31:
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disciple of
Linnaeus, who is today considered the father of lichenology, starting the taxonomy of lichens with his pioneering study of Swedish lichens in Lichenographiae Suecicae Prodromus of 1798 or in his Synopsis Methodica Lichenum, Sistens omnes hujus Ordinis Naturalis of 1814. These studies and
233:
grouped them into their own genus. He adopted the Latin term lichen, which had already been used by Pliny who had imported it from
Theophrastus but up until then this term had not been widely employed. The original meaning of the Greek word λειχήν (leichen) was moss that in its turn derives from the
623:
where the age of an exposed surface can be found by studying the age of lichens growing on them. Age dating in this way can be absolute or relative because the growth of these organisms can be arrested under various conditions. The technique provides an average age of the older individual lichens
587:
During the 20th century botany and mycology were still attempting to solve the two main problems surrounding lichens. On the one hand the definition of lichens and the relationship between the two symbionts and the taxonomic position of these organisms within the plant and fungal kingdoms. There
675:
655:
considered the definition imperfect because it is impossible to determine which one thallus is of a specific structure since thalli changed depending upon the substrate and conditions in which they developed. This researcher represents one of the main trends among lichenologists who consider it
529:
demonstrated that all lichens were the result of fungal attack on the cells of algal cells and that all these algae also exist free in nature. This researcher was the first to recognise the dual nature of lichens as a result of the capture of the algal component by the fungal component. In 1873
335:
382:
Over the years research shed new light into the nature of these organisms still classified as plants. A controversial issue surrounding lichens since the early 19th century is their reproduction. In these years a group of researchers faithful to the tenets of
Linnaeus considered that lichens
412:
400:
classifications are the cornerstone of subsequent investigations. In these early years of structuring the new discipline various works of outstanding scientific importance appeared such as
Lichenographia Europaea Reformata published in 1831 by
2128:
Gollapudi, S. R.; Telikepalli, H; Jampani, H. B.; Mirhom, Y. W.; Drake, S. D.; Bhattiprolu, K. R.; Vander Velde, D; Mitscher, L. A. (1994). "Alectosarmentin, a new antimicrobial dibenzofuranoid lactol from the lichen, Alectoria sarmentosa".
208:
Lichens as a group have received less attention in classical treatises on botany than other groups although the relationship between humans and some species has been documented from early times. Several species have appeared in the works of
489:
were identified in the lichen structure, which heightened the contradictions. At first the presence of algae was taken as being due to contamination due to collection of samples in damp conditions and they were not considered as being in a
419:
But these works suffer from being superficial and mere lists of species without further physiological studies. It took until the middle of the 19th century for research to catch up using biochemical and physiological methods. In
Germany
632:
in 1950 and is especially useful in areas exposed for less than 1000 years. Growth is greatest in the first 20 to 100 years with 15–50 mm growth per year and less in the following years with average growth of 2–4 mm per year.
577:
Despite the above studies the dual nature of lichens remained no more than a theory until in 1939 the Swiss researcher Eugen A Thomas was able to reproduce in the laboratory the phenotype of the lichen
383:
reproduced sexually and had sexual reproductive organs, as in other plants, independent of whether asexual reproduction also occurred. Other researchers only considered asexual reproduction by means of
1941:
546:
432:
644:. The definition finally adopted was that lichen could be considered as the association between a fungus and a photosynthetic symbiont resulting in a thallus of specific structure.
566:, A new study on the Origin of Organisms", which aims to explain a new theory of Symbiogenesis by lichens and other organisms as evidenced by his earlier work "Nature and Origin of
659:
Today studies in lichenology are not restricted to the description and taxonomy of lichens but have application in various scientific fields. Especially important are studies on
2574:
861:"Protocols in Lichenology: Culturing, Biochemistry, Ecophysiology and Use in Biomonitoring" (Springer Lab Manuals, Kraner, Ilse, Beckett, Richard and Varma, Ajit (28 Nov 2001)
225:
and their reproductive mechanisms were totally ignored. For centuries naturalists had included lichens in diverse groups until in the early 18th century a French researcher
2166:"Molecular structural studies of lichen substances II: Atranorin, gyrophoric acid, fumarprotocetraric acid, rhizocarpic acid, calycin, pulvinic dilactone and usnic acid"
636:
The difficulty of giving a definition applicable to every known lichen has been debated since lichenologists first recognised the dual nature of lichens. In 1982 the
525:
in 1867 showed no dependence of the algal component upon the lichen thallus and that the algal component could live independently of the thallus. It was in 1869 that
780:
703:
130:
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convened a meeting to adopt a single definition of lichen drawing on the proposals of a committee. The chairman of this committee was the renowned researcher
2031:
Mike
Crockett, Stacie Kageyama, Delfina Homen, Carrie Lewis, Jane Osborn, Logan Sander (2003). "Antibacterial Properties of four Pacific North West Lichens".
