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bolometer, and remarked that it was a beautiful instrument. I then said, "Professor
Langley, I have a suggestion for making an improvement in the bolometer, if you will embody it in the principle." I explained to him how the bolometer could be improved. Professor Langley was very much interested and wrote in his notebook what I suggested. I used what I have termed a small-mass resistance, but of much smaller mass than in the bolometer of Langley, and of much smaller mass than that of any of the devices which have been recorded in patents issued since. Those are clumsy things. I used masses that were not a millionth of the smallest mass described in any of the patents, or in the publications. With such an instrument, I operated, for instance, in West Point—I received signals from my laboratory on Houston Street in West Point.
343:(ECRH). In terms of hardware, the W7-X bolometers are equipped with metal-resistive detectors. These are distinguished by a 5 μm thick gold absorber, sized 1.3 mm in the poloidal direction and 3.8 mm toroidally, mounted on a ceramic (silicon nitride Si3N4) substrate. The inclusion of a 50 nm carbon layer is strategic, enhancing the detection efficiency for low-energy photons. These detectors are notably attuned to impurity line radiation, covering a spectrum from the very ultraviolet (VUV) to soft x-rays (SXR). Given their resilience and innovative design, they are being considered as prototypes for the upcoming
62:
22:
396:. This resistance change is measured and processed into temperatures which can be represented graphically. The microbolometer grid is commonly found in three sizes, a 640×480 array, a 320×240 array (384×288 amorphous silicon) or less expensive 160×120 array. 640x512 VOx arrays are commonly used in static security camera applications with low shock resistance requirements. Different arrays provide the same resolution with larger array providing a wider
160:); this lack of discrimination can also be a shortcoming. The most sensitive bolometers are very slow to reset (i.e., return to thermal equilibrium with the environment). On the other hand, compared to more conventional particle detectors, they are extremely efficient in energy resolution and in sensitivity. They are also known as thermal detectors.
120:
A bolometer consists of an absorptive element, such as a thin layer of metal, connected to a thermal reservoir (a body of constant temperature) through a thermal link. The result is that any radiation impinging on the absorptive element raises its temperature above that of the reservoir – the greater
338:
employs a two-camera bolometer system to capture plasma radiation. This setup is optimized to identify 2D radiation distributions within a symmetrical triangular plasma cross-section. Recent progress includes the refinement of a tomographic reconstruction algorithm, which leans on the principle of
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to the waveguide characteristic impedance. After applying microwave power, the bias current is reduced to return the bolometer to its resistance in the absence of microwave power. The change in the dc power is then equal to the absorbed microwave power. To reject the effect of ambient temperature
736:
I suppose I had hundreds of devices, but the first device that I used, and it was very successful, was an improvement on the bolometer. I met
Professor Langley in 1892 at the Royal Institution. He said to me, after I had delivered a lecture, that they were all proud of me. I spoke to him of the
192:
and connected to a battery. Electromagnetic radiation falling on the exposed strip would heat it and change its resistance. By 1880, Langley's bolometer was refined enough to detect thermal radiation from a cow a quarter of a mile (400 m) away. This radiant-heat detector is sensitive to
424:
system. Power coupled to the electron system drives it out of thermal equilibrium with the phonon system, creating hot electrons. Phonons in the metal are typically well-coupled to substrate phonons and act as a thermal reservoir. In describing the performance of the HEB, the relevant
448:
materials at low temperature. If the absorbing element does not have a temperature-dependent resistance, as is typical of normal (non-superconducting) metals at very low temperature, then an attached resistive thermometer can be used to measure the electron temperature.
474:
with an identical element not exposed to microwaves; variations in temperature common to both elements do not affect the accuracy of the reading. The average response time of the bolometer allows convenient measurement of the power of a pulsed source.
205:
personally asked Dr. Langley whether he could use his bolometer for his power transmission experiments in 1892. Thanks to that first use, he succeeded in making the first demonstration between West Point and his laboratory on
Houston Street.
318:). Their use as particle detectors was proposed from the beginning of the 20th century, but the first regular, though pioneering, use was only in the 1980s because of the difficulty associated with cooling and operating a system at
133:, or the resistance of the absorptive element itself can be used as a thermometer. Metal bolometers usually work without cooling. They are produced from thin foils or metal films. Today, most bolometers use
193:
differences in temperature of one hundred-thousandth of a degree
Celsius (0.00001 °C). This instrument enabled him to thermally detect across a broad spectrum, noting all the chief
298:. They use the same principle described above. The bolometers are sensitive not only to light but to every form of energy. The operating principle is similar to that of a
543:
722:
NIKOLA TESLA ON HIS WORK WITH ALTERNATING CURRENTS and Their
Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony and Transmission of Power : An Extended Interview
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of the absorbing element depends on the electron temperature, then the resistance can be used as a thermometer of the electron system. This is the case for both
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frequencies. In this application, a resistive element is exposed to microwave power. A dc bias current is applied to the resistor to raise its temperature via
121:
the absorbed power, the higher the temperature. The intrinsic thermal time constant, which sets the speed of the detector, is equal to the ratio of the
255:
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Bolometers are directly sensitive to the energy left inside the absorber. For this reason they can be used not only for ionizing particles and
478:
In 2020, two groups reported microwave bolometers based on graphene-based materials capable of microwave detection at the single-photon level.
