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189:. The fruiting bodies of lichen typically make up one of two shapes. Apothecia which look like disk or cup shaped and produce their spores on their upper surface. And perithecia which are shaped like flasks that enclose a spore producing layer with a hole at the top ( Brodo, Sharnoff, and Sharnoff). Since sexual reproduction is inefficient, lichen will reproduce asexually by
100:, typically located near the lichen's centre. Lichens with this structure are called "umbilicate". In general, medium to large epiphytic foliose lichens are moderately sensitive to air pollution, while smaller or ground-dwelling foliose lichens are more tolerant. The term "foliose" derives from the Latin word
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The reproduction of foliose lichen can occur either asexually or sexually. The sexual reproduction requires both a fungal and photosynthetic partner. The photobiont once in symbionce with its fungal partner will not produce recognisable reproductive structures therefore it is up to the fungal partner
76:; some, however, lack a lower cortex. The photobiont layer lies just below the upper cortex. Where present, the lower cortex is usually dark (sometimes even black), but occasionally white. Foliose lichens are attached to their substrate either by hyphae extending from the cortex or
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which are cylindrical finger like protuberances from the upper cortex in which algal and fungal tissue is incorporated into. They are easily broken off and transported by wind where they will relocate and propagate forming a new lichen.
148:. This reacts with minerals in the rock, dissolving them and weakening the rock. As a result of this many rocks that have or once had lichen growth exhibit extensive surface corrosion. By-products of this weathering are poorly ordered
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that must then also find a compatible photobiont. This photobiont will fuse with the zygote and live within the fungi creating a lichen. The fungal partner in most foliose lichen are ascomytes with spores called
92:. The latter, which are found only in foliose lichens, come in a variety of shapes, the specifics of which can aid in species identification. Some foliose lichens attach only at a single stout peg called a
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by the growth of lichens on exposed rock surfaces. This can be attributed to both physical and chemical processes. Lichen can chemically weather minerals such as calcite by producing
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to continue reproduction for the lichen. In order for lichen reproduction to take place the fungal partner must produce millions of germinating spores which fuse to form a
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gels, the neoformation of crystalline metal oxalates and secondary clay minerals. Lichen physically weather rocks by penetrating the rock's small crevasses with their
128:. When this reaction occurs in plants the lichen will then have less chlorophyll, causing a decrease in respiration that eventually kills the lichen.
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A direct correlation exists between pollution and the abundance and distribution of lichen. Foliose lichens are extremely sensitive to
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171:(calcium carbonate) used as filler and their rhizoids expanding cracks which develop in the shingles over time.
68:, which are generally not firmly bonded to the substrate on which it grows. It is one of the three most common
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of lichens. It typically has distinct upper and lower surfaces, each of which is usually covered with a
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297:"Experimental Study of the Effect of Sulphite on Lichens with Reference to Atmospheric Pollution"
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These combined processes – of chemical and physical weathering – also serve to deteriorate
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454:(2nd ed.). St. Paul, Minnesota: The American Phytopathological Society.
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Growth form as flattened sheets, partly attached to the substrate on the underside
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Cross section diagram of foliose lichen with layers: 1. Thick layers of
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Brodo, Irwin M.; Sharnoff, Sylvia Duran; Sharnoff, Stephen (2001).
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432:"National Lichens & Air Quality Database and Clearinghouse"
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3. Loosely packed hyphae 4. Anchoring hyphae called
28:, a species of foliose lichen, on a branch of a tree
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167:, with foliose lichen byproducts dissolving the
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335:(Chen, Jie, Hans P. Blume, and Lothar Beyer)
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345:BOWLER, P. A.; RUNDEL, P. W. (1975-06-01).
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450:Ulloa, Miguel; Hanlin, Richard T. (2012).
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416:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
351:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society
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347:"Reproductive strategies in lichens"
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84:, or by root-like structures called
259:Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001
247:Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001
232:Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001
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452:Illustrated Dictionary of Mycology
363:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1975.tb01653.x
314:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1971.tb02583.x
193:when possible. Foliose lichen use
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393:. Slough: Richmond Publishing.
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436:United States Forest Service
271:United States Forest Service
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295:Hill, D. J. (1971-09-01).
120:in lichen, which produces
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136:Minerals in rocks can be
412:Lichens of North America
283:Ulloa & Hanlin 2012
191:vegetative reproduction
40:, called the cortex 2.
389:Baron, George (1999).
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25:Flavoparmelia caperata
391:Understanding Lichens
60:with flat, leaf-like
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132:Weathering of rocks
104:, meaning "leafy".
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461:978-0-89054-400-6
423:978-0-300-08249-4
400:978-0-85546-252-9
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154:alumino-silica
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175:Reproduction
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70:growth forms
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480:Lichenology
441:14 December
150:iron oxides
146:oxalic acid
122:phaeophytin
118:chlorophyll
42:Green algae
215:Baron 1999
202:References
371:0024-4074
323:0028-646X
169:limestone
138:weathered
108:Pollution
474:Category
187:ascomata
158:rhizoids
102:foliosus
96:holdfast
88:rhizines
46:rhizines
382:Sources
80:medulla
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195:isidia
182:zygote
74:cortex
58:lichen
38:hyphae
144:like
64:lobes
56:is a
456:ISBN
443:2022
418:ISBN
395:ISBN
367:ISSN
319:ISSN
126:ions
359:doi
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