the lichens of specific
759:. The latter, which are found only in foliose lichens, come in a variety of shapes, the specifics of which can aid in species identification. Some foliose lichens attach only at a single stout peg called a
1021:â small aggregates of fungal hyphae and photobiont cells which can break off to form new lichen colonies. They have never been found with fruiting bodies. The term "leprose" derives from the Latin
320:
common in rainforests. Byssoid lichens typically grow in areas of high humidity, on surfaces where they have no direct contact with rainfall or running water â areas such as cactus spines in
140:) have described a dozen of these forms: areolate, byssoid, calicioid, cladoniform, crustose, filamentous, foliose, fruticose, gelatinous, leprose, placoidioid and squamulose. Traditionally,
664:
Because of their high surface to mass ratio they can quickly absorb moisture, enabling them to take advantage of even short periods of high humidity (such as fog or dew). They are often
1172:
in diameter. These plates may be attached to the substrate across their entire lower surface, or they may be attached only along one edge, so that they overlap neighbouring plates like
197:, which is the vegetative (non-reproductive) part of the lichen. In most species, this form is determined by the lichen's fungal partner, though in a small number, it is instead the
225:
sections, which can look a bit like cracked mud, flaking paint or little islands. These sections, known as areolae, are surrounded by a thin layer of fungal hyphae called a
365:
221:. As with all crustose lichens, it has a paint-like appearance, and is inseparable from the substrate on which it grows. However, its thallus is broken into regular
980:
1456:
458:
996:
964:
613:
1142:
743:
usually dark (sometimes even black), but occasionally white. Foliose lichens are attached to their substrate either by hyphae extending from the cortex or
639:
1045:
2879:
1358:(which are also known as "tube lichens", "bone lichens", or "pillow lichens"). They are foliose with lobes that are swollen and inflated, and without
936:
cyanobacteria allows the lichen to absorb significant amounts of moisture, swelling in the process. It can then remain sufficiently hydrated to allow
3453:
585:
layer lies just below the upper cortex. Many crustose lichens have a ring of unlichenised fungal hyphae at their edges. This fringe, known as a
205:(the lichen's photosynthetic partner) that determines the organism's overall shape. Growth form groupings are not always consistent with lichen
2746:"Racoleus, a new genus of sterile filamentous lichen-forming fungi from the tropics, with observations on the nomenclature and typification of
973:
606:
3105:
1185:
of the United States, for example, almost 60% of all soil lichens are squamulose. The term "squamulose" is derived from the Latin
529:
3465:
Wiersma, Yolanda F.; McMullin, R. Troy (May 2022). "Are calicioids useful indicators of boreal forest continuity or condition?".
1510:
546:
3442:
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3305:
3130:
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2868:
2812:
2734:
2634:
2593:
2574:
2522:
512:
1430:
271:
3067:
3039:
3011:
406:(which gives the form its name), they are commonly known as "stubble lichens" or "pin lichens". In these lichens, mature
3194:"A molecular approach to cyanobacterial diversity in a rock-pool community involving gelatinous lichens and free-living
1448:
3332:
Stevenson, Susan K.; Armleder, Harold M.; Arsenault, AndrĂŠ; Coxson, Darwyn; Delong, Craig; Jull, Michael, eds. (2011).
957:
358:
870:
3296:
Smith, C. W.; Aptroot, A.; Coppins, B. J.; Fletcher, A.; Gilbert, O. L.; James, P. W.; Wolseley, P. A., eds. (2009).
1528:
1038:
1492:
1466:
374:
3279:
3262:
2946:
from arid lands in southern Utah, USA: role of water content on light and temperature responses of CO2 exchange"
1404:
593:, may be black, white or the same colour as the rest of the thallus. The term "crustose" derives from the Latin
1276:. They are fruticose, typically with a beard-like thallus that is dangling or clustered; members of the genera
796:
451:
17:
1222:
1119:
587:
579:
3071:
3043:
3015:
1103:
1054:
989:
412:
2486:
AragĂłn, Gregorio; MartĂnez, Isabel; Hurtado, Pilar; BenĂtez, Ăngel; RodrĂguez, Clara; Prieto, MarĂa (2019).
1238:
780:
761:
753:
254:
3144:
2910:
1384:
745:
902:
287:
2859:
Jahns, H. M. (1973). "Anatomy, Morphology and
Development". In Ahmadjian, Vernon; Hale, Mason E. (eds.).
1206:
736:
1135:
136:), varies depending on the species and the environmental conditions it faces. Those who study lichens (
2644:
886:
812:
1213:
495:, can be branched, spike-like or cup-shaped. Lichens with this growth form are found in the families
2603:
1013:
simplest growth form. The cell walls of leprose lichens contain chemical compounds which make them
2795:
Honegger, R. (2001). "The
Symbiotic Phenotype of Lichen-Forming Ascomycetes". In Esser, K. (ed.).
2532:
Breuss, Othmar (2010). "An updated world-wide key to the catapyrenioid lichens (Verrucariaceae)".
3086:
945:
435:
2563:
193:
With the exception of calicioid lichens, lichen growth forms are based on the appearance of the
803:
326:
70:
156:. These include alectorioid, catapyrenioid, cetrarioid, hypogymnioid, parmelioid and usneoid.
1178:
1110:
646:
50:
2584:
BĂźdel, B.; Scheidegger, C. (1996). "Thallus morphology and anatomy". In Nash, Thomas (ed.).
2488:"Using growth forms to predict epiphytic lichen abundance in a wide variety of forest types"
623:
128:. They are regularly grouped by their external appearance â a characteristic known as their
3512:
3474:
3351:
Temu, Stella
Gilbert; Tibell, Sanja; Tibuhwa, Donatha Damian; Tibell, Leif (October 2019).
