53:
38:
157:
272:
208:) have, however, issued a large number of rulings which essentially regulate trade union activities such as strikes. Work councils, for example, may not strike at all, but trade unions retain an almost unlimited ability to strike. The widespread use of work councils, however, channels most labor disputes and reduces the likelihood of strikes. Efforts to enact a comprehensive federal labor relations law that regulates strikes, lockouts and the use of strikebreakers failed.
148:
trade union freedoms "in grave jeopardy." Regarding permanent replacement rather than just replacement for the duration of the strike, the ILO has held that "this basic right is not really guaranteed when a worker who exercises it legally runs the risk of seeing his or her job taken up permanently by another worker."
331:
in reference to strikebreaking to the United
Kingdom in 1859. The use of the term blackleg for a strikebreaker was, however, previously recorded in 1832 during the trial of special constable George Weddell for killing and slaying Cuthbert Skipsey, a striking pitman, near Chirton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
376:
were true blacklegs, given the lack of a democratic vote on the strike.: "If we use McIlroy's interpretation can the
Nottinghamshire miners of 1984-85 be seen to have been 'blacklegging' as against 'scabbing'? However, there is one contentious point in McIlroy's interpretation, the breaking of the
147:
Striker replacement (hiring workers to replace striking workers during the course of a strike) is not banned or restricted by international law. However, the ILO has concluded striker replacement, while not in contravention of ILO agreements, carries with it significant risks for abuse and places
228:
Canada has federal industrial relations laws that strongly regulate the use of strikebreakers. Although many
Canadian labor unions today advocate for even stronger regulations, scholars point out that Canadian labor law has far greater protections for union members and the right to strike than
1074:
1150:
253:(1938) that an employer may not discriminate on the basis of union activity in reinstating employees at the end of a strike. The ruling effectively encourages employers to hire strikebreakers so that the union loses majority support in the workplace when the strike ends. The
371:
is one already employed who goes against a democratic decision of their colleagues to strike, and instead continues to work. The fact that McIlroy specified that this should be a "democratic" decision has led the historian David Amos to question whether the
128:
as well as the freedom for workers to organize and established principles on the right to strike through rulings. For example, the ILO has ruled that "the right to strike is an intrinsic corollary of the right of association protected by
Convention No. 87."
179:
significantly restricts the ability of both an employer and a union to engage in labor disputes. The law highly regulates labor relations to ensure labor peace and channel conflict into collective bargaining, mediation and arbitration. It bans the use of
912:
Freedom of
Association and Collective Bargaining: General Survey of the Reports on the Freedom of Association and the Right to Organise Convention (No. 87), 1948, and the Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention (no. 98),
257:
court also held that employers enjoy the unrestricted right to permanently replace strikers with strikebreakers, which in essence is, according to law professor
Matthew Dimick, a permission "for firing employees for striking." A
99:
to work or workers who were not employed by the company before the dispute but hired after or during the strike to keep the organization running. Some countries have passed laws outlawing strikebreakers to give more power to
377:'democratic process'. It is because there was some debate over the democratic process in the 1984-85 miners' strike that the question is raised as to whether the working Nottinghamshire miners were scabs at all."
192:
In most
European countries, strikebreakers are rarely used. Consequently, they are rarely if ever mentioned in most European national labor laws. As mentioned above, it is left to the
305:, for an early occurrence of the word was in conjunction with an 1803 American bootmaker's strike. However, British industrial relations expert J.G. Riddall notes that it may have a
340:" is believed to originate from the 1844 strike, which would predate Hughes's reference. The song is thought to originate from the 1844 Miners' Lockout in the North East Coalfield.
525:
Maastricht Treaty on
European Union, Protocol and Agreement on Social Policy, February 7, 1992, 31 LL.M. 247, paragraph 13 under "Freedom of association and collective bargaining."
1069:
Isaac, Larry W., Rachel G. McKane, and Anna W. Jacobs. "Pitting the
Working Class against Itself: Solidarity, Strikebreaking, and Strike Outcomes in the Early US Labor Movement."
309:
connotation, as it was used in this way in 1859 in the United
Kingdom: "If you dare work we shall consider you as blacks..." Lexicographer Geoffrey Hughes, however, notes that
117:
882:
Dau-Schmidt, Kenneth Glenn. "Labor Law and Industrial Peace: A Comparative Analysis of the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Japan Under the Bargaining Model."