1948:
734:
848:
has shown some antiviral activity with some lichen substances. In 1989 K Hirabayashi presented his investigations on inhibitory lichen polysaccharides in
2599:
2515:
1010:"Monitoring with Lichens-Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop", Nimis, Pier Luigi, Scheidegger, Christoph and Wolseley, Patricia (Dec 2001)
421:
2199:
2265:
Francisco Javier Toledo
Marante, Ana Garcia Costellano, Francisco Leon Oyola and Jaime Bermejo Barrera "Ecologia Quimica en Hongos y Liquenes" (Spa)
788:
784:
2443:
720:
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that are made through the interaction of lichens with their environment. Lichen is extremely sensitive to various air pollutants, especially to
624:
providing a minimum age of the medium being studied. Lichenometry relies upon the fact that the maximum diameter of the largest thallus of an
444:
628:
lichen growing on a substrate is directly proportional to the time from first exposure of the area to the environment as seen in studies by
2708:
1431:
522:
1539:
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definition soon brought criticism from various lichenologists and there soon emerged reviews and suggestions for amendments. For example,
234:
Greek verb λείχω (liekho) to suck because of the great ability of these organisms to absorb water. In its original use the term signified
1972:
1924:
Miguel Mateo Garcia, The Growth Curve of
Rhizocarpon geographicum in the Valley of Madriu Andorra, Biophysical Processes in Cold Media
754:. With these investigations the number of antibacterial substances and possible drug targets known to be produced by lichens increased
729:
637:
2479:
221:
although the studies are not very deep. During the first centuries of the modern age they were usually put forward as examples of
2227:"Inhibitory effect of a lichen polysaccharide sulfate, GE-3-S, on the replication of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in vitro"
691:
it was not until the early 20th century that modern science became interested in them. The discovery of various substances with
494:
relation with the fungal part of the thallus. That the algae continued to multiply showed that they were not mere contaminants.
2497:
1684:
1333:
1328:
1318:
931:
A Textbook of
General Lichenology with Descriptions and Figures of the Genera Occurring in the North Eastern United States
2357:
2887:
2852:
2461:
1997:
1468:
2683:
2589:
1760:
870:"Lichenology: Progress and Problems" (Special Volumes/Systematics Association) Denis Hunter Brown et al. (10 May 1976)
695:
action in lichen thalli was essential for scientists to become aware of the possible importance of these organisms to
1929:
1917:
1903:
1094:
2211:
2055:
Marshak, A.; Barry, G. T.; Craig, L. C. (1947). "Antibiotic
Compound Isolated from the Lichen Ramalina reticulata".
2755:
2594:
2299:
1374:
305:. Some of his more important works on the subject, which marked the beginning of lichenology as a discipline, are:
2335:
1987:
1383:
1363:
1032:
Index of Collectors in Knowles the Lichens of Ireland (1929) and Porter's Supplement: with a Conspectus of Lichen
949:
Lichenology and Bryology in the Galapagos Islands with Checklists of the Lichens and Bryophytes thus far Reported
459:
1822:
1119:
2646:
1353:
1295:
1007:"Lichenographia Thompsoniana: North American Lichenology in Honour of John W. Thompson", M. G. Gleen (May 1998)
534:
concluded form studying many different lichen species that the relationship between fungi and algae was purely
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1089:
3089:
2382:
1888:
1104:
597:
176:
17:
2028:
1862:
1845:
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Biodeterioration of Stone Surfaces: Lichens and Biofilms as Weathering Agents of Rocks and Cultural Heritage
3084:
1604:
531:
164:
1511:
1022:: Festschrift Christian Leuckert, Johannes Gunther Knoph, Kunigunda Schrufer and Harry J. M. Sipman (1995)
3057:
1255:
1230:
462:
in an article of 1852 "Memorie pour servir a l'Histoire des Lichens Organographique et Physiologique" by
226:
2407:
798:
Antibacterial action of substances produced by lichens is related to their ability to disrupt bacterial
538:. It was also established that algae could associate with many different fungi to form different lichen
2447:
1368:
1069:
589:
1056:
Fortschritte der Chemie organischer Naturstoffe/ Progress in the Chemistry of Organic Natural Products
509:
who first suggested in 1865 that lichens were merely the result of parasitism of various fungi of the
3094:
3014:
1698:
1516:
1358:
1323:
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301:(1757–1819), who is therefore sometimes named the "father of lichenology". Acharius was a student of
2659:
2612:
1670:
979:
Irish Lichenology 1858–1880: Selected Letters of Isaac Carroll, Theobald Jones, Charles Larbalestier
1774:
Fink, Bruce (1913). "The Nature and Classification of Lichens: II. The Lichen and its Algal Host".
