Ecosystem - Knowledge

2446: 1960: 1148: 5054: 3208: 1097:, who came up with the word at Tansley's request. Tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment. He later refined the term, describing it as "The whole system, ... including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment". Tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as "mental isolates". Tansley later defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term " 2120: 56: 1867: 1823:. As ecosystems age this supply diminishes, making phosphorus-limitation more common in older landscapes (especially in the tropics). Calcium and sulfur are also produced by weathering, but acid deposition is an important source of sulfur in many ecosystems. Although magnesium and manganese are produced by weathering, exchanges between soil organic matter and living cells account for a significant portion of ecosystem fluxes. Potassium is primarily cycled between living cells and soil organic matter. 2474: 4479:

Roux, Dirk J.; Stark, Jonathan S.; Rowland, Jessica A.; Brummitt, Neil A.; Fernandez-Arcaya, Ulla C.; Suthers, Iain M.; Wiser, Susan K.; Donohue, Ian; Jackson, Leland J.; Pennington, R. Toby; Iliffe, Thomas M.; Gerovasileiou, Vasilis; Giller, Paul; Robson, Belinda J.; Pettorelli, Nathalie; Andrade, Angela; Lindgaard, Arild; Tahvanainen, Teemu; Terauds, Aleks; Chadwick, Michael A.; Murray, Nicholas J.; Moat, Justin; Pliscoff, Patricio; Zager, Irene; Kingsford, Richard T. (12 October 2022).

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Temperature controls the rate of microbial respiration; the higher the temperature, the faster the microbial decomposition occurs. Temperature also affects soil moisture, which affects decomposition. Freeze-thaw cycles also affect decomposition—freezing temperatures kill soil microorganisms, which allows leaching to play a more important role in moving nutrients around. This can be especially important as the soil thaws in the spring, creating a pulse of nutrients that become available.

5161: 1252: 5133: 1175: 8493: 7870: 7445: 827: 65: 1844: 8505: 814: 2634: 1481:, fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. As water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water-soluble components. These are then taken up by organisms in the soil, react with mineral soil, or are transported beyond the confines of the ecosystem (and are considered lost to it). Newly shed leaves and newly dead animals have high concentrations of water-soluble components and include 1443:. Real systems are much more complex than this—organisms will generally feed on more than one form of food, and may feed at more than one trophic level. Carnivores may capture some prey that is part of a plant-based trophic system and others that are part of a detritus-based trophic system (a bird that feeds both on herbivorous grasshoppers and earthworms, which consume detritus). Real systems, with all these complexities, form 2460: 8517: 5121: 112: 3214: 1635:, a colder than usual winter, and a pest outbreak all are short-term variability in environmental conditions. Animal populations vary from year to year, building up during resource-rich periods and crashing as they overshoot their food supply. Longer-term changes also shape ecosystem processes. For example, the forests of eastern North America still show legacies of 1312:. The photosynthesis carried out by all the plants in an ecosystem is called the gross primary production (GPP). About half of the gross GPP is respired by plants in order to provide the energy that supports their growth and maintenance. The remainder, that portion of GPP that is not used up by respiration, is known as the 1462: 2193:. The report refers to natural systems as humanity's "life-support system", providing essential ecosystem services. The assessment measures 24 ecosystem services and concludes that only four have shown improvement over the last 50 years, 15 are in serious decline, and five are in a precarious condition. 4934:

Keith, DA; Rodríguez, J.P.; Rodríguez-Clark, K.M.; Aapala, K.; Alonso, A.; Asmussen, M.; Bachman, S.; Bassett, A.; Barrow, E.G.; Benson, J.S.; Bishop, M.J.; Bonifacio, R.; Brooks, T.M.; Burgman, M.A.; Comer, P.; Comín, F.A.; Essl, F.; Faber-Langendoen, D.; Fairweather, P.G.; Holdaway, R.J.; Jennings,

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complex, the interactions between and within them, and the physical space they occupy. Different approaches to ecological classifications have been developed in terrestrial, freshwater and marine disciplines, and a function-based typology has been proposed to leverage the strengths of these different

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are broken down by a group of processes known as decomposition. This releases nutrients that can then be re-used for plant and microbial production and returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere (or water) where it can be used for photosynthesis. In the absence of decomposition, the dead organic matter

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enter ecosystems through photosynthesis, are incorporated into living tissue, transferred to other organisms that feed on the living and dead plant matter, and eventually released through respiration. The carbon and energy incorporated into plant tissues (net primary production) is either consumed by

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the other. Despite this, the cumulative effect of additional species in an ecosystem is not linear: additional species may enhance nitrogen retention, for example. However, beyond some level of species richness, additional species may have little additive effect unless they differ substantially from

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Christensen, Norman L.; Bartuska, Ann M.; Brown, James H.; Carpenter, Stephen; D'Antonio, Carla; Francis, Robert; Franklin, Jerry F.; MacMahon, James A.; Noss, Reed F.; Parsons, David J.; Peterson, Charles H.; Turner, Monica G.; Woodmansee, Robert G. (1996). "The Report of the Ecological Society of

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Keith, David A.; Ferrer-Paris, José R.; Nicholson, Emily; Bishop, Melanie J.; Polidoro, Beth A.; Ramirez-Llodra, Eva; Tozer, Mark G.; Nel, Jeanne L.; Mac Nally, Ralph; Gregr, Edward J.; Watermeyer, Kate E.; Essl, Franz; Faber-Langendoen, Don; Franklin, Janet; Lehmann, Caroline E. R.; Etter, Andrés;

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The addition (or loss) of species that are ecologically similar to those already present in an ecosystem tends to only have a small effect on ecosystem function. Ecologically distinct species, on the other hand, have a much larger effect. Similarly, dominant species have a large effect on ecosystem

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Ecosystem services are limited and also threatened by human activities. To help inform decision-makers, many ecosystem services are being assigned economic values, often based on the cost of replacement with anthropogenic alternatives. The ongoing challenge of prescribing economic value to nature,

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is an international synthesis by over 1000 of the world's leading biological scientists that analyzes the state of the Earth's ecosystems and provides summaries and guidelines for decision-makers. The report identified four major categories of ecosystem services: provisioning, regulating, cultural

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Decomposition rates vary among ecosystems. The rate of decomposition is governed by three sets of factors—the physical environment (temperature, moisture, and soil properties), the quantity and quality of the dead material available to decomposers, and the nature of the microbial community itself.

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plays an important role in ecosystem functioning. Ecosystem processes are driven by the species in an ecosystem, the nature of the individual species, and the relative abundance of organisms among these species. Ecosystem processes are the net effect of the actions of individual organisms as they

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are general classes or categories of ecosystems. However, there is no clear distinction between biomes and ecosystems. Biomes are always defined at a very general level. Ecosystems can be described at levels that range from very general (in which case the names are sometimes the same as those of

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Ecosystems can be studied through a variety of approaches—theoretical studies, studies monitoring specific ecosystems over long periods of time, those that look at differences between ecosystems to elucidate how they work and direct manipulative experimentation. Studies can be carried out at a

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required by all plants in small quantities include boron, chloride, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, zinc. Finally, there are also beneficial nutrients which may be required by certain plants or by plants under specific environmental conditions: aluminum, cobalt, iodine, nickel, selenium,

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inputs are generally controlled by external processes like climate and parent material, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by internal factors like decomposition, root competition or shading. Other factors like disturbance, succession or the types of species

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Mycorrhizal fungi which are symbiotic with plant roots, use carbohydrates supplied by the plants and in return transfer phosphorus and nitrogen compounds back to the plant roots. This is an important pathway of organic nitrogen transfer from dead organic matter to plants. This mechanism may

1708: 1613:. Such disturbances can cause large changes in plant, animal and microbe populations, as well as soil organic matter content. Disturbance is followed by succession, a "directional change in ecosystem structure and functioning resulting from biotically driven changes in resource supply." 1775:

When plant tissues are shed or are eaten, the nitrogen in those tissues becomes available to animals and microbes. Microbial decomposition releases nitrogen compounds from dead organic matter in the soil, where plants, fungi, and bacteria compete for it. Some soil bacteria use organic

1231:, the organisms that are present in a region and could potentially occupy a particular site. Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can end up doing things very differently simply because they have different pools of species present. The 1738:

Macronutrients which are required by all plants in large quantities include the primary nutrients (which are most limiting as they are used in largest amounts): Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium. Secondary major nutrients (less often limiting) include: Calcium, magnesium, sulfur.

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Yvon-Durocher, Gabriel; Caffrey, Jane M.; Cescatti, Alessandro; Dossena, Matteo; Giorgio, Paul del; Gasol, Josep M.; Montoya, José M.; Pumpanen, Jukka; Staehr, Peter A. (2012). "Reconciling the temperature dependence of respiration across timescales and ecosystem types".

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Ecosystems are controlled by both external and internal factors. External factors, also called state factors, control the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem. On broad geographic scales,

947:. Ecosystems can be studied through a variety of approaches—theoretical studies, studies monitoring specific ecosystems over long periods of time, those that look at differences between ecosystems to elucidate how they work and direct manipulative experimentation. 2029:

has argued that microcosm experiments can be "irrelevant and diversionary" if they are not carried out in conjunction with field studies done at the ecosystem scale. In such cases, microcosm experiments may fail to accurately predict ecosystem-level dynamics.

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complex, the interactions between and within them, and the physical space they occupy. Biotic factors of the ecosystem are living things; such as plants, animals, and bacteria, while abiotic are non-living components; such as water, soil and atmosphere.

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inputs are generally controlled by external processes, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by internal factors. Therefore, internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them.

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Simberloff, Daniel; Martin, Jean-Louis; Genovesi, Piero; Maris, Virginie; Wardle, David A.; Aronson, James; Courchamp, Franck; Galil, Bella; García-Berthou, Emili (2013). "Impacts of biological invasions: what's what and the way forward".

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and even things like beauty, inspiration and opportunities for research. While material from the ecosystem had traditionally been recognized as being the basis for things of economic value, ecosystem services tend to be taken for granted.

2170:, on the other hand, are generally "improvements in the condition or location of things of value". These include things like the maintenance of hydrological cycles, cleaning air and water, the maintenance of oxygen in the atmosphere, crop 1531:, which allows them access to both cell contents and the nitrogen in the lignin. Fungi can transfer carbon and nitrogen through their hyphal networks and thus, unlike bacteria, are not dependent solely on locally available resources. 938:

entities—they are subject to periodic disturbances and are always in the process of recovering from some past disturbance. The tendency of an ecosystem to remain close to its equilibrium state, despite that disturbance, is termed its

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Ochoa-Hueso, R; Delgado-Baquerizo, M; King, PTA; Benham, M; Arca, V; Power, SA (February 2019). "Ecosystem type and resource quality are more important than global change drivers in regulating early stages of litter decomposition".

1081:"Ecosystem processes" are the transfers of energy and materials from one pool to another. Ecosystem processes are known to "take place at a wide range of scales". Therefore, the correct scale of study depends on the question asked. 1001:

Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend, and may be part of. Ecosystem goods include the "tangible, material products" of ecosystem processes such as water, food, fuel, construction material, and

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Decomposition rates are low under very wet or very dry conditions. Decomposition rates are highest in wet, moist conditions with adequate levels of oxygen. Wet soils tend to become deficient in oxygen (this is especially true in

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for our survival and must build and maintain their natural capacities to withstand shocks and disturbances. Time plays a central role over a wide range, for example, in the slow development of soil from bare rock and the faster

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with plants or live freely in the soil. The energetic cost is high for plants that support nitrogen-fixing symbionts—as much as 25% of gross primary production when measured in controlled conditions. Many members of the

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or wet tropical forests. Although ecosystems are most commonly categorized by their structure and geography, there are also other ways to categorize and classify ecosystems such as by their level of human impact (see

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Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend. Ecosystem goods include the "tangible, material products" of ecosystem processes such as water, food, fuel, construction material, and

1224:, soil development and the movement of water through a system. For example, ecosystems can be quite different if situated in a small depression on the landscape, versus one present on an adjacent steep hillside. 2197: 1368:. The remainder is consumed by animals while still alive and enters the plant-based trophic system. After plants and animals die, the organic matter contained in them enters the detritus-based trophic system. 2392:

of the production of goods and services by the ecosystem; "intergenerational sustainability a precondition for management, not an afterthought". While ecosystem management can be used as part of a plan for

1516:. Fragmentation processes, which break through these protective layers, accelerate the rate of microbial decomposition. Animals fragment detritus as they hunt for food, as does passage through the gut. 4935:

M.; Kingsford, R.T.; Lester, R.E.; Mac Nally, R.; McCarthy, M.A.; Moat, J.; Nicholson, E.; Oliveira-Miranda, M.A.; Pisanu, P.; Poulin, B.; Riecken, U.; Spalding, M.D.; Zambrano-Martínez, S. (2013).