2957:
1559:
1438:
1229:
1061:
705:
3317:"Lichens of soil crust communities in the Intermountain Area of the western United States"
8:
1500:
893:
787:
278:
3478:
3401:
2961:
2666:
398:
Unlike the other growth forms detailed here, a calicioid lichen is distinguished by its
3490:
3379:
3284:
3249:
3212:
3180:
3140:
3059:
2981:
2902:
2847:
2830:
Hooker, T. N. (October 1980). "Lobe growth and marginal zonation in crustose lichens".
2818:
2778:
2723:
2709:
2549:
2474:
1518:
1272:
1245:
1182:
909:
536:
294:
206:
3410:"A review of the lichen family Parmeliaceae â history, phylogeny and current taxonomy"
410:
build up in a thick layer on the surface of the fruiting bodies. This layer, called a
3494:
3438:
3425:
3409:
3384:
3352:
3337:
3301:
3225:
3160:
3126:
3031:
3003:
2988:
2970:
2941:
2926:
2864:
2808:
2783:
2745:
2730:
2630:
2589:
2570:
2518:
1554:
1474:
1378:
1159:
877:
696:
553:
485:
423:
90:
3288:
3253:
3184:
2906:
2851:
2822:
2769:
2553:
2478:
689:
132:. This form, which is based on the appearance of vegetative part of the lichen (its
3482:
3421:
3374:
3364:
3316:
3274:
3241:
3193:
3172:
2965:
2894:
2839:
2800:
2773:
2765:
2701:
2541:
2499:
2466:
1126:
836:
819:
630:
519:
419:
149:
3437:(2nd ed.). St. Paul, Minnesota: The American Phytopathological Society.
3369:
3192:
Oksanen, Ilona; Lohtander, Katileena; Paulsrud, Per; Rikkinen, Jouko (June 2002).
1802:
1800:
2671:
2649:
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1165:
571:
442:
399:
218:
141:
3176:
2545:
62:
3486:
2364:
1797:
1536:
1315:
937:
843:
729:
500:
316:
173:
145:
3315:
St. Clair, Larry L.; Johansen, Jeffrey R.; Rushforth, Samuel R. (April 1993).
3245:
2843:
2804:
2470:
2457:(1982). "The morphological interpretation of cladoniiform thalli in lichens".
2176:
1352:
Hypogymnioid lichens are either members of, or resemble members of, the genus
940:
long after the wetting event is over. The term "gelatinous" means "resembling
475:
165:
3506:
2393:
2391:
1405:
1340:. They are foliose or subfruticose with erect lobes, and their apothecia and
1270:
Alectorioid lichens are either members of, or resemble members of, the genus
1173:
712:
202:
137:
121:
42:
3353:"Crustose calicioid lichens and fungi in mountain cloud forests of Tanzania"
422:
also fall into this category. Calicioid lichens are generally restricted to
82:
3405:
3388:
3334:
British
Columbia's Inland Rainforest: Ecology, Conservation, and Management
2898:
2787:
1412:
1337:
1310:
588:
580:
496:
426:, and can be used as indicators of the age and quality of such ecosystems.
2430:
2388:
2316:
2166:
2164:
2162:
413:
2263:
1955:
1812:
1402:(which are known as "beard lichens"). They are fruticose with an elastic
1398:
Usneoid lichens are either members of, or resemble members of, the genus
1290:
762:
754:
381:
311:
261:
226:
3216:
1614:
1385:
746:
484:, as most lichens in this genus show a combination of two growth types:
3397:
3161:"Lichen traits and species as indicators of vegetation and environment"
2713:
2454:
2340:
2159:
2000:
1829:
1827:
1364:
1354:
1169:
1014:
403:
113:
2504:
2487:
2060:
2050:
2048:
2046:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1902:
1880:
1878:
737:
927:
321:
181:
105:
2705:
2403:
2072:
1824:
2561:
Brodo, Irwin M.; Sharnoff, Sylvia Duran; Sharnoff, Stephen (2001).
2043:
1979:
1914:
1875:
1851:
1341:
1332:
1319:
1296:
1284:
665:
480:
1967:
1626:
1359:
1278:
1018:
941:
491:
241:, meaning "halo" or "open space") combined with the Latin suffix
222:
194:
133:
3331:
3191:
3159:
Nelson, Peter R.; McCune, Bruce; Swanson, David K. (Fall 2015).
2744:
Hawksworth, David L.; Santesson, Rolf; Tibell, Leif (May 2011).
2182:
1806:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1641:
3141:"National Lichens & Air Quality Database and Clearinghouse"
1839:
1709:
1707:
1705:
932:
337:, a word for "linen cloth of very fine threads" (via the Latin
169:
153:
109:
101:
3263:"Lichens: the interface between mycology and plant morphology"
2627:
Lichens: An
Illustrated Guide to the British and Irish Species
1773:
1322:â the part of the fruiting structure where spores are formed.
1690:
1638:
1602:
1376:
Parmelioid lichens were historically classified in the genus
1336:; many have now been moved to other genera within the family
1330:
Cetrarioid lichens were historically classified in the genus
1314:; many have now been moved to other genera within the family
1308:
Catapyrenioid lichens were historically members of the genus
848:
407:
237:, meaning "with areolae" (the plural of a diminutive form of
230:
177:
125:
2485:
2188:
2012:
1931:
1702:
1620:
3454:"Yeast emerges as hidden third partner in lichen symbiosis"
3395:
3295:
3280:
10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[1025:LTIBMA]2.0.CO;2
2436:
2397:
2370:
2322:
2269:
1961:
1751:
1749:
1659:
198:
117:
3314:
2940:
Lange, O. L.; Belnap, J.; Reichenberger, H. (April 1998).
2352:
2346:
2328:
2251:
2217:
2215:
2149:
2147:
2132:
2084:
349:), meaning "of or pertaining to" or "with the nature of".