1215:
1210:
1200:
559:
448:
192:
2810:
1876:
1348:
1235:
1195:
1180:
1144:
372:
3045:
1809:
Honegger, Rosmarie (2000). "Simon Schwendener (1829–1919) and The Dual Hypothesis of Lichens".
1313:
1300:
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739:
369:
222:
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1435:
1339:
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in the Plant Kingdom". These new ideas can be studied today under the title of the Theory of
168:
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impossible to give a single definition to lichens since they are a unique type of organism.
458:
Scientific publications settled many unknown facts about lichens. In the French publication
3079:
2999:
2748:
2173:
2097:
Bustinza, Francisco (1948) "Contribution to the Study of Antibiotics Produced by Lichens".
2064:
1290:
1275:
1185:
1139:
877:
688:
593:
426:
2015:
David L. Hawksworth (1989) "Interactions Fungus and Alga in Lichen Symbiosis liquenoides"
8:
3009:
1459:
Brodo, Irwin M; Laurie-Bourque, Susan; Sharnoff, Sylvia Duran; Sharnoff, Stephen (2016).
1378:
1190:
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Interest in the potential of substances synthesised by lichens increased with the end of
652:
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2317:
2177:
2068:
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1826:
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1729:
1652:
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1387:
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1164:
1114:
924:
775:
290:
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made the first division of the group created by Tournefort separating the sub-families
187:. As with any other field of study, lichenology has its own set of rules for taxonomic
137:
2185:
779:
and the compounds identified as responsible for bacterial inhibition were shown to be
3099:
2948:
2248:
2146:
2080:
2041:
1993:
1966:
1925:
1913:
1464:
1250:
1154:
837:
714:
580:
526:
172:
153:
106:
30:
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Hirabayashi, K; Iwata, S; Ito, M; Shigeta, S; Narui, T; Mori, T; Shibata, S (1989).
1830:
1733:
967:
The Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory: Devoted to Bryology and Lichenology
2968:
2777:
2703:
2238:
2181:
2138:
2110:
Bustinza, Francisco (1951) "Contribution to the Study of Antibacterial Activity in
2072:
1857:
1818:
1783:
1721:
1644:
1260:
1220:
1159:
1109:
1079:
1020:
Studies in Lichenology with Emphasis on Chemotaxonomy, Geography and Phytochemistry
744:
641:
518:
469:
These new discoveries were becoming increasingly contradictory for scientists. The
452:
440:
362:
358:
180:
122:
2688:
2626:
2501:
1084:
865:
Lichenology in the British Isles, 1568–1975: An Historical and Biographical Survey
2741:
2663:
2616:
2076:
1285:
1225:
1134:
664:
405:
376:
214:
141:
118:
2462:"Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: Science and Horticulture: Sending specimens to Kew"
3033:
2907:
2825:
2713:
1410:
1265:
1245:
1169:
1124:
807:
700:
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appeared numerous renowned researchers within the field of lichenology such as
567:
506:
478:
463:
436:
184:
114:
91:
61:
2631:
1605:"Edit History: Schaerer, Ludwig Emanuel (Louis-Emmanuel) (1785-1853) on JSTOR"
3073:
2902:
2795:
2198:
Neli Kika Honda & Wagner Vilegas (1998) "The Chemistry of Lichens" (Port)
1392:
1074:
955:
Flechten Follmann: Contributions to Lichenology in Honour of Gerhard Follmann
692:
571:
563:
498:
396:
302:
298:
274:
2668:
2651:
2465:
2361:
2871:
2805:
2764:
2084:
1587:
Synopsis Methodica Lichenum: Systens omnes hujus ordinis naturalis detectas
1240:
1205:
957:, Gerhard Follmann, F. J. A. Daniels, Margot Schultz and Jorge Peine (1995)
845:
766:
620:
218:
188:
160:
95:
83:
2564:
2252:
2150:
724:. Studies showed that the substance that inhibited growth of bacteria was
2912:
2029:
http://lichens.science.oregonstate.edu/antibiotics/lichen_antibiotics.htm
1280:
787:. Further investigations have identified novel antibacterial substances,
750:
510:
401:
285:
with eight divisions within the group according to the morphology of the
210:
2728:
2641:
2386:
2243:
2226:
2142:
1712:
Williams, Thomas A. (1856). "The Status of the Algo-Lichen Hypothesis".