314:
of high energy physics, these devices are not called "calorimeters", since this term is already used for a different type of detector (see
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relative gradient smoothing (RGS) of emission profiles. This has been effectively applied to the W7-X hydrogen discharges powered by
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between the absorptive element and the reservoir. The temperature change can be measured directly with an attached resistive
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at these wavelengths. To achieve the best sensitivity, they must be cooled to a fraction of a degree above
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184:. One strip was shielded from radiation and one exposed to it. The strips formed two branches of a
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794:"Design criteria of the bolometer diagnostic for steady-state operation of the W7-X stellarator"
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84:. The thermal mass is connected to a reservoir of constant temperature through a link with
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234:) bolometers are among the most sensitive available detectors, and are therefore used for
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258:(SOFIA). Recent examples of bolometers employed in millimeter-wavelength astronomy are
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Wellstood, F. C.; Urbina, C.; Clarke, John (1994). "Hot-electron effects in metals".
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246:). Notable examples of bolometers employed in submillimeter astronomy include the
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197:. He also discovered new atomic and molecular absorption lines in the invisible
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688:). High Altitude Observatory, University Corporation for Atmospheric Research.
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Bolometers play a pivotal role in monitoring radiation in fusion plasmas. The
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While bolometers can be used to measure radiation of any frequency, for most
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226:(from around 200 μm to a few mm wavelength, also known as the far-
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and is measured with a resistive thermometer, allowing the determination of
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1049:"Bolometer operating at the threshold for circuit quantum electrodynamics"
859:"Bolometer tomography on Wendelstein 7-X for study of radiation asymmetry"
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The structure and function of a pit organ has similarities to a bolometer.
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ranges there are other methods of detection that are more sensitive. For
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absorptive elements rather than metals. These devices can be operated at
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72:, from an incident signal is absorbed and heats up a thermal mass with
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Langley, S. P. (12 January 1881). "The
Bolometer and Radiant Energy".
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bolometers – Definition from the
Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
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strikes the vanadium oxide or amorphous silicon, and changes its
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322:. They can still be considered to be at the developmental stage.
753:. Millersville, PA, USA: Materials Research Forum. p. 185.
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156:, and even to search for unknown forms of mass or energy (like
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970:
Lee, Gil-Ho; Efetov, Dmitri K.; et al. (1 October 2020).
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Kokkoniemi, R.; Girard, J.-P.; et al. (1 October 2020).
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temperatures, enabling significantly greater sensitivity.
1118:"New microwave bolometers could boost quantum computers"
645:
Proceedings of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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is a specific type of bolometer used as a detector in a
972:"Graphene-based Josephson junction microwave bolometer"
16:
Device for measuring incident electromagnetic radiation
774:
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The first bolometers made by
Langley consisted of two
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by means of a material having a temperature-dependent
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49:. It was invented in 1878 by the American astronomer
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285:
152:, but also for non-ionizing particles, any sort of
400:. Larger, 1024×768 arrays were announced in 2008.
429:is the electronic heat capacity and the relevant
325:
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1150:Langley's own words on the bolometer and its use
775:"CMB-S4 – CMB-S4 Next Generation CMB Experiment"
470:changes, the active (measuring) element is in a
412:temperatures, typically within a few degrees of
256:Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy
1141:(Richards group, Dept. of Physics, UC Berkeley)
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621:
585:"Bolometers for infrared and millimeter waves"
408:The hot electron bolometer (HEB) operates at
108:. The intrinsic thermal time constant is τ =
950:Encyclopedia of RF and Microwave Engineering
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791:
457:A bolometer can be used to measure power at
433:is the electron-phonon thermal conductance.
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25:Spiderweb bolometer for measurements of the
420:system in a metal is weakly coupled to the
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377:heat sensors atop a corresponding grid of
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628:. American Metrological Society. p.
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201:portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
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242:(typically from 50 mK to 300
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416:. At these very low temperatures, the
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27:cosmic microwave background radiation
1145:NASA on the history of the bolometer
1124:from the original on 8 October 2020.
1105:from the original on 5 October 2020.
1036:from the original on 5 October 2020.
751:Detectors and Sources for THz and IR
341:electron cyclotron resonance heating
1116:Johnston, Hamish (5 October 2020).
622:Langley, S. P. (23 December 1880).