2743:
2006:
1785:
1734:
2942:"Photosynthesis of the cyanobacterial soil-crust lichen
2939:
2420:
2418:
2170:
1746:
3350:
3064:
Information about
Australia's Flora: Australian lichens
3036:
Information about
Australia's Flora: Australian lichens
3008:
Information about
Australia's Flora: Australian lichens
2212:
2144:
1833:
1577:
1575:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2027:
1890:
1724:
1722:
176:
partners (also known as photobionts), and sometimes a
2560:
2415:
2409:
2304:
2292:
2200:
2120:
2066:
2054:
1994:
1925:
1908:
1884:
1857:
1632:
1592:
1590:
1164:
A squamulous lichen has a thallus composed of small,
1086:, meaning "plaque" or "tablet", and the Latin suffix
2227:
2108:
1572:
672:, meaning "filament", itself derived from the Latin
3224:Rogers, Roderick; Hafellner, Josef (October 1987).
3158:
2925:. Canberra: Australian Biological Resources Study.
2275:
2239:
2024:
1973:
1943:
1863:
1719:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1674:
2980:
2722:
2562:
2376:
1587:
857:, meaning "shrubby" or "similar to a shrub" (from
2096:
1761:
3504:
2583:
1696:
1671:
1608:
650:, showing a narrow black prothallus at the edges
3464:
3223:
2920:
1845:
1779:
1665:
1082:. The term "placodioid" derives from the Greek
2720:
1713:
1318:. They are squamulose and lack algae in their
1256:
1025:, meaning "scurfy" or "scaly" (from the Greek
402:rather than its thallus. Members of the order
217:An areolate lichen is the most common form of
2721:Hawksworth, David L.; Hill, David J. (1984).
1189:, meaning "provided with small scales" (from
1168:plates â known as squamules â measuring 1â15
3404:; Leavitt, Steven D.; Lumbsch, H. Thorsten;
3432:
2921:Kantvilas, Gintaras; Jarman, S. J. (1999).
2692:, a new lichen genus in the Parmeliaceae".
2358:
2334:
2257:
2138:
2090:
1791:
1740:
3433:Ulloa, Miguel; Hanlin, Richard T. (2012).
3230:, a new genus of byssoid lichenized fungi"
2987:. Princes Risborough: Shire Publications.
2880:"A new byssoid lichen genus from Tasmania"
1362:on their undersides. Members of the genus
3451:
3378:
3368:
3278:
3125:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2969:
2877:
2777:
2588:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2503:
1755:
1581:
478:thallus. The form is named for the genus
310:A byssoid lichen has a wispy, cottony or
245:, meaning "provided with" or "likeness".
168:organisms made up of multiple species: a
108:organisms made up of multiple species: a
3298:The Lichens of Great Britain and Ireland
2794:
2569:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
2347:St. Clair, Johansen & Rushforth 1993
2221:
3260:
3123:Biology of Polar Bryophytes and Lichens
3120:
2978:
2206:
2153:
2126:
2007:Hawksworth, Santesson & Tibell 2011
341:) in combination with the Latin suffix
14:
3505:
3300:. London: The British Lichen Society.
2829:
2687:
2629:. Slough, UK: Richmond Publishing Co.
2624:
2531:
2424:
2382:
2310:
2298:
2233:
2171:Lange, Belnap & Reichenberger 1998
2114:
3261:Sanders, William B. (December 2001).
2858:
2512:
2286:
2245:
2037:
1949:
1896:
1728:
1596:
1410:in the medulla; members of the genus
734:A foliose lichen has flat, leaf-like
2453:
1869:
1390:), rather than only at the margins.
751:, or by root-like structures called
3452:Van Hoose, Natalie (21 July 2021).
3108:. Maine Natural History Observatory
3068:Australian National Botanic Gardens
3040:Australian National Botanic Gardens
3012:Australian National Botanic Gardens
2410:Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001
2067:Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001
2055:Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001
1995:Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001
1926:Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001
1909:Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001
1885:Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001
1858:Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001
1633:Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001
1177:lichens are particularly common in
474:A cladoniform lichen is one with a
24:
3435:Illustrated Dictionary of Mycology
27:Gross morphological classification
25:
3524:
3057:
2923:Lichens of rainforest in Tasmania
2102:
1974:Nelson, McCune & Swanson 2015
1819:Maine Natural History Observatory
1344:are located on the lobe margins.
3426:10.1111/j.1756-1051.2012.00008.x
3106:"Lichens of Mount Desert Island"
2971:10.1046/j.1365-2435.1998.00192.x
2878:Kantvilas, Gintaras (May 1996).
1527:
1509:
1491:
1465:
1447:
1429:
1303:
1237:
1221:
1205:
1134:
1118:
1102:
1053:
1037:
988:
972:
956:
901:
885:
869:
811:
795:
779:
704:
688:
638:
622:
605:
545:
528:
511:
450:
434:
373:
357:
286:
270:
253:
81:
61:
41:
2770:10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.10
2665:
2517:. Slough: Richmond Publishing.
2194:
1347:
188:
3029:
1767:
1265:
658:
469:
13:
1:
3467:Biodiversity and Conservation
3370:10.3390/microorganisms7110491
3072:Australian National Herbarium
3044:Australian National Herbarium
3016:Australian National Herbarium
2643:
2602:
2018:
1937:
1565:
1371:
1325:
1153:
1090:â a contraction of the Greek
1072:
920:
3145:United States Forest Service
2079:United States Forest Service
1697:BĂźdel & Scheidegger 1996
1609:BĂźdel & Scheidegger 1996
1416:also have this growth type.
1368:also have this growth type.
1300:also have this growth type.
1094:, which denotes similarity.
830:
393:
7:
3177:10.1639/0007-2745-118.3.252
2799:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
2546:10.13158/heia.23.2.2010.205
1846:Wiersma & McMullin 2022
1780:Rogers & Hafellner 1987
1666:Kantvilas & Jarman 1999
1548:
565:
212:
35:The three main growth forms
10:
3529:
3487:10.1007/s10531-022-02418-5
2863:. London: Academic Press.
2446:
1714:Hawksworth & Hill 1984
1393:
1157:
1007:
834:
727:
723:
676:, meaning "to spin", from
569:
330:
305:
159:
3246:10.1017/S0024282987000379
3139:
3104:
3001:
2979:Laundon, Jack R. (1986).