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Human activities are important in almost all ecosystems. Although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate.

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gas which evaporates from agricultural fields which have had fertilizers applied to them, and dust. Anthropogenic nitrogen inputs account for about 80% of all nitrogen fluxes in ecosystems.

1548:), which slows microbial growth. In dry soils, decomposition slows as well, but bacteria continue to grow (albeit at a slower rate) even after soils become too dry to support plant growth. 1408:

is much higher than in terrestrial systems. In trophic systems, photosynthetic organisms are the primary producers. The organisms that consume their tissues are called primary consumers or

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Díaz, Sandra; Demissew, Sebsebe; Carabias, Julia; Joly, Carlos; Lonsdale, Mark; Ash, Neville; Larigauderie, Anne; Adhikari, Jay Ram; Arico, Salvatore; Báldi, András; Bartuska, Ann (2015).

1574:. The capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks is termed its 943:. The capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks is termed its 1764:, which carry out photosynthesis. Like other nitrogen-fixing bacteria, they can either be free-living or have symbiotic relationships with plants. Other sources of nitrogen include 1570:

occurs, an ecosystem responds by moving away from its initial state. The tendency of an ecosystem to remain close to its equilibrium state, despite that disturbance, is termed its

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in which the ecosystem is embedded. Rainfall patterns and seasonal temperatures influence photosynthesis and thereby determine the amount of energy available to the ecosystem.

1719:. Mineral nutrients, on the other hand, are mostly cycled back and forth between plants, animals, microbes and the soil. Most nitrogen enters ecosystems through biological 4216: 2185:

and supporting services. It concludes that human activity is having a significant and escalating impact on the biodiversity of the world ecosystems, reducing both their

3757: 2388:. Although definitions of ecosystem management abound, there is a common set of principles which underlie these definitions: A fundamental principle is the long-term 3775: 2792: 1320:

area a plant has to capture light (shading by other plants is a major limitation of photosynthesis), the rate at which carbon dioxide can be supplied to the

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An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the abiotic pools (or physical environment) with which they interact. The biotic and

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contribute to more than 70 Tg of annually assimilated plant nitrogen, thereby playing a critical role in global nutrient cycling and ecosystem function.

1386:(GPP) and ecosystem respiration. In the absence of disturbance, net ecosystem production is equivalent to the net carbon accumulation in the ecosystem. 1277:. The energy incorporated through this process supports life on earth, while the carbon makes up much of the organic matter in living and dead biomass, 1566:

Ecosystems are dynamic entities. They are subject to periodic disturbances and are always in the process of recovering from past disturbances. When a

6756: 5068: 4413: 922:, control the overall structure of an ecosystem but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem. Internal factors are controlled, for example, by 1131:

took these ideas further to suggest that the flow of energy through a lake was the primary driver of the ecosystem. Hutchinson's students, brothers

4614: 2419: 1010:, on the other hand, are generally "improvements in the condition or location of things of value". These include things like the maintenance of 5939: 5192: 4272:

Carpenter, Stephen R.; Jonathan J. Cole; Timothy E. Essington; James R. Hodgson; Jeffrey N. Houser; James F. Kitchell; Michael L. Pace (1998).

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is the "study of the interactions between organisms and their environment as an integrated system". The size of ecosystems can range up to ten

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produce enzymes that can break through the tough outer structures surrounding dead plant material. They also produce enzymes that break down

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The frequency and severity of disturbance determine the way it affects ecosystem function. A major disturbance like a volcanic eruption or

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advance and retreat leave behind soils that lack plants, animals or organic matter. Ecosystems that experience such disturbances undergo

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Unlike external factors, internal factors in ecosystems not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them. While the

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and even things like beauty, inspiration and opportunities for research. Many ecosystems become degraded through human impacts, such as

6153: 1316:(NPP). Total photosynthesis is limited by a range of environmental factors. These include the amount of light available, the amount of 858: 7906: 2205: 2018: 1492:

Fragmentation processes break organic material into smaller pieces, exposing new surfaces for colonization by microbes. Freshly shed

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to support photosynthesis, the availability of water, and the availability of suitable temperatures for carrying out photosynthesis.

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Lovett, Gary M.; Cole, Jonathan J.; Pace, Michael L. (2006). "Is Net Ecosystem Production Equal to Ecosystem Carbon Accumulation?".

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As human population and per capita consumption grow, so do the resource demands imposed on ecosystems and the effects of the human

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These threats can lead to abrupt transformation of the ecosystem or to gradual disruption of biotic processes and degradation of

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forms a relatively isolated ecosystem. The fish community of this lake has remained stable over a long period until a number of

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are also produced during nitrification. Under nitrogen-rich and oxygen-poor conditions, nitrates and nitrites are converted to

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of ecosystems tends to emphasize different structural or functional properties. None of these is the "best" classification.

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Until modern times, nitrogen fixation was the major source of nitrogen for ecosystems. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria either live

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and coauthors define disturbance as "a relatively discrete event in time that removes plant biomass". This can range from

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are general classes or categories of ecosystems. However, there is no clear distinction between biomes and ecosystems.

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and energy through the system, by feeding on plants and on one another. They also influence the quantity of plant and

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The chemical alteration of the dead organic matter is primarily achieved through bacterial and fungal action. Fungal

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Carpenter, Stephen R. (1996). "Microcosm Experiments have Limited Relevance for Community and Ecosystem Ecology".

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rather than food chains which present a number of common, non random properties in the topology of their network.

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Lindenmayer, David B.; Gene E. Likens (2010). "The Problematic, the Effective and the Ugly – Some Case Studies".

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Bolan, N.S. (1991). "A critical review on the role of mycorrhizal fungi in the uptake of phosphorus by plants".

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an important control on ecosystem production. Over the long term, phosphorus availability can also be critical.

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by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and microbes.

851: 8452: 7899: 6619: 6218: 6173: 5925: 5178: 2674: 2665: 2140: 1982: 1063: 17: 5705: 5164: 2071:. There can be any degree of subcategories among ecosystem types that comprise a biome, e.g., needle-leafed 6051: 2554: 1255:

Global oceanic and terrestrial phototroph abundance, from September 1997 to August 2000. As an estimate of

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conditions of the ecosystem. Once the original ecosystem has lost its defining features, it is considered

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tend to have an effect on ecosystem function that is disproportionate to their abundance in an ecosystem.

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conditions of the ecosystem. Once the original ecosystem has lost its defining features, it is considered

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is the factor that "most strongly determines ecosystem processes and structure". Climate determines the

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The IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology 2.0: Descriptive profiles for biomes and ecosystem functional groups

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biomass, it is only a rough indicator of primary production potential and not an actual estimate of it.

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Other external factors that play an important role in ecosystem functioning include time and potential

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are specific kinds of ecological classifications that consider all four elements of the definition of

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From one year to another, ecosystems experience variation in their biotic and abiotic environments. A

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and mineral nutrients. Leaching is more important in wet environments and less important in dry ones.

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are specific kinds of ecological classifications that consider all four elements of the definition of

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Principles of ecosystem stewardship: resilience-based natural resource management in a changing world

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Hatcher, Bruce Gordon (1990). "Coral reef primary productivity. A hierarchy of pattern and process".

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and recreation, and genes from wild plants and animals that can be used to improve domestic species.

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Schindler, David W. (1998). "Replication versus Realism: The Need for Ecosystem-Scale Experiments".

3207: 8497: 7892: 7050: 6964: 6644: 6639: 6609: 6413: 5876: 5758: 3858:"Terrestrial phosphorus limitation: mechanisms, implications, and nitrogen–phosphorus interactions" 2402: 2080:), or by their integration with social processes or technological processes or their novelty (e.g. 2039: 1658: 1379: 1216:

determines the nature of the soil in an ecosystem, and influences the supply of mineral nutrients.

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and a faster recovery. More severe and more frequent disturbance result in longer recovery times.

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would accumulate in an ecosystem, and nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted.

926:, root competition, shading, disturbance, succession, and the types of species present. While the 7758: 6821: 6765: 6488: 6351: 6261: 6129: 6011: 5981: 5838: 5803: 5523: 5490: 5465: 4783: 3427:

Briand, F.; Cohen, J.E. (19 January 1984). "Community food webs have scale-invariant structure".

2684: 2427: 880: 8181: 8509: 8201: 8004: 6634: 6578: 6513: 6376: 6311: 6246: 5808: 5596: 5304: 5284: 4905:. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. 4563: 4217:"Some perspectives on long-term biogeochemical research from the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study" 3912:. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. 3625:. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. 3537:. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. 3485:. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. 3287:. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. 3249:. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. 3102:. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. 3060:. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. 3024:. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. 2991:. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. 2871:. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. 2757:. P. A. Matson, Peter Morrison Vitousek, Melissa C. Chapin (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. 2547: 1902:—they must be different from one another in some fundamental way, otherwise, one species would 1728: 1567: 1478: 1356:

animals while the plant is alive, or it remains uneaten when the plant tissue dies and becomes

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Through the process of photosynthesis, plants capture energy from light and use it to combine

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Jones, Clive G.; Lawton, John H.; Shachak, Moshe (1994). "Organisms as Ecosystem Engineers".

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The following articles are types of ecosystems for particular types of regions or zones:

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Community of living organisms together with the nonliving components of their environment

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Chapin, F. Stuart III; Kofinas, Gary P.; Folke, Carl; Chapin, Melissa C., eds. (2009).

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Chapin, F. Stuart III (2011). "Chapter 7: Decomposition and Ecosystem Carbon Budgets".

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conservation, it can also be used in intensively managed ecosystems (see, for example,

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which ceased in 1850 when large areas were reverted to forests. Another example is the

1621: 1583: 1383: 1264: 1239: 1232: 1120: 1094: 1055: 1043: 1007: 927: 744: 690: 670: 655: 480: 475: 144: 132: 4038:"The fish community of Loch Lomond, Scotland: its history and rapidly changing status" 8504: 8411: 8326: 8266: 8236: 8161: 8019: 8014: 7938: 7425: 7402: 7306: 7273: 6801: 6614: 6583: 6371: 6198: 6006: 5871: 5848: 5586: 5362: 5274: 5259: 5244: 5224: 4995: 4976: 4916: 4906: 4876: 4672: 4518: 4464: 4450: 4273: 4195: 4164: 4119: 4108: 4082: 4018: 3923: 3913: 3887: 3814: 3806: 3776:"Methane bubbling from Siberian thaw lakes as a positive feedback to climate warming" 3720: 3669: 3659: 3636: 3626: 3548: 3538: 3496: 3486: 3401: 3350: 3342: 3298: 3288: 3260: 3250: 3167: 3159: 3113: 3103: 3071: 3061: 3035: 3025: 3002: 2992: 2947: 2930: 2909: 2882: 2872: 2768: 2758: 2726: 2722: 2576: 2518: 2337: 2259: 2233: 1971: 1964: 1948: 1931: 1882: 1720: 1517: 1401: 1294: 1075: 1051: 979: 892: 792: 675: 555: 410: 243: 181: 5032: 4853: 4769: 4593: 4348: 4305: 3970: 3598: 3098:

Chapin, F. Stuart III (2011). "Chapter 11: Species Effects on Ecosystem Processes".