290:The term bolometer is also used in
66:Conceptual schematic of a bolometer
13:
350:
188:which was fitted with a sensitive
14:
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125:of the absorptive element to the
798:Review of Scientific Instruments
544:"Langley's Bolometer, 1880-1890"
286:Applications in particle physics
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857:Zhang, D.; et al. (2021).
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792:Zhang, D.; et al. (2010).
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306:. However, the approximations,
294:to designate an unconventional
92:. The temperature increase is Δ
827:11858/00-001M-0000-0026-F070-5
749:Sizov, Fedir F. (5 May 2020).
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465:, such that the resistance is
326:Applications in plasma physics
1:
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252:James Clerk Maxwell Telescope
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678:Samuel P. Langley Biography
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10:
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1139:Introduction to bolometers
589:Journal of Applied Physics
523:Infrared sensing in snakes
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270:and the HFI camera on the
248:Herschel Space Observatory
220:sub-millimeter wavelengths
41:is a device for measuring
1185:Superconducting detectors
1083:10.1038/s41586-020-2753-3
1006:10.1038/s41586-020-2752-4
703:earthobservatory.nasa.gov
699:"Samuel Pierpont Langley"
388:from a specific range of
278:, CMB-S4 experiment, and
274:, as well as the planned
210:Applications in astronomy
180:foil strips covered with
928:10.1103/PhysRevB.49.5942
884:10.1088/1741-4326/ac2778
583:Richards, P. L. (1994).
493:Scintillating bolometer
51:Samuel Pierpont Langley
724:. Leland I. Anderson.
716:Tesla, Nikola (1992).
404:Hot electron bolometer
224:millimeter wavelengths
117:
57:Principle of operation
34:
1175:Measuring instruments
453:Microwave measurement
394:electrical resistance
347:bolometer detectors.
320:cryogenic temperature
308:ultra low temperature
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47:electrical resistance
24:
548:Science Museum Group
1075:2020Natur.586...47K
998:2020Natur.586...42L
920:1994PhRvB..49.5942W
875:2021NucFu..61k6043Z
810:2010RScI...81jE134Z
601:1994JAP....76....1R
431:thermal conductance
164:Langley's bolometer
127:thermal conductance
86:thermal conductance
80:, and temperature,
1180:Particle detectors
684:2009-11-06 at the
567:See, for example,
369:. It is a grid of
276:Simons Observatory
118:
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908:Physical Review B
818:10.1063/1.3483194
731:978-1-893817-01-2
375:amorphous silicon
296:particle detector
186:Wheatstone bridge
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190:galvanometer
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718:"section 4"
595:(1): 1–24.
390:wavelengths
336:stellarator
316:Calorimeter
300:calorimeter
282:satellite.
264:BICEP array
158:dark matter
131:thermometer
1170:Radiometry
1159:Categories
1066:2008.04628
989:1909.05413
779:cmb-s4.org
530:References
513:Thermistor
503:Radiometer
438:resistance
254:, and the
216:wavelength
1099:221095927
1030:202565642
893:238641528
508:Tasimeter
498:Pyrometer
459:microwave
410:cryogenic
386:radiation
236:astronomy
232:terahertz
182:lampblack
178:palladium
154:radiation
143:cryogenic
68:. Power,
39:bolometer
1122:Archived
1103:Archived
1091:32999484
1034:Archived
1022:32999482
936:10011570
836:21033996
682:Archived
665:25138616
553:20 March
482:See also
418:electron
383:Infrared
280:LiteBIRD
228:infrared
222:through
199:infrared
174:platinum
1165:Sensors
1071:Bibcode
994:Bibcode
916:Bibcode
871:Bibcode
844:3856215
806:Bibcode
651:: 348.
597:Bibcode
467:matched
436:If the
379:silicon
334:(W7-X)
150:photons
1097:
1089:
1053:Nature
1028:
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976:Nature
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422:phonon
312:jargon
268:SPT-3G
260:AdvACT
250:, the
1095:S2CID
1061:arXiv
1026:S2CID
984:arXiv
889:S2CID
840:S2CID
661:JSTOR
176:, or
170:steel
1087:PMID
1018:PMID
954:ISBN
932:PMID
832:PMID
755:ISBN
726:ISBN
555:2022
444:and
345:ITER
1079:doi
1057:586
1010:hdl
1002:doi
980:586
924:doi
879:doi
822:hdl
814:doi
653:doi
632:–7.
605:doi
373:or
302:in
137:or
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361:A
266:,
262:,
244:mK
230:,
172:,
96:=
88:,
76:,
53:.
37:A
1081::
1073::
1063::
1012::
1004::
996::
986::
938:.
926::
918::
895:.
881::
873::
846:.
824::
816::
808::
781:.
763:.
680:(
667:.
655::
630:1
611:.
607::
599::
557:.
116:.
114:G
112:/
110:C
106:P
102:G
100:/
98:P
94:T
90:G
82:T
78:C
70:P
33:.
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