216:"The American Medical Association (AMA) was established as a permanent national organization at Philadelphia in 1847 at a convention attended by some 230 delegates representing more than forty medical societies and twenty-eight schools. From its inception, one of its primary aims was upgrading medical education and a concomitant reduction in the number of physicians. Its committee on raising medical standards reported at its first meeting that "the large number of Medical Colleges throughout the country, and the facility with which the degree is obtained, have exerted a most pernicious influence" on the profession. With the object of alleviating this situation, recommendations were carried out calling for a specified minimum preliminary education as a prerequisite for admission to a medical college, a lengthening of the period of study for graduation from a medical school, including compulsory clinical instruction at a hospital before the issuance of a diploma, and professional participation in some licensing scheme for physicians. Indeed, the issue of education was considered so important by the AMA that one of its first acts was the establishment of a Committee on Medical Education..."
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voluntary professional associations, but then eventually become law due to lobbying efforts. Paralleling or soon after the fall of guilds, professional associations began to form in
Britain and the US. In the US, several interested parties sought to emulate the model of apprenticeship that European guilds of the Middle Ages had honed to achieve their ends of establishing exclusivity in trades as well as the English concept of a gentleman which had come to be associated with higher income and craftsmanship. Examples are the Lazzaroni who lobbied to create the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and professional associations who lobbied to create the American Medical Association (AMA). According to Miller et al., "Lazzaroni opposed reforms for no apparent reason other than that scientists outside of their tight-knit group proposed them.". In his seminal work
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example, while defenders of guilds have argued that they allowed markets to function by ensuring quality standards, Sheilagh
Ogilvie had instead argued that markets of the Middle Ages flourished when guilds were abolished and that there is much evidence to support the notion that individuals prefer a wide variety of products of varying quality and price to be granted protections which they did not ask for, and which artificially constrain consumer options. Concerning modern forms of professional specialization, does specialization that accompanies technological advances naturally result in exclusivity, or have our licensing systems and laws been artificially engineered to limit the number of individuals who reach the point of specialization?
188:, past participle. Thus, as people became more and more specialized in their trade, they began to 'profess' their skill to others, and 'vow' to perform their trade to the highest known standard. With a reputation to uphold, trusted workers of a society who have a specific trade are considered professionals. Ironically, the usage of the word 'profess' declined from the late 1800s to the 1950s, just as the term 'professional' was gaining popularity from 1900 to 2010. Notably, in American English the rise in popularity of the term 'professional' started at the beginning of the 20th century whereas in British English it started in the 1930s and grew fastest in the 1960s and 1970s.
27:
239:(or quasi-guild) and continues to serve as an indispensable means for the professionalization of fields of work. While it is true that most guilds disappeared by the middle of the nineteenth century, the scholars guild persisted due to its peripheral standing in an industrialized economy. In the words of Elliot Krause, "The university and scholars' guilds held onto their power over membership, training, and workplace because early capitalism was not interested in it...".
204:(1982) Paul Starr argues that a significant motivation in the development of the AMA was to gain authority over unlicensed practitioners to minimize competition among medical practitioners, thereby enhancing the earning power and prestige of medical professionals. The licensing process Starr argues, was unnecessarily prolonged and the costs were artificially enhanced with the specific aim of deterring potential practitioners from entering the field. In his book,
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created by education and enhanced by strategies of closure, that is, the exclusion of the unqualified." Specifically, it is the management of human capital, and not just specialized skill which Perkin argues is a mark of the professional classes, at one point going so far as to compare it to a modern
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As was the case with guilds who claimed to establish exclusivity in a trade in the name of serving the public good, there are often subtle dichotomies present in the idea of professionalizing a field, whether in the name of serving some notion of the public good or as a result of specialization. For
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A key theoretical dispute arises from the observation that established professions (e.g. lawyers, medical doctors, accountants, architects, civil engineers, surveyors) are subject to strict codes of conduct. Some have thus argued that these codes of conduct, agreed upon and maintained through widely
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observes that qualified professionals are less creative and diverse in their opinions and habits than non-professionals, which he attributes to the subtle indoctrination and filtering which accompanies the process of professional training. His evidence is both qualitative and quantitative, including
46:
in a specified professional activity. The term also describes the standards of education and training that prepare members of the profession with the particular knowledge and skills necessary to perform their specific role within that profession. In addition, most professionals are subject to strict
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In many cases, granting degrees through universities serves as one major component of licensing practices. Still, numerous legal stipulations and, in some cases, even informal social norms act in this capacity. Nevertheless, the university system constitutes one of the last remaining widely spread
199:
With most guilds formally abolished outside of the realm of academia, establishing exclusivity and standards in a trade (i.e. the successful professionalization of a trade) had to be achieved via other means such as licensing practices, of which might begin as an informal process established by
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that maintain them are merely a consequence of 'successful' professionalization, rather than an intrinsic element of the definition of professional (ism); this implies that a profession arises from the alignment between a shared purpose (connected to a 'greater good'), a
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historian Harold Perkin characterizes professional society; "Where pre-industrial society was based on passive property in land and industrial society on actively managed capital, professional society is based on
231:(1994) Walter Trattner argues that social workers began to emphasize individualized casework at the expense of alternative methods which utilize holistic approaches to address social issues.
220:
As technology progressed throughout the twentieth century, the successful professionalization of a given field was increasingly made possible through the idea of specialization.
196:
The notion of a professional can be traced to medieval
European guilds, most of which died off by the middle of the nineteenth century, except the scholars guild or university.
489:
Schmidt, J. (2000). Disciplined Minds – A Critical Look at
Salaried Professionals and the Soul-Battering System that Shapes their Lives. Rowman & Littlefield, pp.293.