8406: 8276: 8138: 8089: 8071: 7673: 7562: 7532: 7333: 7200: 7185: 7062: 7042: 6984: 6888: 6883: 6809: 6568: 6431: 6423: 6341: 6223: 6208: 6144: 6124: 6041: 6031: 6026: 5991: 5823: 5763: 5634: 5435: 5377: 5289: 5249: 5091: 5018: 5010: 4966: 4956: 4839: 4755: 4745: 4573: 4508: 4500: 4442: 4379: 4328: 4293: 4239: 4156: 4063: 4049: 4008: 4000: 3958: 3877: 3827: 3798: 3710: 3700: 3688: 3584: 3576: 3456: 3444: 3413: 3393: 3362: 3334: 3149: 3141: 2942: 2815: 2718: 2679: 2645: 2603: 2566: 2542: 2330: 2283: 2150: 1959: 1916: 1624:. A less severe disturbance like forest fires, hurricanes or cultivation result in 1128: 1047: 995: 831: 400: 239: 3580: 1393:

or transferred to other ecosystems (e.g., from a forest to a stream to a lake) by

1089:

The term "ecosystem" was first used in 1935 in a publication by British ecologist

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threats also include unsustainable exploitation of marine resources (for example

2157: 2128: 2081: 2060: 1998: 1954: 1809: 1765: 1228: 1213: 1123:. As a result, he suggested that mineral nutrient availability in a lake limited 1027: 1003: 915: 888: 685: 650: 4901:

Chapin, F. Stuart III (2011). "Chapter 15: Managing and Sustaining Ecosystems".

3774:

Walter, K. M.; Zimov, S. A.; Chanton, J. P.; Verbyla, D.; Chapin, F. S. (2006).

2198:

Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

2119: 2059:. Biomes are often defined by their structure: at a general level, for example, 1866: 215: 8431: 8426: 8421: 8391: 8366: 8356: 8351: 8321: 8246: 8241: 8206: 8166: 8134: 8056: 8041: 7973: 7943: 7448: 7410: 7361: 7351: 7215: 7210: 6969: 6959: 6849: 6813: 6684: 6508: 6461: 6391: 6386: 6281: 6148: 6021: 5828: 5818: 5798: 5601: 5566: 5505: 5382: 5337: 5229: 4504: 4446: 4103: 3218: 3145: 2962: 2528: 2487: 2465: 2389: 2255: 1781: 1732: 1702: 1694: 1676: 1648: 1606: 1364:, the vast majority of the net primary production ends up being broken down by 1301: 1274: 1270: 1136: 1132: 1090: 983: 971:, building up plant tissue. Animals play an important role in the movement of 968: 896: 818: 540: 350: 4818:

Ceccato, Pietro; Fernandes, Katia; Ruiz, Daniel; Allis, Erica (17 June 2014).

4437:

Keith, D.A.; Ferrer-Paris, J.R.; Nicholson, E.; Kingsford, R.T., eds. (2020).

4004: 3397: 8537: 8416: 8331: 8291: 8176: 7999: 7983: 7557: 7371: 7301: 7253: 7220: 7092: 7082: 7072: 7032: 7027: 6825: 6709: 5685: 5659: 5616: 5606: 5561: 5528: 5420: 5254: 5209: 4920: 4168: 3927: 3810: 3724: 3687:

Walker, Brian; Holling, C. S.; Carpenter, Stephen R.; Kinzig, Ann P. (2004).

3673: 3640: 3552: 3500: 3405: 3346: 3302: 3264: 3163: 3117: 3075: 3039: 3006: 2886: 2772: 2598: 2492: 2473: 2398: 2306: 2287: 2271: 2263: 2246:. Natural resources are vulnerable and limited. The environmental impacts of 1801: 1793: 1757: 1740: 1501: 1497: 1456: 1378:

by all living organisms (plants, animals, and decomposers) in the ecosystem.

1365: 1343: 1116: 1023: 923: 620: 515: 405: 380: 375: 3705: 3689:"Resilience, Adaptability and Transformability in Social-ecological Systems" 1014:, cleaning air and water, the maintenance of oxygen in the atmosphere, crop 8396: 8296: 8221: 7781: 7767: 7430: 7376: 7366: 7356: 7296: 7077: 6931: 6921: 6694: 6679: 6336: 6306: 6251: 6134: 6099: 5976: 5475: 4996:"Challenging the Scientific Foundations for an IUCN Red List of Ecosystems" 4980: 4844: 4819: 4788: 4522: 4022: 3891: 3818: 3354: 3171: 2730: 2201: 1890: 1832: 1797: 1668: 1389:

Energy can also be released from an ecosystem through disturbances such as

1305: 1286: 1251: 1221: 1159: 1155: 665: 645: 610: 605: 595: 590: 570: 550: 460: 430: 390: 370: 360: 340: 335: 330: 325: 225: 5160: 4332: 4297: 3056:

Chapin, F. Stuart III (2011). "Chapter 3: Geology, Soils, and Sediments".

1439:

The sequence of consumption—from plant to herbivore, to carnivore—forms a

1127:. This would, in turn, limit the abundance of animals that feed on algae. 935: 8386: 8381: 8371: 8306: 8046: 7933: 7740: 7615: 7173: 6979: 6916: 6829: 6789: 5986: 5533: 5495: 5470: 5460: 5425: 5372: 5352: 2384:

is applied to whole ecosystems, rather than single species, it is termed

2279: 2250:

actions are becoming more apparent. Problems for all ecosystems include:

2190: 2171: 1847: 1652: 1636: 1513: 1493: 1429: 1321: 1282: 1278: 1174: 1124: 1108: 1015: 1011: 715: 710: 680: 635: 580: 520: 505: 500: 465: 425: 315: 305: 300: 220: 166: 5132: 5023: 4076: 3802: 3589: 3338: 2987:

Chapin, F. Stuart III (2011). "Chapter 5: Carbon Inputs to Ecosystems".

1997:

as a means of monitoring ecosystem properties, and developed a detailed

1578:. Resilience thinking also includes humanity as an integral part of the 1186: 55: 8401: 8256: 7832: 7713: 7263: 7230: 7205: 7087: 7007: 6926: 6793: 6699: 6276: 6241: 5881: 5833: 5778: 5748: 5654: 5571: 5515: 5392: 5342: 5014: 4760: 4667: 4665: 4585: 4391: 4340: 4251: 4176: 4054: 4037: 3962: 3154: 2827: 2394: 2350:). Ecosystem collapse could be reversible and in this way differs from 2095: 2052:

biomes) to very specific, such as "wet coastal needle-leafed forests".

2009:

in North America in 1972. Researchers documented the depletion of soil

1871: 1820: 1761: 1724: 1664: 1505: 1486: 1461: 1440: 1413: 1217: 1151: 987: 956: 919: 700: 695: 640: 625: 565: 530: 525: 495: 455: 435: 365: 345: 205: 200: 74: 39: 3882: 3857: 3715: 3565: 2204:

and ecosystem services. It is intended to serve a similar role to the

1843: 8066: 7791: 7753: 7708: 7638: 7459: 7195: 7125: 7097: 7067: 6994: 6936: 6817: 6777: 6604: 6558: 6286: 5730: 5700: 5500: 5455: 5430: 5367: 5357: 5332: 5324: 5200: 4546:

America Committee on the Scientific Basis for Ecosystem Management".

3448: 2497: 2251: 2006: 1994: 1876: 1748: 1602: 1579: 1509: 1436:—are secondary consumers. Each of these constitutes a trophic level. 1433: 1405: 1256: 740: 615: 600: 585: 535: 510: 263: 176: 64: 6734: 4662: 4635: 4577: 4383: 4243: 4160: 2819: 2017:

variety of scales, ranging from whole-ecosystem studies to studying

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Schulze, Ernst-Detlef; Erwin Beck; Klaus Müller-Hohenstein (2005).

3315: 3020:

Chapin, F. Stuart III (2011). "Chapter 2: Earth's Climate System".

2085: 2022: 1927: 1898:

suggests that in order to coexist, species must have some level of

1859: 1851: 1805: 1777: 1723:, is deposited through precipitation, dust, gases or is applied as 1444: 1421: 1390: 1357: 1339: 884: 813: 705: 630: 560: 490: 485: 310: 279: 258: 7884: 5149: 2867:

Chapin, F. Stuart III (2011). "Chapter 1: The Ecosystem Concept".

7837: 7825: 7763: 7693: 7668: 7628: 7607: 7577: 7288: 7165: 7135: 6951: 6941: 6649: 6456: 6326: 6321: 5948: 5896: 5556: 5201: 4544: 3245:

Chapin, F. Stuart III (2011). "Chapter 6: Plant Carbon Budgets".

2302: 2161: 2099: 2056: 2010: 1978:, from the surface layers of rocks to the surface of the planet. 1789: 1785: 1776:

nitrogen-containing compounds as a source of carbon, and release

1769: 1715:

Ecosystems continually exchange energy and carbon with the wider

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together, rather than separately as was often done in the past.

7923: 7820: 7813: 7522: 7517: 7491: 7155: 7022: 7002: 5120: 4784:"Biodiversity crisis is worse than climate change, experts say" 4726:"The IPBES Conceptual Framework — connecting nature and people" 3908:

Chapin, F. Stuart III (2011). "Chapter 8: Plant Nutrient Use".

3621:

Chapin, F. Stuart III (2011). "Chapter 12: Temporal Dynamics".

2301:

Many ecosystems become degraded through human impacts, such as

2068: 2025:(simplified representations of ecosystems). American ecologist 1753: 1672: 1528: 1477:

Decomposition processes can be separated into three categories—

1352: 1348: 1309: 1190: 991: 972: 900: 385: 275: 4638:"Defining, valuing and providing ecosystem goods and services" 4274:"Evaluating Alternative Explanations in Ecosystem Experiments" 3283:

Chapin, F. Stuart III (2011). "Chapter 10: Trophic Dynamics".

1930:

that creates, significantly modifies, maintains or destroys a

1520:

and cycles of wetting and drying also fragment dead material.

1078:

are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.

7850: 7808: 7801: 7796: 7633: 7587: 7549: 7507: 7343: 7120: 7102: 6872: 6781: 4194:. Collingwood, Australia: CSIRO Publishing. pp. 87–145. 3533:

Chapin, F. Stuart III (2011). "Chapter 9: Nutrient cycling".

3217:

Text was copied from this source, which is available under a

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Boitani, Luigi; Mace, Georgina M.; Rondinini, Carlo (2014).

4636:

Brown, Thomas C.; John C. Bergstrom; John B. Loomis (2007).

3686: 7728: 7663: 7658: 7648: 7643: 7512: 7392: 7012: 4937:"Scientific Foundations for an IUCN Red List of Ecosystems" 1967:

is an ecosystem on the ocean floor. (The scale bar is 1 m.)

1679:. Clear boundaries make lakes convenient to study using an 1317: 1220:

also controls ecosystem processes by affecting things like

191: 4820:"Climate and environmental monitoring for decision making" 2408: 1915:

function, while rare species tend to have a small effect.

1907:

species already present. This is the case for example for

1273:

from inorganic carbon sources. This mainly occurs through

4817: 4189: 3773: 1989:. It was the first successful attempt to study an entire 6841: 4723: 4702: 3653: 2931:"The Ecosystem: An Evolving Concept Viewed Historically" 2358:

are used as measures of conservation status and trends.

1404:, the proportion of plant biomass that gets consumed by 2220:, business opportunities, and our future as a species. 3219:

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

2793:"The Use and Abuse of Vegetational Concepts and Terms" 2670:

Ecosystem instances in specific regions of the world:

1597:

also plays an important role in ecological processes.

2262:. For terrestrial ecosystems further threats include 2106: 1756:

plant family support nitrogen-fixing symbionts. Some

1084: 4993: 4406:"Differences Between the Grassland & the Tundra" 3986: 2441: 2013:(especially calcium) over the next several decades. 1235:

can cause substantial shifts in ecosystem function.