342:
2933:
2892:
2879:
2733:
2718:
2164:
Edwards, Howell G.M.; Newton, Emma M.; Wynn-Williams, David D. (2003).
1795:
1656:
1343:
822:
818:
811:
773:
substances. In 1947 antibacterial action was identified in extracts of
770:
759:
755:
725:
539:
517:
type algae and others. Successive studies such as those carried out by
502:
482:
470:
384:
239:
2579:
2343:
545:
415:
Erik Acharius (1757–1819), Swedish botanist, the father of lichenology
2943:
2862:
2857:
2673:
919:"Progress and Problems in Lichenology in the Eighties: Proceedings" (
803:
792:
668:
625:
562:
presented a research paper "The Theory of two Plasms as the basis of
535:
491:
247:
159:
Lichenologists may also study the growth and growth rate of lichens,
149:
79:
50:
2698:
1787:
1648:
961:
Environmental Lichenology: Biomonitoring Trace Element Air Pollution
2983:
2938:
2897:
2875:
2815:
1725:
1458:
829:
antitumour activity by substances identified in two common lichens
826:
799:
696:
674:
334:
75:
53:
42:
2723:
2595:
Guide to using a Lichen-Based Index to Assess Nitrogen Air Quality
1910:
Current biophysical processes in cold environments: recent studies
1591:
Synopsis of lichen Methods, systems of this natural order detected
466:, the reproductive organs or apothecia of lichens was identified.
2820:
2584:
2127:
937:
The Present Status and Potentialities of the Lichenology in China
616:
612:
346:
286:
277:
and his new system of classification lichens are retained in the
263:
259:
243:
145:
99:
2300:"The Lichen Collection at the Botanische Staatssammlung München"
2165:
1905:
Procesos biofísicos actuales en medios fríos: estudios recientes
411:
2768:
1985:
514:
366:
294:
282:
262:
in response to the morphological characteristics of the lichen
235:
87:
68:
46:
2636:
2621:
2604:
1635:
Schneider, Albert (1895). "The Biological Status of Lichens".
706:
who demonstrated antibacterial action of lichens of the genus
56:
made up of an intimate symbiotic association of a microscopic
2978:
2928:
2866:
2843:
2570:
Central European Bryological and Lichenological Society (Ger)
1034:, M. E. Mitchell, Matilda C. Knowles and Lilian Porter (1998)
945:, Shukla, D. K. Vertika, Upreti and Bajpai, Rajesh (Aug 2013)
708:
486:
474:
278:
255:
65:
2600:
Identifying North American Lichens a Guide to the Literature
738:, nevertheless, these substances proved ineffective against
2973:
1823:
10.1639/0007-2745(2000)103[0307:ssatdh]2.0.co;2
1537:
1028:, Jan Erik Mattsson, Mats Wedin and Inga Hedberg (Sep 1999)
699:. From the 1940s there appeared various works by the noted
74:
Study of lichens draws knowledge from several disciplines:
57:
2224:
2163:
1512:"A Grammatical Dictionary of Botanical Latin: coralloides"
1000:"Eric Acharius and his Influence on English Lichenology" (
549:
French botanist (Jean-Baptiste) Édouard Bornet (1828–1911)
2693:
2656:
2609:
2569:
849:
156:, providing another form of lichen identification test.
2533:
105:
Methods for species identification include reference to
71:. Lichens are chiefly characterized by this symbiosis.
2679:
Netherlands Bryological and Lichenological Society (nl)
2554:
1863:
10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[1008:mm]2.0.co;2
806:
capacity. This is possible due to the action of lichen
455:
began to publish works of great scientific importance.
2678:
1461:
Keys to Lichens of North America: Revised and Expanded
973:
Contemporary Lichenology and Lichens of Western Oregon
395:
Against this background appeared the Swedish botanist
127:
Keys to Lichens of North America: Revised and Expanded
1014:
Contributions to Lichenology: In Honour of A. Henssen
914:
Diccionario de Liquenologia/Dictionary of Lichenology
687:
Although several species of lichen have been used in
357:
Later lichenologists include the American scientists
293:
of lichens was first intensively investigated by the
2669:
LichenPortal.org - The Consortium of Lichen Herbaria
2426:"Lichens - The William & Lynda Steere Herbarium"
1912:] (in Spanish). Edicions Universitat Barcelona.