2844:10.1017/S002428298000031X
2805:10.1007/978-3-662-07334-6
2625:Dobson, Frank S. (2011).
2471:10.1017/s0024282982000255
2078:
1818:
1684:
1214:Lichenomphalia hudsoniana
617:, which has no prothallus
557:, with cup-shaped podetia
540:, with spike-like podetia
366:Roccellinastrum neglectum
3414:Nordic Journal of Botany
3336:. Vancouver: UBC Press.
3205:Annales Botanici Fennici
3085:
2725:The lichen-forming fungi
2688:Goward, Trevor (1986). "
2565:Lichens of North America
1653:
1197:, which means "scale").
3400:; Divakar, Pradeep K.;
3121:Longton, R. E. (1988).
2359:Ulloa & Hanlin 2012
2335:Ulloa & Hanlin 2012
2258:Ulloa & Hanlin 2012
2139:Ulloa & Hanlin 2012
2091:Ulloa & Hanlin 2012
1792:Ulloa & Hanlin 2012
1741:Ulloa & Hanlin 2012
523:, with branched podetia
3458:Purdue University News
3321:Great Basin Naturalist
3091:British Lichen Society
2899:10.1006/lich.1996.0020
2513:Baron, George (1999).
1654:British Lichen Society
1029:, meaning "leprosy").
981:Leptogium phyllocarpum
804:Flavoparmelia caperata
71:Flavoparmelia caperata
3058:Lepp, Heino (2011c).
3030:Lepp, Heino (2011b).
3002:Lepp, Heino (2011a).
2515:Understanding Lichens
2195:Merriam-Webster 2022d
2019:Merriam-Webster 2022b
1938:Merriam-Webster 2022c
1807:Stevenson et al. 2011
1457:Catapyrenium cinereum
1421:Informal growth forms
1179:biological soil crust
1111:Variospora flavescens
1080:Variospora flavescens
647:Lecidella elaeochroma
597:, meaning "crusted".
459:Chaenotheca brunneola
172:partner, one or more
51:Lecidella elaeochroma
3460:. Purdue University.
3032:"Form and structure"
2729:. Glasgow: Blackie.
2373:, pp. 645, 655.
1560:Symbiosis in lichens
1439:Alectoria sarmentosa
1403:
1383:
1230:Normandina pulchella
1193:, the diminutive of
1181:communities. In the
1062:Chrysothrix xanthina
997:Collema subflaccidum
965:Collema bachmanianum
861:, meaning "shrub").
760:
752:
744:
735:
680:, meaning "thread".
586:
578:
411:
3479:2022BiCon..31.1647W
3087:"Lichen Morphology"
3004:"What is a lichen?"
2962:1998FuEco..12..195L
2916:on 28 October 2014.
2183:Oksanen et al. 2002
1501:Hypogymnia physodes
930:). The presence of
894:Cladonia portentosa
788:Xanthoria parietina
771:, meaning "leafy".
614:Lecanora chlarotera
279:Acarospora strigata
3473:(5â6): 1647â1664.
3406:Seaward, Mark R.D.
2950:Functional Ecology
1621:AragĂłn et al. 2019
1519:Parmelia saxatilis
1246:Placidium arboreum
1183:Intermountain West
1143:Lecanora valesiaca
910:Ramalina farinacea
537:Cladonia macilenta
295:Caloplaca maculata
124:) and sometimes a
3444:978-0-89054-400-6
3402:Kärnefelt, Ingvar
3343:978-0-7748-1849-0
3307:978-0-9540418-8-5
3273:(12): 1025â1035.
3234:The Lichenologist
3132:978-0-521-25015-3
3060:"Vagrant lichens"
2994:978-0-85263-811-8
2932:978-0-642-56802-1
2887:The Lichenologist
2870:978-0-12-044950-7
2832:The Lichenologist
2814:978-3-642-08310-5
2736:978-0-216-91634-0
2636:978-0-85546-316-8
2595:978-0-521-45368-4
2576:978-0-300-08249-4
2524:978-0-85546-252-9
2505:10.3390/d11040051
2459:The Lichenologist
2437:Thell et al. 2012
2398:Thell et al. 2012
2371:Thell et al. 2012
2323:Smith et al. 2009
2270:Smith et al. 2009
2069:, pp. 13â14.
1962:Smith et al. 2009
1911:, pp. 16â17.
1899:, pp. 25â26.