141:
124:(ILO) Committee on Freedom of Association and other ILO bodies have interpreted all core ILO conventions as protecting the right to strike as an essential element of the
577:
2002; Dau-Schmidt, "Labor Law and Industrial Peace: A Comparative Analysis of the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Japan Under the Bargaining Model,"
214:
The Netherlands does not explicitly forbid the practice of strikebreaking but has a law in place that prevents companies from hiring temporary employees through a
200:
Germany has employment law that protects worker rights, but trade unions and the right to strike are not regulated by statute. The Bundesarbeitsgericht (the
211:
The United Kingdom's laws permit strikebreaking, and courts have significantly restricted the right of unions to punish members who act as strikebreakers.
548:
1023:
Arnesen, Eric. "Specter of the Black Strikebreaker: Race, Employment, and Labor Activism in the Industrial Era." Labor History 44.3 (2003): 319-335
262:
report in 2000 concluded that the U.S. "is almost alone in the world in allowing permanent replacement of workers who exercise the right to strike."
1009:
Westfall, David and Thusing, Gregor. "Strikes and Lockouts in Germany and Under Federal Legislation in the United States: A Comparative Analysis."
236:
Mexico has a federal labor law that requires companies to cease operations during a legal strike, effectively preventing the use of strikebreakers.
607:
April 2005; Westfall and Thusing, "Strikes and Lockouts in Germany and Under Federal Legislation in the United States: A Comparative Analysis,"
352:, as strikebreakers would often neglect to wash their legs, which would give away that they had been working whilst others had been on strike.
2008:
1907:
1177:
925:
Logan, John. "How 'Anti-Union' Laws Saved Canadian Labour: Certification and Striker Replacements in Post-War Industrial Relations."
464:
1799:
905:
An Encyclopedia of Swearing: The Social History of Oaths, Profanity, Foul Language, and Ethnic Slurs in the English-Speaking World.
684:
Getman, Julius G.; Kohler, Thomas C. (2005). "The story of NLRB v. Mackay Radio & Telegraph Co.: The High Cost of Solidarity".
1030:
Erlich, Richard L. "Immigrant strikebreaking activity: A sampling of opinion expressed in the National Labor Tribune, 1878-1885."
947:
Schillinger, Stephen (2012). "Begging at the Gate: Jack Straw and the Acting Out of Popular Rebellion". In Cerasano, S.P. (ed.).
434:
332:
Hughes observes that the term was once generally used to indicate a scoundrel, a villain, or a disreputable person. However, the
245:
205:
648:
Logan, "How 'Anti-Union' Laws Saved Canadian Labour: Certification and Striker Replacements in Post-War Industrial Relations,"
120:
establishes: "The right to strike, provided that it is exercised in conformity with the laws of the particular country." The
239:
As of 2002, strikebreakers were used far more frequently in the United States than in other industrialized countries. The
136:
of 1961 was the first international agreement to expressly protect the right to strike. Similar to international law, the
373:
240:
858:"THE NOTTINGHAMSHIRE MINERS', THE UNION OF DEMOCRATIC MINEWORKERS AND THE 1984-85 MINERS STRIKE: SCABS OR SCAPEGOATS?"
804:"THE NOTTINGHAMSHIRE MINERS', THE UNION OF DEMOCRATIC MINEWORKERS AND THE 1984-85 MINERS STRIKE: SCABS OR SCAPEGOATS?"
1769:
1288:
958:
898:
472:
121:
1882:
510:"Unfair Advantage: Workers' Freedom of Association in the United States under International Human Rights Standards"
1086:
Noon, Mark. " 'It ain't your color, it's your scabbing': literary depictions of African American strikebreakers."
1057:
Unfair Advantage: Workers' Freedom of Association in the United States Under International Human Rights Standards.
1700:
712:
275:
56:
17:
1119:
From Blackjacks to Briefcases: A History of Commercialized Strikebreaking and Unionbusting in the United States.
1952:
1126:
1102:
1064:
1050:
1004:
990:
976:
201:
1170:
233:, the use of strikebreakers is illegal, but companies may try to remain open with only managerial personnel.
41:
1308:
1248:
31:
229:
American labor law, which has significantly influenced the development of labor relations in Canada. In
1705:
1550:
1195:
1214:
1138:
Tuttle, William J. Jr. "Labor conflict and racial violence: The black worker in Chicago, 1894-1919."