2560:
Belgium, Luxembourg and Northern France, Lichens of
1901:
404:or Enumeratio Critico Lichenum Europaeorum 1850 by
2719:Swiss Bryological and Lichenological Society (Ger)
2585:Czech Bryological and Lichenological Society (Cze)
2408:"Botany collections | Natural History Museum"
2383:"Fungi & Lichens | National Museum Wales"
2011:
2009:
867:, D. L. Hawksworth and M. R. D. Seaward (Dec 1977)
678:K S Merezhkovsky Russian Lichenologist (1855–1921)
2054:
995:Les Lichens - Morphologie, Biologie, Systematique
3071:
2480:"University of Michigan Herbarium - Collections"
728:. Something similar occurred with the substance
2555:American Bryological and Lichenological Society
2006:
1026:Swedish Lichenology: Dedicated to Roland Moberg
892:, Volume II: v.2, Margalith Galun (30 Sep 1988)
2318:"Collections | Canadian Museum of Nature"
1843:
1452:
148:. Some components of certain lichens may also
144:which can be characteristic of a given lichen
140:can be used to detect the presence of certain
2749:
1986:Schaetzl Randall, J; Sharon Anderson (2005).
1761:"Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries"
1699:"Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries"
1685:"Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries"
1671:"Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries"
1040:, Larry St. Clair and Mark Seaward (Oct 2011)
2282:"Herbaria | The British Lichen Society"
884:Lichenology in Indian Subcontinent 1966–1977
584:by combining its two identified components.
2575:Checklists of Lichens and Lichenolous Fungi
1992:. Cambridge University Press. p. 562.
2756:
2742:
2714:Swedish Lichens Lief & Anita Stridvall
1509:
682:
611:Lichenology has found applications beyond
2605:International Association for Lichenology
2242:
1861:
1634:
1062:
638:International Association for Lichenology
109:on lichens. An example reference work is
2763:
2116:Annals of the Botanical Garden of Madrid
2099:Annals of the Botanical Garden of Madrid
2017:Annals of the Botanical Garden of Madrid
1808:
1711:
1584:
673:
544:
410:
341:
333:
94:. Study of lichens is conducted by both
29:
769:along with the growing interest in all
90:. Scholars of lichenology are known as
27:Branch of mycology that studies lichens
14:
3072:
2231:Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin
1971:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1463:. Yale University Press. p. 424.
825:research. These studies revealed some
2737:
2632:Japanese Lichenological Society (Eng)
2627:Japanese Lichenological Society (Eng)
1637:Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club
1334:National Botanical Research Institute
1307:
943:Lichens to Biomonitor the Environment
3040:
2622:Italian Lichenological Society (Ita)
1773:
1748:A Popular History of British Lichens
1623:A Popular History of British Lichens
1573:A Popular History of British Lichens
1560:A Popular History of British Lichens
1538:Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1700).
1498:A Popular History of British Lichens
1485:A Popular History of British Lichens
1329:Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures
844:Recent work in the field of applied
802:with a subsequent loss of bacterial
167:, the ecological role of lichens in
129:by the same three authors joined by
3052:
2652:Links to Lichens and Lichenologists
2642:Lichen Herbarium University of Oslo
2590:French Lichenological Society (Fre)
2518:. December 19, 2023. Archived from
2500:. December 19, 2023. Archived from
1016:, H. M. Jahns and A. Henssen (1990)
473:reproductive organ being unique to
165:role of lichens in nutrient cycling
24:
2647:Lichenland Oregon State University
2482:. February 2, 2014. Archived from
2446:. February 1, 2014. Archived from
2358:"Herbarium: Iowa State University"
874:Lichenology in Indian Subcontinent
817:From the 1950s the lichen product
558:In 1909 the Russian lichenologist
25:
3111:
2548:
2201:Química Nova 22(1) ISSN 0100-4042
1989:Soils Genesis & Geomorphology
1902:Antonio Gómez Ortiz, ed. (1998).
1319:Botanische Staatssammlung München
1095:Ferdinand Christian Gustav Arnold
985:Lichens from West of Hudson's Bay
908:Bibliography of Irish Lichenology
896:A Textbook of General Lichenology
203:
3051:
3039:
3028:
3027:
1889:"Pixie Cups (Cladonia pyxidata)"
1746:Lauder Lindsay, William (1856).
1621:Lauder Lindsay, William (1856).
1558:Lauder Lindsay, William (1856).