4102:Schoener, Thomas W. (2009). "Ecological Niche". In 906:Ecosystems are controlled by external and internal 4896: 4894: 4892: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4534: 4532: 4481:"A function-based typology for Earth's ecosystems" 4138: 4114:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 3616: 3614: 3612: 3610: 3608: 3278: 3276: 3274: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3087: 3085: 2901: 3987:Hestrin, R.; Hammer, E.C.; Mueller, C.W. (2019). 3903: 3901: 3528: 3526: 3524: 3522: 3520: 3518: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3510: 3476: 3474: 3472: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3240: 3238: 3236: 3234: 3051: 3049: 1768:produced through the combustion of fossil fuels, 1760:are also capable of nitrogen fixation. These are 1605:outbreaks, treefalls, fires, hurricanes, floods, 38:"Biosystem" redirects here. For the journal, see 8535: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2846: 2844: 2748: 2746: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2420:Integrated conservation and development projects 1196: 967:Plants allow energy to enter the system through 4889: 4813: 4811: 4730:Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 4529: 4432: 4430: 4183: 3982: 3980: 3605: 3271: 3082: 2114: 1465:Sequence of a decomposing pig carcass over time 4860: 3898: 3855: 3507: 3463: 3375: 3231: 3046: 2786: 2784: 2782: 1731:are nitrogen-limited in the short term making 1111:who was a contemporary of Tansley's, combined 7900: 7475: 6857: 6750: 5933: 5186: 4355: 4312: 4265: 3013: 2975: 2841: 2737: 2160:. They also include less tangible items like 1780:ions into the soil. This process is known as 1496:may be inaccessible due to an outer layer of 852: 5060: 4808: 4631: 4629: 4627: 4427: 3977: 1826: 4987: 4927: 4903:Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology 3910:Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology 3623:Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology 3535:Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology 3483:Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology 3426: 3369: 3285:Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology 3247:Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology 3100:Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology 3058:Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology 3022:Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology 2989:Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology 2869:Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology 2779: 2755:Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology 7907: 7893: 7482: 7468: 6864: 6850: 6757: 6743: 6154:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity 5940: 5926: 5193: 5179: 4208: 4070: 2955: 2753:Chapin, F. Stuart III (2011). "Glossary". 2223: 2127:in the 6,000,000-acre (2,400,000 ha) 1886:(Madagascar ocotillo) and other vegetation 1551: 1512:. Newly dead animals may be covered by an 859: 845: 5022: 4970: 4960: 4866: 4843: 4759: 4749: 4624: 4567: 4512: 4361: 4318: 4053: 4012: 3881: 3826: 3714: 3704: 3588: 3153: 2946: 2922: 2206:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 1432:. Animals that feed on primary consumers— 1119:ecology with those of Russian geochemist 6052:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations 5691:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense 5066: 4101: 2968:The British Islands and Their Vegetation 2118: 2055:Biomes vary due to global variations in 1958: 1865: 1842: 1706: 1657: 1589:recovery of a community from disturbance 1460: 1269:Primary production is the production of 1250: 1173: 1146: 6084:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model 2961: 2893: 2790: 2708: 2409:Restoration and sustainable development 2044:Biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification 1993:as an ecosystem. The study used stream 14: 8536: 7489: 5892:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense 4900: 4796:from the original on December 29, 2021 4214: 3907: 3620: 3532: 3480: 3282: 3244: 3097: 3055: 3019: 2986: 2928: 2908:(third ed.). New York: Saunders. 2866: 2752: 1534: 994:back to the atmosphere and facilitate 7888: 7463: 6845: 6764: 6738: 5921: 5174: 4869:Encyclopedia of Environmental Science 4095: 4035: 3940: 2131:is an example of a diverse ecosystem. 1819:Phosphorus enters ecosystems through 1246: 8516: 7421:Geology of solar terrestrial planets 5907:Predator avoidance in schooling fish 3748: 3658:(1st ed.). New York: Springer. 3559: 2899: 2628: 2005:at the site led to the discovery of 1942: 887:form through their interaction. The 8458:Systems theory in political science 7914: 6357:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis 5096:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08010027.x 2292:effects of climate change on oceans 2238:Effects of climate change on biomes 1937: 1688: 1243:present are also internal factors. 24: 6110:Ecological effects of biodiversity 4867:Alexander, David E. (1 May 1999). 2354:. Quantitative assessments of the 2298:), and building on coastal areas. 2107:Human interactions with ecosystems 2103:approaches into a unified system. 2033: 1233:introduction of non-native species 1085:Origin and development of the term 25: 8555: 5446:Generalist and specialist species 5113: 4673:"Millennium Ecosystem Assessment" 3856:Vitousek, P.; Porder, S. (2010). 3134:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 1894:interact with their environment. 8515: 8503: 8492: 8491: 7869: 7868: 7444: 7443: 6169:Occupancy–abundance relationship 5159: 5131: 5119: 5052: 4620:from the original on 2009-11-10. 3763:from the original on 2017-12-15. 3212: 3206: 2948:10.1111/j.1365-2435.1997.00081.x 2632: 2572:Groundwater-dependent ecosystems 2472: 2458: 2444: 1987:White Mountains in New Hampshire 1450: 1062:can contribute to achieving the 826: 825: 812: 110: 63: 54: 7146:Human impact on the environment 6189:Relative abundance distribution 5902:Plant defense against herbivory 5769:Competitive exclusion principle 5481:Mesopredator release hypothesis 5069:"What is ecosystem management?" 5042:from the original on 2018-07-22 4776: 4717: 4691: 4679:from the original on 2011-05-24 4600: 4471: 4416:from the original on 2021-07-16 4398: 4192:Effective Ecological Monitoring 4132: 4029: 3934: 3849: 3767: 3756:. Stockholm Resilience Centre. 3742: 3731:from the original on 2019-05-17 3680: 3647: 3420: 3309: 3196:from the original on 2021-08-02 3178: 3124: 2711:Trends in Ecology and Evolution 2591:Ecosystems grouped by condition 2181:Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 982:present. By breaking down dead 8448:Systems theory in anthropology 6975:Climate variability and change 5774:Consumer–resource interactions 4608:"Ecosystem Goods and Services" 4110:The Princeton Guide to Ecology 3751:"Applying Resilience Thinking" 2702: 1858:in the 1970s restructured its 1327: 13: 1: 8453:Systems theory in archaeology 7416:Evolution of the Solar System 6620:Biological data visualization 6447:Environmental niche modelling 6174:Population viability analysis 5136:The dictionary definition of 3581:10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.11.009 3569:Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2971:. Cambridge University Press. 2695: 2675:Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem 2361: 2141:Ecological goods and services 1985:started in 1963 to study the 1983:Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study 1784:. Others convert ammonium to 1651:which accumulated during the 1197:External and internal factors 1069: 1064:Sustainable Development Goals 7151:Evolutionary history of life 6105:Density-dependent inhibition 5167:travel guide from Wikivoyage 5067:Grumbine, R. Edward (1994). 4962:10.1371/journal.pone.0062111 4751:10.1016/j.cosust.2014.11.002 4651:(2): 329–376. Archived from 4441:. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 2723:10.1016/0169-5347(90)90221-X 2624: 2555:Tropical salt pond ecosystem 2115:Ecosystem goods and services 1647:lakes that is controlled by 1469:The carbon and nutrients in 1142: 895:are linked together through 7: 6574:Liebig's law of the minimum 6409:Resource selection function 5300:Metabolic theory of ecology 3186:"46.1A: Ecosystem Dynamics" 2437: 2382:natural resource management 2348:IUCN Red List of Ecosystems 1744:silicon, sodium, vanadium. 1711:Biological nitrogen cycling 910:. External factors such as 10: 8560: 6474:Niche apportionment models 6194:Relative species abundance 5398:Primary nutritional groups 5295:List of feeding behaviours 4505:10.1038/s41586-022-05318-4 4447:10.2305/IUCN.CH.2020.13.en 3146:10.1016/j.tree.2012.07.013 2663: 2503:Ecosystem-based adaptation 2412: 2372:Ecosystem-based management 2365: 2227: 2144: 2134: 2125:High Peaks Wilderness Area 2037: 1952: 1946: 1836: 1830: 1692: 1582:where we are dependent on 1555: 1454: 1416:. Organisms which feed on 1382:is the difference between 1337: 1331: 1289:, which influences global 1262: 1168:Niokolo-Koba National Park 33:Ecosystem (disambiguation) 29: 8487: 8466: 8440: 8152: 8085: 8037: 8028: 7992: 7949:Coupled human–environment 7922: 7864: 7777: 7736: 7727: 7684: 7606: 7548: 7498: 7439: 7401: 7385: 7342: 7287: 7229: 7164: 7111: 7041: 6993: 6950: 6897: 6879: 6871: 6772: 6723: 6655:Ecosystem based fisheries 6597: 6497: 6422: 6295: 6267:Interspecific competition 6232: 6159:Minimum viable population 6092: 6017:Maximum sustainable yield 6002:Intraspecific competition 5997:Effective population size 5960: 5877:Anti-predator adaptations 5862: 5741: 5668: 5625: 5547: 5514: 5411: 5388:Photosynthetic efficiency 5323: 5217: 4645:Natural Resources Journal 4005:10.1038/s42003-019-0481-8 3398:10.1007/s10021-005-0036-3 2098:: a biotic component, an 2092:Ecosystem classifications 1827:Function and biodiversity 1792:ions, a process known as 1093:. The term was coined by 959:: a biotic component, an 953:Ecosystem classifications 918:which forms the soil and 765:List of unsolved problems 7426:Location in the Universe 7352:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 7051:List of sovereign states 6645:Ecological stoichiometry 6610:Alternative stable state 4215:Likens, Gene E. (2004). 2508: 2403:close to nature forestry 2040:Ecosystem classification 1384:gross primary production 1380:Net ecosystem production 760:List of research methods 8282:Charles A. S. Hall 6489:Ontogenetic niche shift 6352:Ideal free distribution 6262:Ecological facilitation 6012:Malthusian growth model 5982:Consumer-resource model 5839:Paradox of the plankton 5804:Energy systems language 5524:Chemoorganoheterotrophy 5491:Optimal foraging theory 5466:Heterotrophic nutrition 4548:Ecological Applications 3862:Ecological Applications 3706:10.5751/ES-00650-090205 2904:Fundamentals of Ecology 2900:Odum, Eugene P (1971). 2791:Tansley, A. G. (1935). 2685:Longleaf pine Ecosystem 2428:sustainable development 2422:(ICDPs) aim to address 2252:environmental pollution 2224:Degradation and decline 1870:Spiny forest at Ifaty, 1782:nitrogen mineralization 1552:Dynamics and resilience 1154:ecosystems are rich in 231:Response to environment 81:marine systems. Right: 8202:Ludwig von Bertalanffy 6635:Ecological forecasting 6579:Marginal value theorem 6377:Landscape epidemiology 6312:Cross-boundary subsidy 6247:Biological interaction 5597:Microbial intelligence 5285:Green world hypothesis 4845:10.1186/2194-6434-1-16 2548:Large marine ecosystem 2426:and human livelihood ( 2132: 1968: 1887: 1863: 1729:terrestrial ecosystems 1712: 1685: 1643:production in eastern 1466: 1362:terrestrial ecosystems 1314:net primary production 1260: 1193: 1183:Baja California desert 1171: 750:List of biology awards 356:Biological engineering 77:ecosystems are highly 8479:Principia Cybernetica 8192:Anthony Stafford Beer 8062:Sociotechnical system 7131:Biogeochemical cycles 7056:dependent territories 6640:Ecological humanities 6539:Ecological energetics 6484:Niche differentiation 6347:Habitat fragmentation 6115:Ecological extinction 6062:Small population size 5814:Feed conversion ratio 5794:Ecological succession 5726:San Francisco Estuary 5640:Ecological efficiency 5582:Microbial cooperation 5165:Biomes and ecosystems 4333:10.1007/s100219900026 4298:10.1007/s100219900025 2929:Willis, A.J. (1997). 