1555:Lichen morphology
1475:Cetraria aculeata
1257:The "look-alikes"
1160:Squamulose lichen
1046:Lepraria neglecta
878:Evernia prunastri
697:Bryoria fremontii
554:Cladonia pyxidata
424:old-growth forest
420:fruticose lichens
345:(via the English
91:Usnea filipendula
16:(Redirected from
3520:
3498:
3461:
3448:
3429:
3392:
3382:
3372:
3347:
3328:
3311:
3292:
3282:
3257:
3220:
3202:
3188:
3155:
3153:
3151:
3136:
3117:
3115:
3113:
3101:
3099:
3097:
3082:
3080:
3078:
3054:
3052:
3050:
3026:
3024:
3022:
2998:
2986:
2975:
2973:
2936:
2917:
2915:
2909:. Archived from
2884:
2874:
2855:
2826:
2791:
2781:
2740:
2728:
2717:
2684:
2682:
2680:
2662:
2660:
2658:
2640:
2621:
2619:
2617:
2599:
2580:
2568:
2557:
2528:
2509:
2507:
2482:
2440:
2434:
2428:
2422:
2413:
2407:
2401:
2395:
2386:
2380:
2374:
2368:
2362:
2356:
2350:
2344:
2338:
2332:
2326:
2320:
2314:
2308:
2302:
2296:
2290:
2284:
2273:
2267:
2261:
2255:
2249:
2243:
2237:
2231:
2225:
2219:
2210:
2204:
2198:
2192:
2186:
2180:
2174:
2168:
2157:
2151:
2142:
2136:
2130:
2124:
2118:
2112:
2106:
2100:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2076:
2070:
2064:
2058:
2052:
2041:
2035:
2022:
2016:
2010:
2004:
1998:
1992:
1977:
1971:
1965:
1959:
1953:
1947:
1941:
1935:
1929:
1923:
1912:
1906:
1900:
1894:
1888:
1882:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1834:Temu et al. 2019
1831:
1822:
1816:
1810:
1804:
1795:
1789:
1783:
1777:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1753:
1744:
1738:
1732:
1726:
1717:
1711:
1700:
1694:
1688:
1682:
1669:
1663:
1657:
1651:
1636:
1630:
1624:
1618:
1612:
1606:
1600:
1594:
1585:
1579:
1531:
1513:
1495:
1469:
1451:
1433:
1407:
1387:
1241:
1225:
1209:
1138:
1127:Dimelaena oreina
1122:
1106:
1057:
1041:
992:
976:
960:
905:
889:
873:
837:Fruticose lichen
820:Parmelia sulcata
815:
799:
783:
764:
756:
748:
739:
708:
692:
642:
631:Caloplaca marina
626:
609:
590:
582:
549:
532:
520:Cladonia furcata
515:
454:
438:
415:
377:
361:
332:
290:
274:
257:
85:
65:
45:
21:
3528:
3527:
3523:
3522:
3521:
3519:
3518:
3517:
3503:
3502:
3501:
3445:
3344:
3308:
3200:
3149:
3147:
3133:
3111:
3109:
3095:
3093:
3076:
3074:
3048:
3046:
3020:
3018:
2995:
2933:
2913:
2882:
2871:
2815:
2737:
2706:10.2307/3243288
2678:
2676:
2672:Merriam-Webster
2656:
2654:
2650:Merriam-Webster
2637:
2615:
2613:
2609:Merriam-Webster
2596:
2577:
2525:
2449:
2444:
2443:
2435:
2431:
2423:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2396:
2389:
2381:
2377:
2369:
2365:
2357:
2353:
2345:
2341:
2333:
2329:
2321:
2317:
2309:
2305:
2297:
2293:
2285:
2276:
2268:
2264:
2256:
2252:
2244:
2240:
2232:
2228:
2220:
2213:
2205:
2201:
2193:
2189:
2181:
2177:
2169:
2160:
2156:, p. 1033.
2152:
2145:
2137:
2133:
2125:
2121:
2113:
2109:
2101:
2097:
2089:
2085:
2077:
2073:
2065:
2061:
2053:
2044:
2036:
2025:
2017:
2013:
2005:
2001:
1993:
1980:
1972:
1968:
1960:
1956:
1948:
1944:
1936:
1932:
1924:
1915:
1907:
1903:
1895:
1891:
1883:
1876:
1868:
1864:
1856:
1852:
1848:, p. 1647.
1844:
1840:
1832:
1825:
1817:
1813:
1805:
1798:
1790:
1786:
1778:
1774:
1766:
1762:
1754:
1747:
1739:
1735:
1727:
1720:
1712:
1703:
1695:
1691:
1683:
1672:
1664:
1660:
1652:
1639:
1631:
1627:
1619:
1615:
1607:
1603:
1595:
1588:
1580:
1573:
1568:
1551:
1546:
1545:
1544:
1541:
1532:
1523:
1514:
1505:
1496:
1484:
1483:
1482:
1479:
1470:
1461:
1454:Catapyrenioid (
1452:
1443:
1434:
1423:
1422:
1409:
1396:
1389:
1374:
1350:
1328:
1306:
1268:
1259:
1254:
1253:
1252:
1249:
1242:
1233:
1226:
1217:
1210:
1162:
1156:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1146:
1139:
1130:
1123:
1114:
1107:
1075:
1070:
1069:
1068:
1065:
1058:
1049:
1042:
1010:
1005:
1004:
1003:
1000:
993:
984:
977:
968:
961:
923:
918:
917:
916:
913:
906:
897:
890:
881:
874:
844:vagrant lichens
839:
833:
828:
827:
826:
823:
816:
807:
800:
791:
784:
766:
758:
750:
741:
732:
726:
721:
720:
719:
716:
709:
700:
693:
661:
656:
655:
654:
651:
643:
634:
627:
618:
610:
592:
584:
574:
572:Crustose lichen
568:
563:
562:
561:
558:
550:
541:
533:
524:
516:
472:
467:
466:
465:
462:
455:
446:
443:Calicium viride
439:
417:
400:fruiting bodies
396:
391:
390:
389:
386:
378:
369:
362:
308:
303:
302:
301:
298:
291:
282:
275:
266:
258:
219:crustose lichen
215:
191:
162:
99:
98:
97:
96:
95:
86:
77:
76:
75:
66:
57:
56:
55:
46:
37:
36:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3526:
3516:
3515:
3500:
3499:
3462:
3449:
3443:
3430:
3420:(6): 641â664.
3393:
3357:Microorganisms
3348:
3342:
3329:
3312:
3306:
3293:
3258:
3240:(4): 401â408.
3221:
3189:
3171:(3): 252â263.
3165:The Bryologist
3156:
3137:
3131:
3118:
3102:
3083:
3055:
3027:
2999:
2993:
2976:
2956:(2): 195â202.
2937:
2931:
2918:
2893:(3): 229â237.
2875:
2869:
2856:
2838:(3): 313â323.
2827:
2813:
2792:
2741:
2735:
2718:
2700:(3): 219â223.
2694:The Bryologist
2685:
2663:
2641:
2635:
2622:
2600:
2594:
2586:Lichen Biology
2581:
2575:
2558:
2540:(2): 205â216.
2529:
2523:
2510:
2483:
2465:(2): 105â113.
2450:
2448:
2445:
2442:
2441:
2439:, p. 655.
2429:
2427:, p. 219.
2414:
2412:, p. 345.
2402:
2400:, p. 645.
2387:
2375:
2363:
2361:, p. 610.
2351:
2339:
2337:, p. 482.
2327:
2325:, p. 262.
2315:
2313:, p. 316.