1496:Lauder Lindsay, William (1856).
1483:Lauder Lindsay, William (1856).
1375:University of Michigan Herbarium
991:Vol. 1), John W. Thompson (1953)
898:, Albert Schneider (24 May 2013)
481:organisms. With improvements in
310:Lichenographiae Suecia prodromus
125:and that book's 2016 expansion,
2526:
2508:
2490:
2472:
2464:. April 6, 2013. Archived from
2454:
2436:
2418:
2400:
2375:
2350:
2328:
2310:
2304:www.botanischestaatssammlung.de
2292:
2286:www.britishlichensociety.org.uk
2274:
2259:
2218:
2204:
2192:
2157:
2121:
2104:
2091:
2048:
2034:
2022:
1979:
1934:
1895:
1881:
1870:
1837:
1802:
1767:
1753:
1740:
1705:
1691:
1677:
1663:
1628:
1615:
1597:
1384:University of Wisconsin-Madison
1364:Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh
1004:), David J. Galloway (Jul 1988)
855:
671:and prevents water absorption.
553:
460:Annales des Sciences Naturelles
390:
281:Kingdom forming a single group
2637:Lichenological Resources (Rus)
2269:28 ISSN 0370-3908 pp. 509–528
2170:Journal of Molecular Structure
1578:
1565:
1552:
1548:] (in Latin). Vol. 1.
1531:
1503:
1490:
1477:
1424:
1354:Natural History Museum, London
375:, as well as amateurs such as
183:topics including the study of
13:
1:
2684:National Biodiversity Gateway
2186:10.1016/S0022-2860(02)00626-9
1445:
1105:Friedrich August Georg Bitter
1046:, Vernon Ahmadjian (Aug 1993)
933:, Albert Schneider (Mar 2010)
916:, Kenneth Allen Hornak (1998)
598:Antonina Georgievna Borissova
2336:":: Welcome to NBRI ::"
2267:Columbian Academy of Science
2077:10.1126/science.106.2756.394
1417:
1120:Jean-Baptiste Édouard Bornet
532:Jean-Baptiste Edouard Bornet
7:
2689:Nordic Lichen Society (Eng)
2674:Microscopy of Lichens (Ger)
2131:Journal of Natural Products
1593:] (in Latin). Svanborg.
1541:Institutiones rei herbariae
1399:
1256:Joseph Pitton de Tournefort
1090:Johannes Müller Argoviensis
1052:, Thomas H. Nash (Jan 2008)
969:, Zennosuke Iwatsuki (1983)
910:, M. E. Mitchell (Nov 1972)
890:CRC Handbook of Lichenology
328:Synopsis methodica lichenum
231:Institutiones Rei Herbariae
227:Joseph Pitton de Tournefort
10:
3116:
2657:Lichens of Ireland Project
1844:Cavalier-Smith, T (2003).
1510:Eckel, P. M. (2010–2021).
1369:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
1130:François Fulgis Chevallier
1070:Henry Nicollon des Abbayes
975:, W. Clayton Fraser (1968)
939:, Liu Hua Jie (1 Jan 2000)
732:synthesised by the lichen
590:Henry Nicollon des Abbayes
322:Lichenographia universalis
198:
3023:
3015:List of mycology journals
2992:
2961:
2921:
2841:
2834:
2788:
2775:
1571:Lauder Lindsay, William.
1517:Missouri Botanical Garden
1413:, an award in lichenology
1359:New York Botanical Garden
1324:Canadian Museum of Nature
989:Lichens of Arctic America
951:, William A. Weber (1966)
921:Bibliotheca Lichenologica
451:and in the United States
246:. Some forty years later
1342:, Ada Hayden Herbarium,
1216:Konstantin Mereschkowski
1211:William Allport Leighton
1201:Georgij Karlovich Kreyer
619:in a technique known as
560:Konstantin Mereschkowski
449:William Allport Leighton
269:After the revolution in
111:Lichens of North America
2699:Paleo-Lichenology (Ger)
1877:Species:Eugen A. Thomas
1714:The American Naturalist
1585:Acharius, Erik (1814).
1349:National Museum Cardiff
1236:Charles Christian Plitt
1196:August von Krempelhuber
1181:David Leslie Hawksworth
1145:William Louis Culberson
997:, Fernand Moreau (1927)
963:, Joyce E. Sloof (1993)
902:Horizons in Lichenology
821:was the object of most
781:d-protolichosteric acid
683:Lichens in pharmacology
615:itself in the field of
373:Konstantin Merezhkovsky
2694:North American Lichens
2565:British Lichen Society
2444:"RBGE Lichen Taxonomy"
2118:(10) ISSN pp. 144–149.