2609:Depauperate ecosystem 2562:Terrestrial ecosystem 2452:Earth sciences portal 2315:habitat fragmentation 2218:social responsibility 2122: 2038:Further information: 1962: 1904:competitively exclude 1869: 1846: 1808:, a process known as 1710: 1661: 1576:ecological resilience 1562:Ecological resilience 1556:Further information: 1464: 1372:Ecosystem respiration 1334:Energy flow (ecology) 1304:and water to produce 1285:. It also drives the 1254: 1177: 1150: 1060:Ecosystem restoration 1032:habitat fragmentation 945:ecological resilience 441:Developmental biology 416:Computational biology 396:Cellular microbiology 87:terrestrial ecosystem 8342:Mihajlo D. Mesarovic 8317:Edward Norton Lorenz 8272:Jay Wright Forrester 8077:World-systems theory 8052:Earth system science 7749:Evolutionary history 7179:Computer cartography 6912:Prebiotic atmosphere 6822:Biomolecular complex 6665:Evolutionary ecology 6630:Ecological footprint 6625:Ecological economics 6549:Ecological threshold 6544:Ecological indicator 6414:Source–sink dynamics 6367:Land change modeling 6362:Insular biogeography 6214:Species distribution 5953:Modelling ecosystems 5612:Microbial metabolism 5451:Intraguild predation 5240:Biogeochemical cycle 5206:Modelling ecosystems 5128:at Wikimedia Commons 5076:Conservation Biology 5003:Conservation Letters 4792:. January 20, 2012. 4081:. Berlin: Springer. 4036:Adams, C.E. (1994). 2666:Ecosystems by region 2646:adding missing items 2524:Freshwater ecosystem 2432:developing countries 2386:ecosystem management 2368:Ecosystem management 2244:ecological footprint 2214:biodiversity banking 2212:for example through 2065:temperate grasslands 2027:Stephen R. Carpenter 1999:biogeochemical model 1874:, featuring various 1699:Biogeochemical cycle 1626:secondary succession 1558:Resistance (ecology) 1105:G. Evelyn Hutchinson 783:Agricultural science 661:Reproductive biology 546:Mathematical biology 471:Evolutionary biology 421:Conservation biology 83:Temperate rainforest 31:For other uses, see 8217:Kenneth E. Boulding 7686:Natural environment 7322:Geologic time scale 7043:Culture and society 6907:Atmosphere of Earth 6715:Theoretical ecology 6690:Natural environment 6554:Ecosystem diversity 6524:Ecological collapse 6514:Bateman's principle 6469:Limiting similarity 6382:Landscape limnology 6204:Species homogeneity 6042:Population modeling 6037:Population dynamics 5854:Trophic state index 5088:1994ConBi...8...27G 4953:2013PLoSO...862111K 4836:2014EarP....1...16C 4742:2015COES...14....1D 4560:1996EcoAp...6..665C 4497:2022Natur.610..513K 4376:1996Ecol...77..677C 4290:1998Ecosy...1..335C 4236:2004Ecol...85.2355L 4153:1994Oikos..69..373J 3955:1991PlSoi.134..189B 3874:2010EcoAp..20....5V 3803:10.1038/nature05040 3795:2006Natur.443...71W 3693:Ecology and Society 3441:1984Natur.307..264B 3390:2006Ecosy...9..152L 3339:10.1038/nature11205 3331:2012Natur.487..472Y 2812:1935Ecol...16..284T 2690:Tarangire Ecosystem 2619:Reference ecosystem 2415:Restoration ecology 2147:Ecosystem valuation 2078:anthropogenic biome 1976:orders of magnitude 1900:limiting similarity 1839:Ecosystem diversity 1535:Decomposition rates 1508:are protected by a 1471:dead organic matter 1410:secondary producers 1012:hydrological cycles 879:) is a system that 788:Biomedical sciences 446:Ecological genetics 98:Part of a series on 8347:James Grier Miller 8302:Faina M. Kirillova 8262:Heinz von Foerster 8252:Edsger W. Dijkstra 8212:Alexander Bogdanov 8197:Richard E. Bellman 8172:William Ross Ashby 7411:Hypothetical rings 7317:Geological history 7191:Geodetic astronomy 6726:Outline of ecology 6675:Industrial ecology 6670:Functional ecology 6534:Ecological deficit 6479:Niche construction 6442:Ecosystem engineer 6219:Species–area curve 6140:Introduced species 5955:: Other components 5887:Deimatic behaviour 5789:Ecological network 5721:North Pacific Gyre 5706:hydrothermal vents 5645:Ecological pyramid 5592:Microbial food web 5403:Primary production 5348:Foundation species 5015:10.1111/conl.12111 4824:Earth Perspectives 4055:10.1007/BF00008956 3963:10.1007/BF00012037 3224:2017-10-16 at the 3190:Biology LibreTexts 2935:Functional Ecology 2644:; you can help by 2531:(lentic ecosystem) 2480:Environment portal 2376:Ecosystem approach 2352:species extinction 2327:introduced species 2294:(e.g. warming and 2276:aquatic ecosystems 2230:Ecosystem collapse 2168:Ecosystem services 2137:Ecosystem services 2133: 2003:Long-term research 2001:of the ecosystem. 1969: 1924:ecosystem engineer 1888: 1880:(baobab) species, 1864: 1713: 1686: 1681:ecosystem approach 1622:primary succession 1611:volcanic eruptions 1584:ecosystem services 1518:Freeze-thaw cycles 1467: 1265:Primary production 1261: 1247:Primary production 1194: 1172: 1121:Vladimir Vernadsky 1095:Arthur Roy Clapham 1076:abiotic components 1044:introduced species 1008:Ecosystem services 893:abiotic components 819:Biology portal 671:Structural biology 656:Relational biology 481:Generative biology 476:Freshwater biology 8531: 8530: 8412:Manuela M. Veloso 8327:Humberto Maturana 8267:Stephanie Forrest 8237:C. West Churchman 8162:Russell L. Ackoff 8148: 8147: 8020:Positive feedback 8015:Negative feedback 7882: 7881: 7860: 7859: 7533:chemical elements 7457: 7456: 7403:Planetary science 7386:Natural satellite 7307:Extremes on Earth 7274:Signal processing 6839: 6838: 6766:Hierarchy of life 6732: 6731: 6615:Balance of nature 6372:Landscape ecology 6257:Community ecology 6199:Species diversity 6135:Indicator species 6130:Gradient analysis 6007:Logistic function 5915: 5914: 5872:Animal coloration 5849:Trophic mutualism 5587:Microbial ecology 5378:Photoheterotrophs 5363:Myco-heterotrophy 5275:Ecosystem ecology 5260:Carrying capacity 5225:Abiotic component 5124:Media related to 4912:978-1-4419-9504-9 4882:978-0-412-74050-3 4491:(7932): 513–518. 4456:978-2-8317-2077-7 4201:978-1-84971-145-6 4125:978-0-691-12839-9 4088:978-3-540-20833-4 3919:978-1-4419-9504-9 3883:10.1890/08-0127.1 3665:978-0-387-73033-2 3632:978-1-4419-9504-9 3544:978-1-4419-9504-9 3492:978-1-4419-9504-9 3435:(5948): 264–267. 3325:(7408): 472–476. 3294:978-1-4419-9504-9 3256:978-1-4419-9504-9 3109:978-1-4419-9504-9 3067:978-1-4419-9504-9 3031:978-1-4419-9504-9 2998:978-1-4419-9504-9 2915:978-0-534-42066-6 2878:978-1-4419-9504-9 2764:978-1-4419-9504-9 2662: 2661: 2577:Montane ecosystem 2537:(lotic ecosystem) 2519:Aquatic ecosystem 2260:biodiversity loss 2234:Biodiversity loss 2084:). Each of these 1972:Ecosystem ecology 1965:hydrothermal vent 1949:Ecosystem ecology 1943:Ecosystem ecology 1896:Ecological theory 1883:Alluaudia procera 1721:nitrogen fixation 1295:greenhouse effect 877:ecological system 869: 868: 793:Health technology 676:Synthetic biology 556:Molecular biology 411:Cognitive biology 206:Energy processing 16:(Redirected from 8551: 8519: 8518: 8507: 8495: 8494: 8407:Francisco Varela 8139:Systems thinking 8072:Urban metabolism 8035: 8034: 7909: 7902: 7895: 7886: 7885: 7872: 7871: 7744: 7734: 7733: 7674:tropical cyclone 7624: 7484: 7477: 7470: 7461: 7460: 7447: 7446: 7334:History of Earth 6985:Paleoclimatology 6866: 6859: 6852: 6843: 6842: 6832: 6759: 6752: 6745: 6736: 6735: 6432:Ecological niche 6404:selection theory 6224:Umbrella species 6209:Species richness 6145:Invasive species 6125:Flagship species 6032:Population cycle 6027:Overexploitation 5992:Ecological yield 5942: 5935: 5928: 5919: 5918: 5824:Mesotrophic soil 5764:Climax community 5696:Marine food webs 5635:Biomagnification 5436:Chemoorganotroph 5290:Keystone species 5250:Biotic component 5195: 5188: 5181: 5172: 5171: 5163: 5135: 5123: 5107: 5106: 5104: 5098:. Archived from 5073: 5064: 5058: 5057: 5056: 5050: 5048: 5047: 5041: 5026: 5000: 4991: 4985: 4984: 4974: 4964: 4931: 4925: 4924: 4898: 4887: 4886: 4864: 4858: 4857: 4847: 4815: 4806: 4805: 4803: 4801: 4780: 4774: 4773: 4763: 4753: 4721: 4715: 4714: 4712: 4710: 4701:. Archived from 4695: 4689: 4688: 4686: 4684: 4669: 4660: 4659: 4657: 4642: 4633: 4622: 4621: 4619: 4612: 4604: 4598: 4597: 4571: 4542: 4527: 4526: 4516: 4475: 4469: 4468: 4434: 4425: 4424: 4422: 4421: 4402: 4396: 4395: 4359: 4353: 4352: 4316: 4310: 4309: 4269: 4263: 4262: 4260: 4254:. Archived from 4230:(9): 2355–2362. 4221: 4212: 4206: 4205: 4187: 4181: 4180: 4136: 4130: 4129: 4113: 4099: 4093: 4092: 4074: 4068: 4067: 4057: 4033: 4027: 4026: 4016: 3984: 3975: 3974: 3938: 3932: 3931: 3905: 3896: 3895: 3885: 3853: 3847: 3846: 3844: 3843: 3837: 3831:. Archived from 3830: 3780: 3771: 3765: 3764: 3762: 3755: 3746: 3740: 3739: 3737: 3736: 3718: 3708: 3684: 3678: 3677: 3651: 3645: 3644: 3618: 3603: 3602: 3592: 3563: 3557: 3556: 3530: 3505: 3504: 3478: 3461: 3460: 3449:10.1038/307264a0 3424: 3418: 3417: 3373: 3367: 3366: 3313: 3307: 3306: 3280: 3269: 3268: 3242: 3229: 3216: 3211: 3210: 3204: 3202: 3201: 3182: 3176: 3175: 3157: 3128: 3122: 3121: 3095: 3080: 3079: 3053: 3044: 3043: 3017: 3011: 3010: 2984: 2973: 2972: 2959: 2953: 2952: 2950: 2926: 2920: 2919: 2907: 2897: 2891: 2890: 2864: 2839: 2838: 2836: 2830:. Archived from 2797: 2788: 2777: 2776: 2750: 2735: 2734: 2706: 2680:Leuser Ecosystem 2657: 2654: 2636: 2635: 2629: 2604:Closed ecosystem 2567:Boreal ecosystem 2543:Marine ecosystem 2482: 2477: 2476: 2468: 2463: 2462: 2461: 2454: 2449: 2448: 2447: 2356:risk of collapse 2331:invasive species 2323:fire suppression 2284:marine pollution 2268:soil degradation 2158:medicinal plants 2151:Ecological yield 2061:tropical forests 1938:Study approaches 1917:Keystone species 1733:nitrogen cycling 1689:Nutrient cycling 1607:glacial advances 1599:F. Stuart Chapin 1129:Raymond Lindeman 1125:algal production 1048:invasive species 1040:fire suppression 1004:medicinal plants 996:nutrient cycling 861: 854: 847: 834: 829: 828: 821: 817: 816: 755:List of journals 401:Chemical biology 114: 95: 94: 67: 58: 45: 36: 21: 8559: 8558: 8554: 8553: 8552: 8550: 8549: 8548: 8534: 8533: 8532: 8527: 8483: 8462: 8436: 8377:Anatol Rapoport 8362:Talcott Parsons 8337:Donella Meadows 8312:Allenna Leonard 8232:Mary Cartwright 8227:Kathleen Carley 8187:Gregory Bateson 8182:Béla H. Bánáthy 8144: 8081: 8030: 8024: 8010:Limiting factor 8005:Leverage points 7988: 7926: 7918: 7916:Systems science 7913: 7883: 7878: 7856: 7773: 7742: 7723: 7680: 7622: 7602: 7593:Gaia hypothesis 7583:Plate tectonics 7544: 7494: 7488: 7458: 7453: 7435: 7397: 7381: 7338: 7329:Geologic record 7283: 7269:Plate tectonics 7259:Mineral physics 7239:Earth structure 7225: 7160: 7107: 7037: 6989: 6946: 6893: 6875: 6870: 6840: 6835: 6776: 6768: 6763: 6733: 6728: 6719: 6705:Systems ecology 6593: 6564:Extinction debt 6529:Ecological debt 6519:Bioluminescence 6500: 6493: 6462:marine habitats 6437:Ecological trap 6418: 6298: 6291: 6234: 6228: 6184:Rapoport's rule 6179:Priority effect 6120:Endemic species 6088: 6047:Population size 5963: 5956: 5946: 5916: 5911: 5864: 5858: 5844:Trophic cascade 5754:Bioaccumulation 5737: 5664: 5621: 5543: 5510: 5407: 5319: 5280:Ecosystem model 5213: 5199: 5116: 5111: 5110: 5102: 5071: 5065: 5061: 5051: 5045: 5043: 5039: 4998: 4992: 4988: 4932: 4928: 4913: 4899: 4890: 4883: 4865: 4861: 4816: 4809: 4799: 4797: 4782: 4781: 4777: 4722: 4718: 4708: 4706: 4705:on 27 June 2019 4697: 4696: 4692: 4682: 4680: 4671: 4670: 4663: 4655: 4640: 4634: 4625: 4617: 4610: 4606: 4605: 4601: 4578:10.2307/2269460 4569:10.1.1.404.4909 4543: 4530: 4476: 4472: 4457: 4435: 4428: 4419: 4417: 4404: 4403: 4399: 4384:10.2307/2265490 4360: 4356: 4317: 4313: 4270: 4266: 4258: 4244:10.1890/03-0243 4219: 4213: 4209: 4202: 4188: 4184: 4161:10.2307/3545850 4137: 4133: 4126: 4100: 4096: 4089: 4075: 4071: 4048:(1–3): 91–102. 