2303:
2301:, p. 315.
2291:
2274:
2262:
2260:, p. 339.
2250:
2238:
2226:
2224:, p. 167.
2211:
2199:
2187:
2175:
2173:, p. 196.
2158:
2143:
2141:, p. 234.
2131:
2119:
2107:
2095:
2093:, p. 229.
2083:
2071:
2059:
2042:
2023:
2011:
1999:
1978:
1976:, p. 261.
1966:
1954:
1942:
1930:
1913:
1901:
1889:
1874:
1872:, p. 105.
1862:
1850:
1838:
1823:
1811:
1809:, p. 353.
1796:
1784:
1782:, p. 406.
1772:
1760:
1758:, p. 229.
1756:Kantvilas 1996
1745:
1733:
1718:
1701:
1689:
1670:
1658:
1637:
1625:
1613:
1601:
1586:
1582:Van Hoose 2021
1570:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1563:
1562:
1557:
1550:
1547:
1543:
1542:
1537:Usnea scabrata
1533:
1526:
1524:
1515:
1508:
1506:
1498:Hypogymnioid (
1497:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1485:
1481:
1480:
1471:
1464:
1462:
1453:
1446:
1444:
1435:
1428:
1425:
1424:
1420:
1419:
1418:
1395:
1392:
1373:
1370:
1349:
1346:
1327:
1324:
1316:Verrucariaceae
1305:
1302:
1267:
1264:
1258:
1255:
1251:
1250:
1243:
1236:
1234:
1227:
1220:
1218:
1211:
1204:
1201:
1200:
1199:
1158:Main article:
1155:
1152:
1148:
1147:
1140:
1133:
1131:
1124:
1117:
1115:
1108:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1074:
1071:
1067:
1066:
1059:
1052:
1050:
1043:
1036:
1033:
1032:
1031:
1009:
1006:
1002:
1001:
994:
987:
985:
978:
971:
969:
962:
955:
952:
951:
950:
938:photosynthesis
922:
919:
915:
914:
907:
900:
898:
891:
884:
882:
875:
868:
865:
864:
863:
835:Main article:
832:
829:
825:
824:
817:
810:
808:
801:
794:
792:
785:
778:
775:
774:
773:
730:Foliose lichen
728:Main article:
725:
722:
718:
717:
710:
703:
701:
694:
687:
684:
683:
682:
660:
657:
653:
652:
644:
637:
635:
628:
621:
619:
611:
604:
601:
600:
599:
570:Main article:
567:
564:
560:
559:
551:
544:
542:
534:
527:
525:
517:
510:
507:
506:
505:
501:Baeomycetaceae
471:
468:
464:
463:
456:
449:
447:
440:
433:
430:
429:
428:
395:
392:
388:
387:
379:
372:
370:
363:
356:
353:
352:
351:
307:
304:
300:
299:
292:
285:
283:
276:
269:
267:
259:
252:
249:
248:
247:
214:
211:
190:
187:
174:photosynthetic
161:
158:
138:lichenologists
112:, one or more
87:
80:
79:
78:
67:
60:
59:
58:
47:
40:
39:
38:
34:
33:
32:
31:
26:
18:Byssoid lichen
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3525:
3514:
3511:
3510:
3508:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3450:
3446:
3440:
3436:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3396:Thell, Arne;
3394:
3390:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3349:
3345:
3339:
3335:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3313:
3309:
3303:
3299:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3229:
3228:Sagenidiopsis
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
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3174:
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3157:
3146:
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3128:
3124:
3119:
3107:
3103:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3056:
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3037:
3033:
3028:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3000:
2996:
2990:
2985:
2984:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2945:
2944:Collema tenax
2938:
2934:
2928:
2924:
2919:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2881:
2876:
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2866:
2862:
2857:
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2798:
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2775:
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2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2753:
2749:
2742:
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2732:
2727:
2726:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2686:
2674:
2673:
2668:
2664:
2652:
2651:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2632:
2628:
2623:
2611:
2610:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2591:
2587:
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2578:
2572:
2567:
2566:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
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2520:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2484:
2480:
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2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2451:
2438:
2433:
2426:
2421:
2419:
2411:
2406:
2399:
2394:
2392:
2384:
2379:
2372:
2367:
2360:
2355:
2348:
2343:
2336:
2331:
2324:
2319:
2312:
2307:
2300:
2295:
2289:, p. 26.
2288:
2283:
2281:
2279:
2272:, p. 35.
2271:
2266:
2259:
2254:
2248:, p. 25.
2247:
2242:
2236:, p. 26.
2235:
2230:
2223:
2222:Honegger 2001
2218:
2216:
2209:, p. 36.
2208:
2203:
2196:
2191:
2185:, p. 94.
2184:
2179:
2172:
2167:
2165:
2163:
2155:
2150:
2148:
2140:
2135:
2129:, p. 19.
2128:
2123:
2117:, p. 28.
2116:
2111:
2104:
2099:
2092:
2087:
2080:
2075:
2068:
2063:
2057:, p. 13.
2056:
2051:
2049:
2047:
2040:, p. 27.
2039:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2020:
2015:
2009:, p. 71.
2008:
2003:
1997:, p. 14.
1996:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1975:
1970:
1964:, p. 31.
1963:
1958:
1952:, p. 29.
1951:
1946:
1939:
1934:
1928:, p. 17.
1927:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1910:
1905:
1898:
1893:
1887:, p. 16.
1886:
1881:
1879:
1871:
1866:
1860:, p. 18.
1859:
1854:
1847:
1842:
1835:
1830:
1828:
1820:
1815:
1808:
1803:
1801:
1794:, p. 77.
1793:
1788:
1781:
1776:
1769:
1764:
1757:
1752:
1750:
1743:, p. 38.
1742:
1737:
1731:, p. 21.
1730:
1725:
1723:
1716:, p. 16.
1715:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1699:, p. 38.
1698:
1693:
1686:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1667:
1662:
1655:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1634:
1629:
1622:
1617:
1611:, p. 37.