63:. Some definitions of "professional" limit this term to those professions that serve some important aspect of public interest and the general good of society.
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In narrow usage, not all expertise is considered a profession. Occupations such as skilled construction and maintenance work are more generally thought of as
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55:. Professional standards of practice and ethics for a particular field are typically agreed upon and maintained through widely recognized
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In some cultures, the term is used as shorthand to describe a particular social stratum of well-educated workers who enjoy considerable
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Gardner, Howard and
Shulman, Lee S., The Professions in America Today: Crucial but Fragile. Daedalus, Summer 2005. (pgs. 13–14)
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Romme, G. (2016). The Quest for
Professionalism: The Case of Management and Entrepreneurship. Oxford: Oxford University Press
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recognized professional associations, are a key element of what constitutes any profession. Others have argued that strict
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The Social
Transformation of American Medicine: The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry
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Although professional training appears to be ideologically neutral, it may be biased towards those with higher
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In certain cases, the want to specialize can adversely and negatively affect an industry. In his seminal work
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Conflict of
Interest in Four Professions: A Comparative Analysis. Washington (DC): National Academy Press
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160:, actual behavior in terms of actions and decisions, and expectations held by societal stakeholders.
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86:. The completion of an apprenticeship is generally associated with skilled labour, or trades such as
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professional examinations, industry statistics and personal accounts of trainees and professionals.
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136:: A Critical Look at Salaried Professionals and the Soul-Battering System that Shapes Their Lives
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The etymology and historical meaning of the term professional is from Middle
English, from
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Death of Guilds: Professions, States, and The
Advance of Capitalism, 1930 to The Present
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From Poor Law to Welfare State: A History of Social Welfare in America, 5th Edition
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The Early Development of Medical Licensing Laws in the United States, 1875–1900
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and who are commonly engaged in creative and intellectually challenging work.
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172:, adjective, having professed one's vows, from Anglo-French, from Late Latin
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The Lazzaroni: Science and Scientists in The Mid Nineteenth Century America
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Work and Integrity: The Crisis and Promise of Professionalism in America
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From Poor Law to Welfare State: A History of Social Welfare in America
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Role of Professional Bodies in Higher Education Quality Monitoring
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The American class structure: In an age of growing inequality
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The structure of social stratification in the United States
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Person who is paid to undertake a specialized set of tasks
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The Rise of Professional Society; England Since 1885
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Fear of falling: The inner life of the middle class
370:. Birmingham: Quality in Higher Education Project.
534:"The Big Idea: No, Management Is Not a Profession"
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705:. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.
645:"Google Books NGram Viewer (American English)"
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671:"Google Books NGram Viewer (British English)"
504:. National Academy Press. 30 September 2009.
440:Occupation and Class Consciousness in America
305:"Moral responsibility in professional ethics"
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564:. Oxford University Press. 28 January 2016.
184:to acknowledge; in other senses, from Latin
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131:and a formal education. In his 2000 book,
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390:Sullivan, William M. (2nd ed. 2005).
254:Centre for the Study of Professions
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846:
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738:. Routledge, London and New York.
442:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
176:, from Latin, past participle of
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753:. Smithsonian Institution Press.
736:The Rise of Professional Society
532:Barker, Richard (July 1, 2010).
116:The Rise of Professional Society
30:Doctor explains x-ray to patient
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416:. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Press.
106:and other similar occupations.
771:. Basic Books, Inc., New York.
593:"Simple Definition of profess"
366:; Mason, S.; Ward, R. (1995).
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192:Guilds and licensing practices
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723:. Princeton University Press.
462:. New York: Harper Perennial.
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284:Professional-managerial class
21:Professional (disambiguation)
429:. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
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7:
619:"Google Books NGram Viewer"
303:Postema, Gerald J. (1980).
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719:Ogilvie, Sheilagh (2019).
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782:Trattner, Walter (1994).
153:professional associations
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57:professional associations
749:Miller, Lillian (1972).
734:Perkin, Harold (1993).
701:Krause, Elliot (1996).
675:books.google.com/ngrams
649:books.google.com/ngrams
623:books.google.com/ngrams
599:. Merriam Webster. 2015
538:Harvard Business Review
475:Perkin, Harold (1989).
458:Ehrenreich, B. (1989).
264:Professional boundaries
817:Quotations related to
259:Organizational culture
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31:
425:Beeghley, L. (2004).
334:"IEEE.org Index Page"
269:Professional services
214:
29:
809:at Wikimedia Commons
807:People by occupation
767:Starr, Paul (1982).
548:– via hbr.org.
412:Gilbert, D. (1998).
19:For other uses, see
597:merriam-webster.com
438:Eichar, D. (1989).
274:Professional sports
124:form of feudalism.
540:(July–August 2010)
42:or any person who
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805:Media related to
786:. The Free Press.
571:978-0-19-873773-5
511:978-0-309-13188-9
448:978-0-313-26111-4
279:Semi-professional
158:body of knowledge
134:Disciplined Minds
129:class backgrounds
53:moral obligations
38:is a member of a
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92:electrician
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544:16 October
364:Harvey, L.
290:References
40:profession
186:professus
178:profitēri
174:professus
164:Etymology
88:carpenter
829:Category
603:26 March
348:26 March
338:IEEE.ORG
318:26 March
243:See also
151:and the
249:Amateur
104:plumber
100:painter
49:ethical
677:. 2018
651:. 2018
625:. 2018
568:
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446:
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212:wrote:
182:fatēri
170:profes
110:Theory
84:crafts
80:trades
74:Trades
237:guild
96:mason
44:works
683:2018
657:2018
631:2018
605:2016
579:2019
566:ISBN
546:2019
519:2023
506:ISBN
444:ISBN
372:ISBN
350:2016
320:2016
61:IEEE
51:and
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