1024:
52:
1887:
1749:
1723:
1690:
1339:
1163:
2003:
1998:
1710:
1530:
1354:
1298:
1253:
133:
1892:
1570:
125:
279:
1695:
1349:
1110:
Rosenbloom, Joshua L. “Strikebreaking and the labor market in the United States, 1881–1894.”
413:
893:
Catharine Barnard, Gillian S. Morris, and Simon Deakin, eds. Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2004.
1359:
1273:
1263:
1095:
Strikebreaking & Intimidation: Mercenaries and Masculinity in Twentieth-Century America
323:
37:
8:
1957:
1811:
1794:
1415:
1374:
1268:
1145:
Whatley, Warren C. "African-American Strikebreaking from the Civil War to the New Deal."
713:"US Labor Law Protects the Use of Scabs. Rebuilding Workplace Solidarity Is the Solution"
341:
96:
1942:
1744:
1718:
1640:
1520:
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1344:
318:
259:
176:
156:
116:
The right to strike is well-established in international law. In particular, the 1966
1867:
1862:
1650:
1575:
1484:
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857:
803:
468:
105:
634:
1872:
1847:
1329:
1131:
Tuttle, William J. Jr. "Some strikebreakers' observations of industrial warfare."
488:
Freedom of Association and Collective Bargaining: General Survey of the Reports...
1685:
1635:
1535:
1505:
1243:
1205:
948:
183:
South Korea bans the use of strikebreakers, although the practice remains common.
162:
1967:
1852:
1826:
1806:
1784:
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1608:
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1238:
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International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Article 8 (1d).
407:
401:
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193:
137:
1105:
1045:
Laura J. Cooper and Catherine L. Fisk, eds. New York: Foundation Press, 2005.
1992:
1937:
1902:
1897:
1774:
1595:
1565:
1525:
1405:
1395:
1369:
1334:
1313:
786:. Overton, Yorkshire, UK: National Coal Mining Museum for England. p. 2.
250:
88:
45:
509:
388:, in the sense of something that sticks out, and from the card-playing term
271:
1972:
1932:
1927:
1857:
1630:
1618:
1585:
1479:
1474:
1420:
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1200:
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101:
1079:
Keiser, John H. "Black Strikebreakers and Racism in Illinois, 1865-1900."
445:(1) – via FLASH: The Fordham Law Archive of Scholarship and History.
1917:
1877:
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1379:
1303:
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349:
302:
215:
92:
932:
Parry, Richard Lloyd. "Labour Law Draws Roar of Rage From Asian Tiger."
875:
Committee on Freedom of Association. International Labour Organization.
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as an outsider who is recruited to replace a striking worker, whereas a
1947:
1922:
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1831:
1821:
1739:
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298:
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See "Artikel 10. Verbod ter beschikking stellen bij arbeidsconflict."
1977:
1962:
1555:
1155:
983:
Household Words: Bloomers, Sucker, Bombshell, Scab, Nigger, Cyber.
879:
5th (revised) ed. Geneva: International Labour Organization, 2006.
1655:
969:
Forces of Labor: Workers' Movements and Globalization Since 1870.
731:
Household Words: Bloomers, Sucker, Bombshell, Scab, Nigger, Cyber
355:
John McIlroy has suggested that there is a distinction between a
549:"ILO Definitive Report - Report No 278, June 1991, Case No 1543"
1603:
1515:
877:
Digest of Decisions of the Committee on Freedom of Association.
833:
536:
Digest of Decisions of the Committee on Freedom of Association,
306:
230:
118:
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
1613:
1097:
Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2002.
142:
Community Charter of the Fundamental Social Rights of Workers
321:
infectious bacterial disease of sheep and cattle caused by
1011:
Boston College International & Comparative Law Review.
692:
609:
Boston College International & Comparative Law Review,
144:
permits EU member states to regulate the right to strike.
590:
Parry, "Labour Law Draws Roar of Rage From Asian Tiger,"
953:. Madison, Wisc.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.
1037:
Getman, Julius G. and Kohler, Thomas C. "The Story of
884:
Tulane Journal of International & Comparative Law.
579:
Tulane Journal of International & Comparative Law,
297:
Stephanie Smith suggests that the word has to do with
435:"The Right to Strike as Customary International Law"
889:Ewing, Keith. "Laws Against Strikes Revisited." In
821:
763:
985:Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006.
950:Medieval and Renaissance Drama in England. Vol. 21
918:Körner, Marita. "German Labor Law in Transition."