1610:
1605:
1599:, p. 14.
1598:
1593:
1591:
1583:
1578:
1576:
1571:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1552:
1539:
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1525:
1521:
1520:
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1507:
1503:
1502:
1494:
1489:
1488:
1477:
1476:
1468:
1463:
1459:
1458:
1450:
1445:
1441:
1440:
1436:Alectorioid (
1432:
1427:
1426:
1417:
1415:
1414:
1408:
1401:
1391:
1388:
1381:
1380:
1369:
1367:
1366:
1361:
1357:
1356:
1345:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1334:
1323:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1312:
1304:Catapyrenioid
1301:
1299:
1298:
1293:
1292:
1287:
1286:
1281:
1280:
1275:
1274:
1263:
1248:
1247:
1240:
1235:
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1208:
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1167:
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1137:
1132:
1129:
1128:
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1116:
1113:
1112:
1105:
1100:
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1064:
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1056:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1040:
1035:
1034:
1030:
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1024:
1020:
1016:
999:
998:
991:
986:
983:
982:
975:
970:
967:
966:
959:
954:
953:
949:
947:
943:
939:
935:
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929:
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911:
904:
899:
896:
895:
888:
883:
880:
879:
872:
867:
866:
862:
860:
856:
851:
850:
845:
838:
822:
821:
814:
809:
806:
805:
798:
793:
790:
789:
782:
777:
776:
772:
770:
765:
757:
749:
740:
731:
715:
714:
713:Ephebe lanata
707:
702:
699:
698:
691:
686:
685:
681:
679:
675:
671:
667:
649:
648:
641:
636:
633:
632:
625:
620:
616:
615:
608:
603:
602:
598:
596:
591:
583:
573:
556:
555:
548:
543:
539:
538:
531:
526:
522:
521:
514:
509:
508:
504:
502:
498:
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487:
483:
482:
477:
461:
460:
453:
448:
445:
444:
437:
432:
431:
427:
425:
421:
416:
409:
405:
401:
384:
383:
376:
371:
368:
367:
360:
355:
354:
350:
348:
344:
340:
336:
328:
327:Ancient Greek
323:
318:
313:
297:
296:
289:
284:
281:
280:
273:
268:
264:
263:
256:
251:
250:
246:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
210:
208:
204:
203:cyanobacteria
200:
196:
186:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
157:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
122:cyanobacteria
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
93:
92:
84:
73:
72:
64:
53:
52:
44:
30:
19:
3470:
3466:
3457:
3434:
3417:
3413:
3360:
3356:
3333:
3324:
3320:
3297:
3270:
3266:
3237:
3233:
3227:
3211:(2): 93â99.
3208:
3204:
3195:
3168:
3164:
3148:. Retrieved
3122:
3110:. Retrieved
3094:. Retrieved
3090:
3075:. Retrieved
3063:
3047:. Retrieved
3035:
3019:. Retrieved
3007:
2982:
2953:
2949:
2943:
2922:
2911:the original
2890:
2886:
2860:
2835:
2831:
2796:
2764:(1): 70â79.
2761:
2757:
2751:
2747:
2724:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2677:. Retrieved
2670:
2667:"Gelatinous"
2655:. Retrieved
2648:
2626:
2614:. Retrieved
2607:
2585:
2564:
2537:
2533:
2514:
2495:
2491:
2462:
2458:
2432:
2405:
2378:
2366:
2354:
2349:, p. 6.
2342:
2330:
2318:
2306:
2294:
2265:
2253:
2241:
2229:
2207:Longton 1988
2202:
2190:
2178:
2154:Sanders 2001
2134:
2127:Laundon 1986
2122:
2110:
2098:
2086:
2074:
2062:
2014:
2002:
1969:
1957:
1945:
1933:
1904:
1892:
1865:
1853:
1841:
1836:, p. 1.
1814:
1787:
1775:
1763:
1736:
1692:
1668:, p. 1.
1661:
1635:, p. 9.
1628:
1623:, p. 8.
1616:
1604:
1535:
1517:
1516:Parmelioid (
1499:
1473:
1472:Cetrarioid (
1455:
1437:
1413:Dolichousnea
1411:
1406:central axis
1399:
1397:
1377:
1375:
1363:
1353:
1351:
1348:Hypogymnioid
1338:Parmeliaceae
1331:
1329:
1311:Catapyrenium
1309:
1307:
1295:
1289:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1269:
1260:
1244:
1228:
1212:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1163:
1141:
1125:
1109:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1076:
1060:
1044:
1026:
1022:
1011:
995:
979:
963:
931:
924:
908:
892:
876:
858:
854:
847:
840:
818:
802:
786:
768:
733:
711:
695:
677:
673:
669:
662:
645:
629:
612:
594:
575:
552:
535:
518:
497:Cladoniaceae
490:
479:
473:
457:
441:
397:
380:
364:
346:
342:
338:
334:
309:
293:
277:
260:
242:
238:
234:
216:
192:
189:Growth forms
164:Lichens are
163:
148:(leafy) and
129:
100:
89:
69:
49:
29:
3513:Lichenology
3398:Crespo, Ana
3363:(11): 491.
3150:14 December
2861:The Lichens
2748:Cystocoleus
2679:28 December
2657:28 December
2616:28 December
2425:Goward 1986
2383:Breuss 2010
2311:Hooker 1980
2299:Hooker 1980
2234:Dobson 2011
2115:Dobson 2011
1291:Pseudephebe
1266:Alectorioid
1187:squamulosus
1015:hydrophobic
659:Filamentous
470:Cladoniform
382:Coenogonium
312:teased wool
262:Rhizocarpon
227:hypothallus
130:growth form
114:photobionts
88:Fruticose (
3327:(1): 5â12.