4034: 4030: 3985: 3978: 3939: 3935: 3920: 3906: 3899: 3854: 3850: 3841: 3839: 3838:on Nov 23, 2011 3835: 3789:(7107): 71–75. 3778: 3772: 3768: 3760: 3753: 3749:Simonsen, S.H. 3747: 3743: 3734: 3732: 3685: 3681: 3666: 3652: 3648: 3633: 3619: 3606: 3564: 3560: 3545: 3531: 3508: 3493: 3479: 3464: 3425: 3421: 3374: 3370: 3314: 3310: 3295: 3281: 3272: 3257: 3243: 3232: 3226:Wayback Machine 3205: 3199: 3197: 3184: 3183: 3179: 3129: 3125: 3110: 3096: 3083: 3068: 3054: 3047: 3032: 3018: 3014: 2999: 2985: 2976: 2960: 2956: 2927: 2923: 2916: 2898: 2894: 2879: 2865: 2842: 2834: 2820:10.2307/1930070 2795: 2789: 2780: 2765: 2751: 2738: 2707: 2703: 2698: 2668: 2664:Main category: 2658: 2652: 2649: 2633: 2627: 2614:Novel ecosystem 2588: 2582:Urban ecosystem 2535:River ecosystem 2511: 2478: 2471: 2464: 2459: 2457: 2450: 2445: 2443: 2440: 2417: 2411: 2378: 2366:Main articles: 2364: 2319:water diversion 2311:water pollution 2290:pollution, the 2240: 2226: 2153: 2143: 2135:Main articles: 2129:Adirondack Park 2117: 2109: 2082:novel ecosystem 2046: 2036: 2034:Classifications 1957: 1955:Ecosystem model 1951: 1945: 1940: 1841: 1835: 1829: 1810:denitrification 1766:acid deposition 1705: 1691: 1684: 1564: 1554: 1537: 1459: 1453: 1402:aquatic systems 1346: 1336: 1330: 1267: 1249: 1214:Parent material 1199: 1145: 1115:'s ideas about 1087: 1072: 1036:water diversion 1028:water pollution 934:Ecosystems are 916:parent material 897:nutrient cycles 865: 824: 811: 810: 803: 802: 778: 770: 769: 736: 728: 727: 726: 725: 686:Systems biology 651:Quantum biology 294: 286: 285: 250: 235: 197: 186: 162: 154: 119: 117:Science of life 93: 92: 91: 90: 70: 69: 68: 60: 59: 46: 37: 30: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8557: 8547: 8546: 8529: 8528: 8526: 8525: 8513: 8501: 8488: 8485: 8484: 8482: 8481: 8476: 8470: 8468: 8464: 8463: 8461: 8460: 8455: 8450: 8444: 8442: 8438: 8437: 8435: 8434: 8432:Anthony Wilden 8429: 8427:Jennifer Wilby 8424: 8422:Norbert Wiener 8419: 8414: 8409: 8404: 8399: 8394: 8392:Claude Shannon 8389: 8384: 8379: 8374: 8369: 8367:Ilya Prigogine 8364: 8359: 8357:Howard T. Odum 8354: 8352:Radhika Nagpal 8349: 8344: 8339: 8334: 8329: 8324: 8322:Niklas Luhmann 8319: 8314: 8309: 8304: 8299: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8264: 8259: 8254: 8249: 8247:George Dantzig 8244: 8242:Manfred Clynes 8239: 8234: 8229: 8224: 8219: 8214: 8209: 8207:Margaret Boden 8204: 8199: 8194: 8189: 8184: 8179: 8174: 8169: 8167:Victor Aladjev 8164: 8158: 8156: 8150: 8149: 8146: 8145: 8143: 8142: 8132: 8127: 8122: 8117: 8112: 8107: 8102: 8097: 8092: 8086: 8083: 8082: 8080: 8079: 8074: 8069: 8064: 8059: 8057:Living systems 8054: 8049: 8044: 8042:Control theory 8038: 8032: 8026: 8025: 8023: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8002: 7996: 7994: 7990: 7989: 7987: 7986: 7981: 7976: 7971: 7966: 7961: 7956: 7951: 7946: 7941: 7936: 7930: 7928: 7920: 7919: 7912: 7911: 7904: 7897: 7889: 7880: 7879: 7877: 7876: 7865: 7862: 7861: 7858: 7857: 7855: 7854: 7847: 7846: 7845: 7840: 7830: 7829: 7828: 7823: 7818: 7817: 7816: 7806: 7805: 7804: 7789: 7784: 7778: 7775: 7774: 7772: 7771: 7761: 7756: 7751: 7746: 7737: 7731: 7725: 7724: 7722: 7721: 7716: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7690: 7688: 7682: 7681: 7679: 7678: 7677: 7676: 7671: 7661: 7656: 7651: 7646: 7641: 7636: 7631: 7626: 7618: 7612: 7610: 7604: 7603: 7601: 7600: 7595: 7590: 7585: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7560: 7554: 7552: 7546: 7545: 7543: 7542: 7537: 7536: 7535: 7530: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7504: 7502: 7496: 7495: 7487: 7486: 7479: 7472: 7464: 7455: 7454: 7452: 7451: 7440: 7437: 7436: 7434: 7433: 7428: 7423: 7418: 7413: 7407: 7405: 7399: 7398: 7396: 7395: 7389: 7387: 7383: 7382: 7380: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7362:Atlantic Ocean 7359: 7354: 7348: 7346: 7340: 7339: 7337: 7336: 7331: 7326: 7325: 7324: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7293: 7291: 7285: 7284: 7282: 7281: 7276: 7271: 7266: 7261: 7256: 7251: 7246: 7244:Fluid dynamics 7241: 7235: 7233: 7227: 7226: 7224: 7223: 7218: 7216:Geopositioning 7213: 7211:Remote Sensing 7208: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7188: 7183: 7182: 7181: 7170: 7168: 7162: 7161: 7159: 7158: 7153: 7148: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7128: 7123: 7117: 7115: 7109: 7108: 7106: 7105: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7070: 7065: 7060: 7059: 7058: 7047: 7045: 7039: 7038: 7036: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 6999: 6997: 6991: 6990: 6988: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6970:Climate change 6967: 6965:Energy balance 6962: 6960:Climate system 6956: 6954: 6948: 6947: 6945: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6903: 6901: 6895: 6894: 6892: 6891: 6886: 6880: 6877: 6876: 6869: 6868: 6861: 6854: 6846: 6837: 6836: 6834: 6833: 6773: 6770: 6769: 6762: 6761: 6754: 6747: 6739: 6730: 6729: 6724: 6721: 6720: 6718: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6685:Microecosystem 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6601: 6599: 6595: 6594: 6592: 6591: 6586: 6584:Thorson's rule 6581: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6556: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6509:Assembly rules 6505: 6503: 6495: 6494: 6492: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6465: 6464: 6454: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6428: 6426: 6420: 6419: 6417: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6394: 6392:Patch dynamics 6389: 6387:Metapopulation 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6309: 6303: 6301: 6293: 6292: 6290: 6289: 6284: 6282:Storage effect 6279: 6274: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6238: 6236: 6230: 6229: 6227: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6164:Neutral theory 6161: 6156: 6151: 6149:Native species 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6096: 6094: 6090: 6089: 6087: 6086: 6081: 6080: 6079: 6074: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6022:Overpopulation 6019: 6014: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5968: 5966: 5958: 5957: 5945: 5944: 5937: 5930: 5922: 5913: 5912: 5910: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5868: 5866: 5860: 5859: 5857: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5829:Nutrient cycle 5826: 5821: 5819:Feeding frenzy 5816: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5799:Energy quality 5796: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5759:Cascade effect 5756: 5751: 5745: 5743: 5739: 5738: 5736: 5735: 5734: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5693: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5672: 5670: 5666: 5665: 5663: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5637: 5631: 5629: 5623: 5622: 5620: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5602:Microbial loop 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5567:Lithoautotroph 5564: 5559: 5553: 5551: 5549:Microorganisms 5545: 5544: 5542: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5520: 5518: 5512: 5511: 5509: 5508: 5506:Prey switching 5503: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5417: 5415: 5409: 5408: 5406: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5383:Photosynthesis 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5338:Chemosynthesis 5335: 5329: 5327: 5321: 5320: 5318: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5230:Abiotic stress 5227: 5221: 5219: 5215: 5214: 5198: 5197: 5190: 5183: 5175: 5169: 5168: 5157: 5143: 5129: 5115: 5114:External links 5112: 5109: 5108: 5105:on 2013-05-02. 5059: 5009:(2): 125–131. 4986: 4926: 4911: 4888: 4881: 4859: 4807: 4775: 4716: 4690: 4661: 4658:on 2013-05-25. 4623: 4599: 4554:(3): 665–691. 4528: 4470: 4455: 4426: 4397: 4370:(3): 677–680. 4354: 4327:(4): 323–334. 4311: 4284:(4): 335–344. 4264: 4261:on 2013-05-01. 4207: 4200: 4182: 4147:(3): 373–386. 4131: 4124: 4104:Simon A. Levin 4094: 4087: 4069: 4028: 3976: 3949:(2): 189–207. 3943:Plant and Soil 3933: 3918: 3897: 3848: 3766: 3741: 3679: 3664: 3646: 3631: 3604: 3558: 3543: 3506: 3491: 3462: 3419: 3384:(1): 152–155. 3368: 3308: 3293: 3270: 3255: 3230: 3192:. 2018-07-17. 3177: 3123: 3108: 3081: 3066: 3045: 3030: 3012: 2997: 2974: 2954: 2941:(2): 268–271. 2921: 2914: 2892: 2877: 2840: 2837:on 2016-10-06. 2806:(3): 284–307. 2778: 2763: 2736: 2717:(5): 149–155. 2700: 2699: 2697: 2694: 2693: 2692: 2687: 2682: 2677: 2660: 2659: 2639: 2637: 2626: 2623: 2622: 2621: 2616: 2611: 2606: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2592: 2587: 2586: 2585: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2569: 2559: 2558: 2557: 2552: 2551: 2550: 2540: 2539: 2538: 2532: 2529:Lake ecosystem 2515: 2510: 2507: 2506: 2505: 2500: 2495: 2490: 2488:Complex system 2484: 2483: 2469: 2466:Ecology portal 2455: 2439: 2436: 2430:) concerns in 2410: 2407: 2390:sustainability 2363: 2360: 2256:climate change 2225: 2222: 2116: 2113: 2108: 2105: 2073:boreal forests 2035: 2032: 1947:Main article: 1944: 1941: 1939: 1936: 1909:exotic species 1831:Main article: 1828: 1825: 1741:Micronutrients 1703:Nitrogen cycle 1695:Nutrient cycle 1690: 1687: 1677:Canary Islands 1662: 1649:organic matter 1553: 1550: 1536: 1533: 1452: 1449: 1374:is the sum of 1332:Main article: 1329: 1326: 1302:carbon dioxide 1275:photosynthesis 1271:organic matter 1263:Main article: 1248: 1245: 1198: 1195: 1158:. This is the 1144: 1141: 1137:Eugene P. Odum 1133:Howard T. Odum 1091:Arthur Tansley 1086: 1083: 1071: 1068: 984:organic matter 969:photosynthesis 867: 866: 864: 863: 856: 849: 841: 838: 837: 836: 835: 822: 805: 804: 801: 800: 795: 790: 785: 779: 776: 775: 772: 771: 768: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 737: 734: 733: 730: 729: 724: 723: 718: 713: 708: 703: 698: 693: 688: 683: 678: 673: 668: 663: 658: 653: 648: 643: 638: 633: 628: 623: 618: 613: 608: 603: 598: 593: 588: 583: 578: 573: 568: 563: 558: 553: 548: 543: 541:Marine biology 538: 533: 528: 523: 518: 513: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 483: 478: 473: 468: 463: 458: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 423: 418: 413: 408: 403: 398: 393: 388: 383: 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 351:Bioinformatics 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 297: 296: 295: 292: 291: 288: 287: 284: 283: 261: 256: 249: 248: 234: 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 208: 203: 196: 195: 190:Properties of 185: 184: 179: 174: 169: 163: 161:Key components 160: 159: 156: 155: 153: 152: 141: 140: 135: 130: 124: 121: 120: 115: 107: 106: 100: 99: 72: 71: 62: 61: 53: 52: 51: 50: 49: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8556: 8545: 8542: 8541: 8539: 8524: 8523: 8514: 8512: 8511: 8506: 8502: 8500: 8499: 8490: 8489: 8486: 8480: 8477: 8475: 8472: 8471: 8469: 8467:Organizations 8465: 8459: 8456: 8454: 8451: 8449: 8446: 8445: 8443: 8439: 8433: 8430: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8418: 8417:Kevin Warwick 8415: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8403: 8400: 8398: 8395: 8393: 8390: 8388: 8385: 8383: 8380: 8378: 8375: 8373: 8370: 8368: 8365: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8340: 8338: 8335: 8333: 8332:Margaret Mead 8330: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8318: 8315: 8313: 8310: 8308: 8305: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8293: 8292:Lydia Kavraki 8290: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8277:Barbara Grosz 8275: 8273: 8270: 8268: 8265: 8263: 8260: 8258: 8255: 8253: 8250: 8248: 8245: 8243: 8240: 8238: 8235: 8233: 8230: 8228: 8225: 8223: 8220: 8218: 8215: 8213: 8210: 8208: 8205: 8203: 8200: 8198: 8195: 8193: 8190: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8178: 