635:"Wet allocatie arbeidskrachten door intermediairs"
849:
1990:
915:Geneva: International Labour Organization, 1994.
775:
196:member states to determine their own policies.
1594:
1171:
999:Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2002.
927:Relations Industrielles/Industrial Relations.
650:Relations Industrielles/Industrial Relations,
465:ILO principles concerning the right to strike
1081:Journal of Illinois State Historical Society
1059:Washington, D.C.: Human Rights Watch, 2000.
971:New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
698:
683:
620:Ewing, "Laws Against Strikes Revisited," in
1121:Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2003.
946:
839:
87:) is a person who works despite an ongoing
1178:
1164:
863:. University of Nottingham. pp. 293–4
809:. University of Nottingham. pp. 293–4
801:
603:Körner, "German Labor Law in Transition,"
521:
519:
317:are both references to disease, as in the
27:Person who works despite an ongoing strike
1908:International comparisons of labor unions
754:
482:
480:
384:. The term appears derived from the word
266:
30:For the short story by Isaac Asimov, see
1039:NLRB v. Mackay Radio & Telegraph Co.
781:
270:
246:NLRB v. Mackay Radio & Telegraph Co.
204:) and the Bundesverfassungsgericht (the
155:
51:
36:
516:
432:
380:Strikebreakers have also been known as
206:Federal Constitutional Court of Germany
14:
1991:
710:
477:
1159:
534:Committee on Freedom of Association,
504:
502:
500:
498:
496:
327:. He dates the first use of the term
91:. Strikebreakers are either workers (
855:
827:
769:
111:
1185:
1041:: The High Cost of Solidarity." In
910:International Labour Organization.
800:, p. 150 (London, 1984), quoted by
711:Dimick, Matthew (October 4, 2023).
688:. Foundation Press. pp. 49–50.
486:International Labour Organization,
24:
997:Japanese Employment and Labor Law.
575:Japanese Employment and Labor Law,
512:. Human Rights Watch. August 2000.
493:
25:
2020:
995:Sugeno, Kazuo and Kanowitz, Leo.
798:Strike!: How to Fight, How to Win
439:Yale Journal of International Law
374:Nottinghamshire miners in 1984–85
122:International Labour Organization
67:(sometimes pejoratively called a
2009:Political pejoratives for people
1883:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
1770:Labor spies in the United States
1017:
941:The Law of Industrial Relations.
907:Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2006.
784:Strike, not the end of the story
672:Strikebreaking and Intimidation,
661:Quebec Labour Code Section 109.1
553:International Labor Organization
285:Strikebreaking is also known as
222:
151:
44:agents escort strikebreakers in
1701:Enterprise bargaining agreement
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745:
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276:Industrial Workers of the World
57:Industrial Workers of the World
1953:Occupational safety and health
850:References and further reading
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541:
528:
458:
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202:Federal Labor Court of Germany
104:, other countries have passed
13:
1:
856:Amos, David (December 2011).
782:Douglass, David John (2005).
802:David Amos (December 2011).
7:
1309:Duty of fair representation
1249:National trade union center
1112:Journal of Economic History
943:London: Butterworths, 1982.
395:
160:Strikebreakers outside the
32:Strikebreaker (short story)
10:
2025:
1706:Global Framework Agreement
751:Tyne Mercury, 10 July 1832
433:Brudney, James J. (2021).
95:members or not) who cross
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392:, as someone who cheats.
280:"The Scab" by Jack London
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1888:Equal pay for equal work
1724:Union security agreement
1691:Collaborative bargaining
1340:Social movement unionism
699:Getman & Kohler 2005
419:
59:stickerette "Don't Scab"
1715:Mutual gains bargaining
1531:Occupation of factories
1254:Global union federation
1117:Smith, Robert Michael.
1114:(1998) 58 (1): 183–205.
1088:African American Review
170:
134:European Social Charter
1893:Exploitation of labour
1571:Organizational dissent
1149:17.4 (1993): 525–558.
1147:Social Science History
1073:46.2 (2022): 315–348.
1071:Social Science History
282:
267:Etymology and synonyms
167:
126:freedom of association
60:
49:
1750:Workers' compensation
1696:Collective bargaining
1350:Members-only unionism
1090:38.3 (2004): 429–439.
891:Future of Labour Law.