1546:Institutions of botany
1314:British Lichen Society
1301:Alexander Zahlbruckner
1150:Johann Jacob Dillenius
1100:Heinrich Anton de Bary
1063:Notable lichenologists
832:Peltigera leucophlebia
740:Gram negative bacteria
679:
550:
416:
370:evolutionary biologist
354:
339:
223:spontaneous generation
177:anatomy and physiology
169:biological soil crusts
35:
3005:List of fungal orders
2704:Russian Lichens (Rus)
2580:Chilean Lichens (Spa)
2534:"National Museums NI"
2101:(7) ISSN pp. 511–548.
1340:Iowa State University
1175:Carolyn Wilson Harris
1058:, S. Hunek (Oct 2013)
704:Rufus Paul Burkholder
677:
661:environmental quality
548:
414:
345:
337:
173:morphology of lichens
33:
3090:Branches of mycology
3000:Glossary of mycology
1291:William Alfred Weber
1276:Edvard August Vainio
1186:Georg Franz Hoffmann
1140:Chicita F. Culberson
1044:The Lichen Symbiosis
878:Dharani Dhar Awasthi
689:traditional medicine
594:William Alfred Weber
477:but absent in other
131:Susan Laurie-Bourque
3085:Branches of biology
3010:List of mycologists
2244:10.1248/cpb.37.2410
2178:2003JMoSt.651...27E
2143:10.1021/np50109a009
2069:1947Sci...106..394M
1846:"Microbial Muddles"
1379:Ann Arbor, Michigan
1191:Peter Wilfred James
886:, Ajay Singh (1980)
735:Ramalina reticulata
653:David L. Hawksworth
606:George Albert Llano
505:who specialised in
191:and its own set of
2782:Outline of lichens
2662:2014-12-20 at the
2615:2014-12-20 at the
2172:. 651–653: 27–37.
2112:Cetraria islandica
1406:Outline of lichens
1388:Madison, Wisconsin
1308:Lichen collections
1271:Dalip Kumar Upreti
1165:Elias Magnus Fries
1115:Antonina Borissova
925:Elisabeth Peveling
904:D. H. Dalby (1988)
776:Cetraria islandica
680:
551:
417:
355:
340:
258:, Coralloides and
107:single-access keys
36:
3067:
3066:
2957:
2956:
2853:teleomorph/sexual
2430:sweetgum.nybg.org
2063:(2756): 394–395.
1251:Simon Schwendener
1155:Alexander Elenkin
838:Collema flaccidum
715:Bacillus subtilis
581:Cladonia pyxidata
527:Simon Schwendener
433:Johann Bayrhoffer
422:Hermann Itzigsohn
351:Evernia prunastri
316:Methodus lichenum
252:Historia Muscorum
193:other terminology
154:ultraviolet light
45:that studies the
41:is the branch of
16:(Redirected from
3107:
3095:Fungi and humans
3055:
3054:
3043:
3042:
3031:
3030:
2888:anamorph/asexual
2839:
2838:
2778:Outline of fungi
2758:
2751:
2744:
2735:
2734:
2724:Tropical Lichens
2709:Scottish Lichens
2542:
2541:
2530:
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2398:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2385:. Archived from
2379:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2369:
2360:. Archived from
2354:
2348:
2347:
2342:. Archived from
2332:
2326:
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2013:
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1983:
1977:
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1960:
1959:
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1947:. Archived from
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1507:
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1494:
1488:
1481:
1475:
1474:
1456:
1439:
1434:", according to
1428:
1261:Edward Tuckerman
1231:William Nylander
1221:Camille Montagne
1160:Andrei Famintsyn
1110:Alphonse Boistel
1080:Vernon Ahmadjian
1002:Botany Bulletins
745:Escherichia coli
642:Vernon Ahmadjian
519:Andrei Famintsyn
453:Edward Tuckerman
441:Camille Montagne
430:
363:Edward Tuckerman
359:Vernon Ahmadjian
181:ethnolichenology
123:Stephen Sharnoff
102:lichenologists.