8177:Ruzena Bajcsy 8175: 8173: 8170: 8168: 8165: 8163: 8160: 8159: 8157: 8155: 8151: 8140: 8136: 8133: 8131: 8128: 8126: 8123: 8121: 8118: 8116: 8113: 8111: 8108: 8106: 8103: 8101: 8098: 8096: 8093: 8091: 8088: 8087: 8084: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8060: 8058: 8055: 8053: 8050: 8048: 8045: 8043: 8040: 8039: 8036: 8033: 8027: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8001: 8000:Doubling time 7998: 7997: 7995: 7991: 7985: 7982: 7980: 7977: 7975: 7972: 7970: 7967: 7965: 7962: 7960: 7957: 7955: 7952: 7950: 7947: 7945: 7942: 7940: 7937: 7935: 7932: 7931: 7929: 7925: 7921: 7917: 7910: 7905: 7903: 7898: 7896: 7891: 7890: 7887: 7875: 7867: 7866: 7863: 7853: 7852: 7848: 7844: 7841: 7839: 7836: 7835: 7834: 7831: 7827: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7815: 7812: 7811: 7810: 7807: 7803: 7800: 7799: 7798: 7795: 7794: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7779: 7776: 7769: 7765: 7762: 7760: 7757: 7755: 7752: 7750: 7747: 7745: 7743:(abiogenesis) 7739: 7738: 7735: 7732: 7730: 7726: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7691: 7689: 7687: 7683: 7675: 7672: 7670: 7667: 7666: 7665: 7662: 7660: 7657: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7640: 7637: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7627: 7625: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7613: 7611: 7609: 7605: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7568: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7558:Earth science 7556: 7555: 7553: 7551: 7547: 7541: 7538: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7525: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7505: 7503: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7485: 7480: 7478: 7473: 7471: 7466: 7465: 7462: 7450: 7442: 7441: 7438: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7408: 7406: 7404: 7400: 7394: 7391: 7390: 7388: 7384: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7372:Pacific Ocean 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7349: 7347: 7345: 7341: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7323: 7320: 7319: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7302:Earth science 7300: 7298: 7295: 7294: 7292: 7290: 7286: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7254:Magnetosphere 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7236: 7234: 7232: 7228: 7222: 7221:Virtual globe 7219: 7217: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7186:Earth's orbit 7184: 7180: 7177: 7176: 7175: 7172: 7171: 7169: 7167: 7163: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7118: 7116: 7114: 7110: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7093:World history 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7083:World economy 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7057: 7054: 7053: 7052: 7049: 7048: 7046: 7044: 7040: 7034: 7033:South America 7031: 7029: 7028:North America 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 7000: 6998: 6996: 6992: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6957: 6955: 6953: 6949: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6904: 6902: 6900: 6896: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6881: 6878: 6874: 6867: 6862: 6860: 6855: 6853: 6848: 6847: 6844: 6831: 6827: 6826:Macromolecule 6823: 6819: 6815: 6811: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6795: 6791: 6787: 6783: 6779: 6775: 6774: 6771: 6767: 6760: 6755: 6753: 6748: 6746: 6741: 6740: 6737: 6727: 6722: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6710:Urban ecology 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6602: 6600: 6596: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6569:Kleiber's law 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6506: 6504: 6502: 6496: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6463: 6460: 6459: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6429: 6427: 6425: 6421: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6403: 6399: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6342:Foster's rule 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6304: 6302: 6300: 6294: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6239: 6237: 6231: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6097: 6095: 6091: 6085: 6082: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6069: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5969: 5967: 5965: 5959: 5954: 5950: 5943: 5938: 5936: 5931: 5929: 5924: 5923: 5920: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5869: 5867: 5861: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5752: 5750: 5747: 5746: 5744: 5740: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5698: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5673: 5671: 5667: 5661: 5660:Trophic level 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5632: 5630: 5628: 5624: 5618: 5617:Phage ecology 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5607:Microbial mat 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5562:Bacteriophage 5560: 5558: 5555: 5554: 5552: 5550: 5546: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5529:Decomposition 5527: 5525: 5522: 5521: 5519: 5517: 5513: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5476:Mesopredators 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5421:Apex predator 5419: 5418: 5416: 5414: 5410: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5330: 5328: 5326: 5322: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5255:Biotic stress 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5222: 5220: 5216: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5196: 5191: 5189: 5184: 5182: 5177: 5176: 5173: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5144: 5142:at Wiktionary 5141: 5140: 5134: 5130: 5127: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5070: 5063: 5055: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5025: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 4997: 4990: 4982: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4947:(5): e62111. 4946: 4942: 4938: 4930: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4908: 4904: 4897: 4895: 4893: 4884: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4863: 4855: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4814: 4812: 4800:September 11, 4795: 4791: 4790: 4785: 4779: 4771: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4720: 4704: 4700: 4694: 4678: 4674: 4668: 4666: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4639: 4632: 4630: 4628: 4616: 4609: 4603: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4541: 4539: 4537: 4535: 4533: 4524: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4474: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4433: 4431: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4401: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4358: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4315: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4268: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4218: 4211: 4203: 4197: 4193: 4186: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4135: 4127: 4121: 4117: 4112: 4111: 4105: 4098: 4090: 4084: 4080: 4079:Plant Ecology 4073: 4065: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4042:Hydrobiologia 4039: 4032: 4024: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3983: 3981: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3937: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3915: 3911: 3904: 3902: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3852: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3777: 3770: 3759: 3752: 3745: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3683: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3661: 3657: 3650: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3628: 3624: 3617: 3615: 3613: 3611: 3609: 3600: 3596: 3591: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3562: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3540: 3536: 3529: 3527: 3525: 3523: 3521: 3519: 3517: 3515: 3513: 3511: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3488: 3484: 3477: 3475: 3473: 3471: 3469: 3467: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3423: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3372: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3312: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3290: 3286: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3252: 3248: 3241: 3239: 3237: 3235: 3227: 3223: 3220: 3215: 3209: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3181: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3156: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3127: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3105: 3101: 3094: 3092: 3090: 3088: 3086: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3063: 3059: 3052: 3050: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3027: 3023: 3016: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2994: 2990: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2970: 2969: 2964: 2963:Tansley, A.G. 2958: 2949: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2925: 2917: 2911: 2906: 2905: 2896: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2874: 2870: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2847: 2845: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2794: 2787: 2785: 2783: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2760: 2756: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2705: 2701: 2691: 2688: 2686: 2683: 2681: 2678: 2676: 2673: 2672: 2671: 2667: 2656: 2647: 2643: 2640:This list is 2638: 2631: 2630: 2620: 2617: 2615: 2612: 2610: 2607: 2605: 2602: 2600: 2599:Agroecosystem 2597: 2596: 2593: 2590: 2589: 2583: 2580: 2578: 2575: 2573: 2570: 2568: 2565: 2564: 2563: 2560: 2556: 2553: 2549: 2546: 2545: 2544: 2541: 2536: 2533: 2530: 2527: 2526: 2525: 2522: 2521: 2520: 2517: 2516: 2514: 2504: 2501: 2499: 2496: 2494: 2493:Earth science 2491: 2489: 2486: 2485: 2481: 2475: 2470: 2467: 2456: 2453: 2442: 2435: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2416: 2406: 2404: 2400: 2399:agroecosystem 2396: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2359: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2344: 2339: 2334: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2299: 2297: 2296:acidification 2293: 2289: 2288:microplastics 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2272:deforestation 2269: 2265: 2264:air pollution 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2248:anthropogenic 2245: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2221: 2219: 2215: 2209: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2194: 2192: 2188: 2183: 2182: 2176: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2163: 2159: 2152: 2148: 2142: 2138: 2130: 2126: 2121: 2112: 2104: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2074: 2070: 2067:, and arctic 2066: 2062: 2058: 2053: 2050: 2045: 2041: 2031: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2014: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1979: 1977: 1973: 1966: 1961: 1956: 1950: 1935: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1920: 1918: 1912: 1910: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1892: 1885: 1884: 1879: 1878: 1873: 1868: 1861: 1857: 1856:introductions 1853: 1849: 1845: 1840: 1834: 1824: 1822: 1817: 1813: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1802:nitrous oxide 1799: 1795: 1794:nitrification 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1773: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1758:cyanobacteria 1755: 1750: 1749:symbiotically 1745: 1742: 1736: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1709: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1660: 