622:Future of Labour Law,
573:Sugeno and Kanowitz,
414:Mohawk Valley formula
344:claims that the term
274:
159:
55:
40:
1360:Open-source unionism
1274:Father of the chapel
1264:Union representative
1093:Norwood, Stephen H.
1055:Human Rights Watch.
929:57:1 (January 2002).
842:, pp. 104, 120.
324:Clostridium chauvoei
166:during a 1986 strike
1958:Occupational stress
1812:Demarcation dispute
1795:Anti-union violence
1416:Industrial unionism
1375:Solidarity unionism
1289:Vigilance committee
1269:Clerk of the chapel
967:Silver, Beverly J.
920:German Law Journal.
605:German Law Journal,
348:has its origins in
342:David John Douglass
1943:Professional abuse
1745:Union wage premium
1719:Pattern bargaining
1651:Solidarity actions
1511:Diversity training
1345:Community unionism
1142:(1969) 10: 408–32.
1083:(1972) 65: 313–26.
1043:Labor Law Stories.
1034:(1974) 15: 529–42.
981:Smith, Stephanie.
903:Hughes, Geoffrey.
283:
260:Human Rights Watch
241:U.S. Supreme Court
177:Japanese labor law
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106:right-to-work laws
61:
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1986:
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1401:Independent union
1365:Business unionism
1135:(1966) 7: I93-96.
936:January 18, 1997.
922:6:4 (April 2005).
686:Labor Law Stories
594:January 18, 1997.
112:International law
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1973:Wage slavery
1933:Maximum wage
1928:Minimum wage
1858:Six-hour day
1841:Other topics
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1733:Compensation
1586:Work-to-rule
1526:Labor revolt
1480:Scope clause
1421:Police union
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102:trade unions
97:picket lines
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1878:Decent work
1832:Union raids
1822:Goon squads
1790:Paper local
1641:Recognition
1581:Unfair list
1501:Bossnapping
1470:Hiring hall
1460:Agency shop
1450:Closed shop
1380:Syndicalism
1304:Trades hall
1294:Union label
1279:Local union
1211:Trade union
867:21 December
813:21 December
350:coal mining
336:folk song "
303:shoe polish
293:. American
216:temp agency
1993:Categories
1948:Protection
1918:Labor code
1913:Job strain
1740:Strike pay
1679:Bargaining
1626:Green bans
1619:newspapers
1465:Union shop
1434:Industrial
1284:Union dues
1127:0821414658
1103:0807827053
1065:1564322513
1051:1587788756
1013:22 (1999).
1005:0890896119
991:0816645531
977:0521520770
382:knobsticks
81:blackguard
77:bootlicker
1923:Labor law
1780:Givebacks
1763:Reactions
1561:Stay-away
1546:Picketing
1541:Precarity
1521:Grievance
1455:Open shop
1436:relations
1232:Structure
1225:Formation
828:Amos 2011
770:Amos 2011
670:Norwood,
85:knobstick
42:Pinkerton
1978:Workload
1963:Overwork
1556:Slowdown
733:, p. 98.
410:" (song)
396:See also
369:blackleg
357:blackleg
346:blackleg
329:blackleg
319:blackleg
311:blackleg
243:held in
73:blackleg
1661:Whipsaw
1656:Walkout
1551:Salting
1494:Actions
729:Smith,
717:Jacobin
559:7 March
1604:Hartal
1516:Gherao
1323:Models
1151:online
1125:
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1075:online
1063:
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1025:online
1003:
989:
975:
957:
897:
555:. 1991
471:
359:and a
307:racist
255:Mackay
231:Quebec
188:Europe
89:strike
48:, 1884
1614:Bandh
1389:Types
913:1949.
886:2000.
861:(PDF)
807:(PDF)
674:2002.
624:2004.
611:1999.
581:2000.
538:2006.
490:1994.
467:2000
420:Notes
93:union
1475:Bump
1299:Salt
1123:ISBN
1099:ISBN
1061:ISBN
1047:ISBN
1001:ISBN
987:ISBN
973:ISBN
955:ISBN
895:ISBN
869:2016
815:2016
561:2023
469:ISBN
386:knob
365:scab
361:scab
315:scab
313:and
171:Asia
132:The
69:scab
390:nob
301:or
289:or
140:'s
83:or
1995::
715:.
551:.
518:^
495:^
479:^
443:46
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437:.
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1213:(
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1027:.
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871:.
817:.
719:.
563:.
406:"
248:,
218:.
34:.
20:)
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