21:
3115:
3114:
3110:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3105:
3104:
3070:
3069:
3068:
3063:
3019:
2988:
2969:Dimorphic fungi
2962:Growth patterns
2953:
2917:
2830:
2811:Medicinal fungi
2784:
2771:
2762:
2664:Wayback Machine
2617:Wayback Machine
2551:
2546:
2545:
2532:
2531:
2527:
2516:"- Collections"
2514:
2513:
2509:
2498:"- Collections"
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2040:
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2027:
2023:
2014:
2007:
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1984:
1980:
1964:
1963:
1957:
1955:
1951:
1944:
1942:"Archived copy"
1940:
1939:
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1900:
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1788:10.2307/3753090
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1420:
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1310:
1305:
1286:Heinrich Walter
1226:Sanjeeva Nayaka
1135:Louisa Collings
1065:
858:
789:Alectosarmentin
685:
667:, which causes
665:sulphur dioxide
556:
424:
406:Ludwig Schaerer
393:
377:Louisa Collings
338:Lichen on rocks
215:Pliny the Elder
206:
201:
142:lichen products
119:Sylvia Sharnoff
28:
23:
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15:
12:
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2828:
2826:Mycotoxicology
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2550:
2549:External links
2547:
2544:
2543:
2525:
2522:on 2017-07-06.
2507:
2504:on 2023-09-21.
2489:
2486:on 2014-02-02.
2471:
2468:on 2013-04-06.
2453:
2450:on 2014-02-01.
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1817:(2): 307–313.
1811:The Bryologist
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1726:10.1086/274846
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1050:Lichen Biology
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785:d-1-usnic acid
701:microbiologist
684:
681:
647:Such a simple
630:Roland Beschel
602:Irwin M. Brodo
568:Chromatophores
555:
552:
507:phytopathology
479:photosynthetic
464:Edmond Tulasne
437:Edmond Tulasne
392:
389:
332:
331:
325:
319:
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273:brought in by
205:
204:The beginnings
202:
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197:
185:edible lichens
115:Irwin M. Brodo
92:lichenologists
62:cyanobacterium
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2796:Ethnomycology
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435:, in France
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391:19th century
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189:nomenclature
161:lichenometry
158:
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104:
96:professional
84:microbiology
73:
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3080:Lichenology
3058:WikiProject
2913:Pycniospore
2801:Lichenology
1386:Herbarium,
1281:Erna Walter
1177:(1849–1910)
852:infection.
751:Pseudomonas
511:ascomycetes
445:Fedor Buhse
425: [
402:Elias Fries
242:as well as
211:Dioscorides
136:A chemical
66:filamentous
39:Lichenology
3074:Categories
2934:Haustorium
2893:Sporangium
2880:Teliospore
2729:UK Lichens
2393:2014-01-24
2368:2014-01-24
1958:2014-01-21
1850:BioScience
1446:References
1432:Clavarieae
1344:Ames, Iowa
823:antitumour
819:usnic acid
812:usnic acid
771:antibiotic
760:usnic acid
756:ergosterol
726:usnic acid
540:phenotypes
523:Baranetzky
503:mycologist
483:microscopy
471:apothecium
385:Propagules
240:liverworts
113:(2001) by
2949:Sporocarp
2944:Cell wall
2863:Ascospore
2858:Zygospore
2835:Structure
2322:nature.ca
1776:Mycologia
1523:19 August
1418:Footnotes
1395:, Belfast
808:phenolics
804:metabolic
793:Atranorin
669:acid rain
626:epilithic
536:symbiotic
513:group by
501:a German
492:symbiotic
297:botanist
248:Dillenius
150:fluoresce
138:spot test
80:phycology
64:) with a
54:organisms
51:symbiotic
3100:Mycology
3034:Category
2984:Mushroom
2939:Mycelium
2898:Conidium
2876:Basidium
2816:Mycology
2660:Archived
2613:Archived
2085:17750561
1967:cite web
1831:84580224
1750:. p. 23.
1734:84605645
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1430:"mostly
1400:See also
1371:, London
827:in vitro
810:such as
800:proteins
742:such as
730:Ramelina
712:against
697:medicine
649:a priori
365:and the
291:taxonomy
275:Linnaeus
271:taxonomy
175:, their
76:mycology
43:mycology
3046:Commons
2821:Mycosis
2253:2575016
2174:Bibcode
2151:7964789
2065:Bibcode
2057:Science
1796:3753090
1657:2478161
617:geology
613:biology
497:It was
367:Russian
347:Oakmoss
295:Swedish
287:thallus
264:thallus
260:Lichens
250:in his
244:lichens
229:in his
199:History
146:species
100:amateur
47:lichens
2908:Oidium
2789:Branch
2769:Fungus
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515:nostoc
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289:. The
283:Lichen
236:mosses
179:, and
171:, the
163:, the
152:under
88:botany
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762:etc.
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487:algae
475:fungi
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2993:List
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1994:ISBN
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