1656: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1629: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1614: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1590: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1563: 1559: 1549: 1547: 1541: 1532: 1530: 1526: 1521: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1506:cell contents 1503: 1499: 1495: 1490: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1475: 1472: 1463: 1458: 1457:Decomposition 1451:Decomposition 1448: 1446: 1442: 1437: 1435: 1431: 1428:) are termed 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1398: 1396: 1392: 1387: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1354: 1350: 1345: 1344:Trophic level 1341: 1335: 1325: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1306:carbohydrates 1303: 1298: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1266: 1258: 1253: 1244: 1241: 1236: 1234: 1230: 1225: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1209: 1205: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1140: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1113:Charles Elton 1110: 1106: 1102: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1082: 1079: 1077: 1067: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 999: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 978: 974: 970: 965: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 937: 932: 929: 925: 924:decomposition 921: 917: 913: 909: 904: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 862: 857: 855: 850: 848: 843: 842: 840: 839: 833: 823: 820: 815: 809: 808: 807: 806: 799: 796: 794: 791: 789: 786: 784: 781: 780: 774: 773: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 753: 751: 748: 746: 742: 739: 738: 732: 731: 722: 719: 717: 714: 712: 709: 707: 704: 702: 699: 697: 694: 692: 689: 687: 684: 682: 679: 677: 674: 672: 669: 667: 664: 662: 659: 657: 654: 652: 649: 647: 644: 642: 639: 637: 634: 632: 629: 627: 624: 622: 621:Phylogenetics 619: 617: 614: 612: 609: 607: 604: 602: 599: 597: 594: 592: 589: 587: 584: 582: 579: 577: 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 552: 549: 547: 544: 542: 539: 537: 534: 532: 529: 527: 524: 522: 519: 517: 516:Human biology 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 462: 459: 457: 454: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 422: 419: 417: 414: 412: 409: 407: 406:Chronobiology 404: 402: 399: 397: 394: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 381:Biotechnology 379: 377: 376:Biostatistics 374: 372: 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 298: 290: 289: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 251: 247: 245: 241: 237: 236: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 212: 209: 207: 204: 202: 199: 198: 194: 193: 188: 187: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 164: 158: 157: 150: 146: 143: 142: 139: 136: 134: 131: 129: 126: 125: 123: 122: 118: 113: 109: 108: 105: 102: 101: 97: 96: 88: 84: 80: 76: 66: 57: 48: 43: 42: 34: 19: 18:Biotic factor 8520: 8508: 8496: 8441:Applications 8397:Katia Sycara 8297:James J. Kay 8287:Mike Jackson 8222:Murray Bowen 8120:Pharmacology 8115:Neuroscience 7953: 7849: 7782:Biodiversity 7768:astrobiology 7698: 7490:Elements of 7431:Solar System 7377:Oceanography 7367:Indian Ocean 7357:Arctic Ocean 7297:Age of Earth 7249:Geomagnetism 7140: 6932:Thermosphere 6922:Stratosphere 6828: > 6824: > 6820: > 6816: > 6812: > 6808: > 6804: > 6802:Organ system 6800: > 6796: > 6792: > 6788: > 6785: 6784: > 6780: > 6695:Regime shift 6680:Macroecology 6401: 6397: 6337:Edge effects 6307:Biogeography 6252:Commensalism 6100:Biodiversity 5977:Allee effect 5716:kelp forests 5669:Example webs 5534:Detritivores 5373:Organotrophs 5353:Kinetotrophs 5305:Productivity 5269: 5138: 5100:the original 5082:(1): 27–38. 5079: 5075: 5062: 5044:. Retrieved 5024:11573/624610 5006: 5002: 4989: 4944: 4940: 4929: 4902: 4868: 4862: 4827: 4823: 4798:. Retrieved 4789:ScienceDaily 4787: 4778: 4733: 4729: 4719: 4707:. Retrieved 4703:the original 4693: 4681:. 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Retrieved 3189: 3180: 3140:(1): 58–66. 3137: 3133: 3126: 3099: 3057: 3021: 3015: 2988: 2967: 2957: 2938: 2934: 2924: 2903: 2895: 2868: 2832:the original 2803: 2799: 2754: 2714: 2710: 2704: 2669: 2650: 2512: 2424:conservation 2418: 2379: 2341: 2335: 2300: 2241: 2210: 2202:biodiversity 2195: 2179: 2177: 2166: 2154: 2110: 2090: 2054: 2047: 2015: 1980: 1970: 1921: 1913: 1891:Biodiversity 1889: 1881: 1875: 1833:Biodiversity 1818: 1814: 1806:nitrogen gas 1798:Nitric oxide 1774: 1746: 1737: 1714: 1669:Gran Canaria 1630: 1615: 1593: 1568:perturbation 1565: 1542: 1538: 1522: 1491: 1476: 1468: 1438: 1430:microbivores 1399: 1388: 1370: 1347: 1322:chloroplasts 1299: 1287:carbon cycle 1283:fossil fuels 1268: 1237: 1226: 1222:microclimate 1212: 1200: 1160:Gambia River 1156:biodiversity 1103: 1088: 1080: 1073: 1000: 966: 933: 905: 881:environments 876: 872: 870: 777:Applications 666:Sociobiology 646:Protistology 611:Photobiology 606:Pharmacology 596:Parasitology 591:Paleontology 571:Neuroscience 551:Microbiology 461:Epidemiology 431:Cytogenetics 391:Cell biology 371:Biosemiotics 361:Biomechanics 341:Biogeography 336:Biochemistry 331:Bacteriology 326:Astrobiology 238: 226:Reproduction 189: 171: 116: 47: 40: 8387:Peter Senge 8382:John Seddon 8372:Qian Xuesen 8307:George Klir 8110:Engineering 8047:Cybernetics 8029:Theoretical 7979:Recommender 7969:Multi-agent 7964:Information 7833:Prokaryotes 7621:Atmosphere 7616:Meteorology 7174:Cartography 7113:Environment 6980:Climatology 6917:Troposphere 6830:Biomolecule 6790:Biocoenosis 6332:Disturbance 6235:interaction 6057:Recruitment 5987:Depensation 5779:Copiotrophs 5650:Energy flow 5572:Lithotrophy 5516:Decomposers 5496:Planktivore 5471:Insectivore 5461:Heterotroph 5426:Bacterivore 5393:Phototrophs 5343:Chemotrophs 5315:Restoration 5265:Competition 4761:11336/56765 4683:10 November 3993:Commun Biol 3868:(1): 5–15. 3699:(2): art5. 3575:: 144–152. 3155:10261/67376 2280:overfishing 2191:biocapacity 2172:pollination 1848:Loch Lomond 1762:phototrophs 1717:environment 1653:Pleistocene 1637:cultivation 1595:Disturbance 1514:exoskeleton 1494:leaf litter 1487:amino acids 1376:respiration 1366:decomposers 1328:Energy flow 1279:soil carbon 1109:limnologist 1016:pollination 988:decomposers 716:Xenobiology 711:Virophysics 681:Systematics 636:Primatology 581:Ornithology 521:Ichthyology 506:Herpetology 501:Gerontology 466:Epigenetics 426:Cryobiology 316:Agrostology 306:Aerobiology 301:Abiogenesis 167:Cell theory 8544:Ecosystems 8402:Eric Trist 8257:Fred Emery 8154:Scientists 8130:Psychology 8125:Philosophy 7954:Ecological 7939:Biological 7714:Wilderness 7567:geological 7279:Tomography 7264:Seismology 7231:Geophysics 7206:Navigation 7098:Time zones 7063:In culture 7008:Antarctica 6995:Continents 6927:Mesosphere 6899:Atmosphere 6794:Population 6700:Sexecology 6277:Parasitism 6242:Antibiosis 6077:Resistance 6072:Resilience 5962:Population 5882:Camouflage 5834:Oligotroph 5749:Ascendency 5711:intertidal 5701:cold seeps 5655:Food chain 5456:Herbivores 5431:Carnivores 5358:Mixotrophs 5333:Autotrophs 5212:components 5126:Ecosystems 5046:2021-01-06 4420:2021-07-16 4321:Ecosystems 4278:Ecosystems 3842:2021-08-16 3735:2021-07-23 3716:10535/3282 3378:Ecosystems 3200:2021-08-02 2696:References 2653:April 2023 2642:incomplete 2625:Instances 2413:See also: 2395:wilderness 2362:Management 2346:(see also 2228:See also: 2187:resilience 2145:See also: 2096:ecosystems 2086:taxonomies 2019:microcosms 1953:See also: 1872:Madagascar 1837:See also: 1821:weathering 1725:fertilizer 1693:See also: 1665:freshwater 1572:resistance 1455:See also: 1441:food chain 1434:carnivores 1414:herbivores 1406:herbivores 1338:See also: 1218:Topography 1152:Rainforest 1070:Definition 1056:"collapsed 957:ecosystems 941:resistance 920:topography 883:and their 701:Toxicology 696:Teratology 641:Proteomics 626:Physiology 566:Neontology 531:Lipidology 526:Immunology 496:Geobiology 456:Embryology 436:Dendrology 366:Biophysics 346:Biogeology 221:Regulation 201:Adaptation 79:productive 75:Coral reef 41:BioSystems 8067:Systemics 7792:Eukaryota 7759:Hierarchy 7754:Biosphere 7719:Wildfires 7709:Radiation 7699:Ecosystem 7639:Moonlight 7573:Structure 7528:particles 7196:Geomatics 7141:Ecosystem 7126:Biosphere 7088:Etymology 7068:Earth Day 7018:Australia 6937:Exosphere 6818:Organelle 6786:Ecosystem 6778:Biosphere 6605:Allometry 6559:Emergence 6287:Symbiosis 6272:Mutualism 6067:Stability 5972:Abundance 5784:Dominance 5742:Processes 5731:tide pool 5627:Food webs 5501:Predation 5486:Omnivores 5413:Consumers 5368:Mycotroph 5325:Producers 5270:Ecosystem 5235:Behaviour 5139:ecosystem 4921:755081405 4830:(1): 16. 4564:CiteSeerX 4465:241360441 4410:Sciencing 4169:0030-1299 3928:755081405 3811:0028-0836 3725:1708-3087 3674:432702920 3641:755081405 3553:755081405 3501:755081405 3406:1435-0629 3347:0028-0836 3303:755081405 3265:755081405 3164:0169-5347 3118:755081405 3076:755081405 3040:755081405 3007:755081405 2887:755081405 2773:755081405 2498:Ecoregion 2343:collapsed 2303:soil loss 2023:mesocosms 2007:acid rain 1995:chemistry 1991:watershed 1877:Adansonia 1603:herbivore 1580:biosphere 1510:cell wall 1445:food webs 1257:autotroph 1143:Processes 1020:soil loss 977:microbial 885:organisms 873:ecosystem 741:Biologist 616:Phycology 601:Pathology 586:Osteology 576:Nutrition 536:Mammalogy 511:Histology 182:Phylogeny 177:Evolution 172:Ecosystem 8538:Category 8498:Category 8100:Dynamics 8090:Analysis 7993:Concepts 7959:Economic 7874:Category 7843:bacteria 7826:protista 7787:Organism 7654:Sunlight 7500:Universe 7449:Category 6798:Organism 6660:Endolith 6589:Xerosere 6501:networks 6317:Ecocline 5863:Defense, 5539:Detritus 5441:Foraging 5310:Resource 5146:Wikidata 5037:Archived 5033:62790495 4981:23667454 4941:PLOS ONE 4873:Springer 4854:46200068 4794:Archived 4770:14000233 4736:: 1–16. 4677:Archived 4675:. 2005. 4615:Archived 4594:53461068 4523:36224387 4414:Archived 4349:45418039 4306:33559404 4023:31263777 3971:44215263 3892:20349827 3819:16957728 3758:Archived 3729:Archived 3599:92606851 3355:22722862 3222:Archived 3194:Archived 3172:22889499 2965:(1939). 2731:21232343 2438:See also 1928:organism 1860:food web 1852:Scotland 1778:ammonium 1667:lake in 1645:Siberian 1546:wetlands 1479:leaching 1422:bacteria 1418:microbes 1391:wildfire 1358:detritus 1340:Food web 1293:via the 1240:resource 1189:region, 1187:Cataviña 990:release 928:resource 832:Category 798:Pharming 735:Research 706:Virology 691:Taxonomy 631:Pomology 561:Mycology 491:Genomics 486:Genetics 311:Agronomy 293:Branches 280:Protists 259:Bacteria 244:Kingdoms 149:timeline 138:Glossary 8522:Commons 8105:Ecology 8095:Biology 7974:Nervous 7944:Complex 7851:Viruses 7838:archaea 7814:animals 7766: ( 7764:Biology 7741:Origin 7694:Ecology 7669:tornado 7629:Climate 7623:(Earth) 7608:Weather 7578:Geology 7565: ( 7563:History 7289:Geology 7201:Gravity 7166:Geodesy 7136:Ecology 6952:Climate 6942:Weather 6889:History 6884:Outline 6650:Ecopath 6457:Habitat 6327:Ecotype 6322:Ecotone 6299:ecology 6297:Spatial 6233:Species 6093:Species 5964:ecology 5949:Ecology 5897:Mimicry 5865:counter 5809:f-ratio 5557:Archaea 5245:Biomass 5218:General 5210:Trophic 5202:Ecology 5154:Scholia 5084:Bibcode 4972:3648534 4949:Bibcode 4832:Bibcode 4738:Bibcode 4709:28 June 4699:"IPBES" 4586:2269460 4556:Bibcode 4514:9581774 4493:Bibcode 4392:2265490 4372:Bibcode 4364:Ecology 4341:3658915 4286:Bibcode 4252:3450233 4232:Bibcode 4224:Ecology 4177:3545850 4149:Bibcode 4106:(ed.). 4064:6894397 4014:6588552 3999:: 233. 3951:Bibcode 3870:Bibcode 3828:4415304 3791:Bibcode 3457:4319708 3437:Bibcode 3414:5890190 3386:Bibcode 3363:4422427 3327:Bibcode 2828:1930070 2808:Bibcode 2800:Ecology 2338:abiotic 2162:tourism 2100:abiotic 2057:climate 2011:cations 1932:habitat 1926:is any 1790:nitrate 1786:nitrite 1770:ammonia 1727:. 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