3267:BioScience
3112:16 October
3077:24 October
2797:The Mycota
2758:IMA Fungus
2645:"Filament"
2604:"Crustose"
2287:Baron 1999
2246:Baron 1999
2103:Lepp 2011c
2038:Baron 1999
1950:Baron 1999
1897:Baron 1999
1768:Lepp 2011b
1729:Jahns 1973
1685:Lepp 2011a
1597:Baron 1999
1566:References
1372:Parmelioid
1365:Menegazzia
1355:Hypogymnia
1326:Cetrarioid
1166:scale-like
1154:Squamulose
1073:Placodioid
928:rock pools
921:Gelatinous
855:fruticosus
670:filamentum
589:prothallus
581:photobiont
486:squamulose
404:Caliciales
180:. It is a
48:Crustose (
3495:248308797
3198:colonies"
2498:(4): 51.
2492:Diversity
1870:Ahti 1982
1534:Usneoid (
1273:Alectoria
831:Fruticose
666:epiphytic
595:crustosus
476:dimorphic
414:mazaedium
394:Calicioid
322:fog oases
235:areolatus
223:polygonal
182:symbiotic
166:composite
150:fruticose
120:and/or a
106:symbiotic
68:Foliose (
3507:Category
3408:(2012).
3389:31717781
3289:52255499
3254:86678967
3217:23726784
3185:83809971
3096:2 August
3049:7 August
3021:4 August
2907:85573550
2852:86659800
2823:33633767
2788:22679590
2752:Racodium
2554:86842145
2534:Herzogia
2479:86304863
2455:Ahti, T.
1549:See also
1379:Parmelia
1360:rhizines
1342:pycnidia
1333:Cetraria
1320:hymenium
1297:Sulcaria
1285:Oropogon
1191:squamula
1174:shingles
1023:leprosus
842:case of
769:foliosus
763:holdfast
755:rhizines
566:Crustose
481:Cladonia
333: :
213:Areolate
207:taxonomy
144:(flat),
142:crustose
3475:Bibcode
3380:6920850
2983:Lichens
2958:Bibcode
2779:3317361
2714:3243288
2675:. 2022d
2653:. 2022b
2612:. 2022c
2447:Sources
1394:Usneoid
1386:laminal
1279:Bryoria
1019:soredia
1008:Leprose
942:gelatin
747:medulla
724:Foliose
492:podetia
385:species
347:-aceous
317:coccoid
306:Byssoid
265:species
195:thallus
160:Context
146:foliose
134:thallus
102:Lichens
3493:
3441:
3387:
3377:
3340:
3304:
3287:
3252:
3215:
3196:Nostoc
3183:
3129:
2991:
2929:
2905:
2867:
2850:
2821:
2811:
2786:
2776:
2733:
2712:
2690:Brodoa
2633:
2592:
2573:
2552:
2521:
2477:
1294:, and
1195:squama
1092:oeides
1088:-oides
1084:plakĂłs
1027:lepras
933:Nostoc
859:frutex
674:filare
408:spores
343:-aceus
339:byssus
335:býssos
331:βĎĎĎÎżĎ
170:fungal
154:genera
110:fungus
3491:S2CID
3285:S2CID
3250:S2CID
3213:JSTOR
3201:(PDF)
3181:S2CID
2914:(PDF)
2903:S2CID
2883:(PDF)
2848:S2CID
2819:S2CID
2710:JSTOR
2550:S2CID
2475:S2CID
1400:Usnea
946:jelly
849:Usnea
738:lobes
678:filum
243:-atus
233:word
231:Latin
178:yeast
126:yeast
3439:ISBN
3385:PMID
3338:ISBN
3302:ISBN
3152:2022
3127:ISBN
3114:2022
3098:2022
3079:2022
3070:and
3051:2022
3042:and
3023:2022
3014:and
2989:ISBN
2927:ISBN
2865:ISBN
2809:ISBN
2784:PMID
2750:and
2731:ISBN
2681:2022
2659:2022
2631:ISBN
2618:2022
2590:ISBN
2571:ISBN
2519:ISBN
499:and
239:area
199:alga
118:alga
116:(an
104:are
3483:doi
3422:doi
3375:PMC
3365:doi
3275:doi
3242:doi
3173:doi
3169:118
2966:doi
2895:doi
2840:doi
2801:doi
2774:PMC
2766:doi
2702:doi
2542:doi
2500:doi
2467:doi
948:".
944:or
201:or
3509::
3489:.
3481:.
3471:31
3469:.
3456:.
3418:30
3416:.
3412:.
3383:.
3373:.
3359:.
3355:.
3325:53
3323:.
3319:.
3283:.
3271:51
3269:.
3265:.
3248:.
3238:19
3236:.
3232:.
3209:39
3207:.
3203:.
3179:.
3167:.
3163:.
3143:.
3089:.
3066:.
3062:.
3038:.
3034:.
3010:.
3006:.
2964:.
2954:12
2952:.
2948:.
2901:.
2891:28
2889:.
2885:.
2846:.
2836:12
2834:.
2817:.
2807:.
2782:.
2772:.
2760:.
2756:.
2708:.
2698:89
2696:.
2669:.
2647:.
2606:.
2548:.
2538:23
2536:.
2496:11
2494:.
2490:.
2473:.
2463:14
2461:.
2417:^
2390:^
2277:^
2214:^
2161:^
2146:^
2045:^
2026:^
1981:^
1916:^
1877:^
1826:^
1799:^
1748:^
1721:^
1704:^
1673:^
1640:^
1589:^
1574:^
1288:,
1282:,
1170:mm
503:.
329::
3497:.
3485::
3477::
3447:.
3428:.
3424::
3391:.
3367::
3361:7
3346:.
3310:.
3291:.
3277::
3256:.
3244::
3226:"
3219:.
3187:.
3175::
3154:.
3135:.
3116:.
3100:.
3081:.
3053:.
3025:.
2997:.
2974:.
2968::
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2935:.
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2873:.
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2639:.
2620:.
2598:.
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2197:.
2105:.
2081:.
2021:.
1940:.
1821:.
1770:.
1687:.
1656:.
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1540:)
1522:)
1504:)
1478:)
1460:)
1442:)
94:)
74:)
54:)
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
