Evolution - Knowledge

4205: 2153: 3526: 3692: 1813: 671: 1043: 3925:, Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a "struggle for existence" in which favourable variations prevailed as others perished. In each generation, many offspring fail to survive to an age of reproduction because of limited resources. This could explain the diversity of plants and animals from a common ancestry through the working of natural laws in the same way for all types of organism. Darwin developed his theory of "natural selection" from 1838 onwards and was writing up his "big book" on the subject when 1474: 3682: 1572: 1957: 654: 3702: 1149: 616:. If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles. DNA sequences can change through mutations, producing new alleles. If a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism. However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are influenced by multiple genes in a 26374: 3459:. Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events. The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation. Second, the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique organisms, but organisms that share morphological similarities. Third, 2052:, which can undergo parapatric speciation in response to localised metal pollution from mines. Here, plants evolve that have resistance to high levels of metals in the soil. Selection against interbreeding with the metal-sensitive parental population produced a gradual change in the flowering time of the metal-resistant plants, which eventually produced complete reproductive isolation. Selection against hybrids between the two populations may cause 26384: 1295:. This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population or by replacing the other alleles entirely. Genetic drift may therefore eliminate some alleles from a population due to chance alone. Even in the absence of selective forces, genetic drift can cause two separate populations that begin with the same genetic structure to drift apart into two divergent populations with different sets of alleles. 721: 73: 1141:

the past may not re-evolve in an identical form. However, a re-activation of dormant genes, as long as they have not been eliminated from the genome and were only suppressed perhaps for hundreds of generations, can lead to the re-occurrence of traits thought to be lost like hindlegs in dolphins, teeth in chickens, wings in wingless stick insects, tails and additional nipples in humans etc. "Throwbacks" such as these are known as

24773: 2046:. This is similar to peripatric speciation in that a small population enters a new habitat, but differs in that there is no physical separation between these two populations. Instead, speciation results from the evolution of mechanisms that reduce gene flow between the two populations. Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change in the environment within the parental species' habitat. One example is the grass 859: 277: 1666: 3467: 1448: 1354:. Haldane and Fisher argued that, because mutation is a weak pressure easily overcome by selection, tendencies of mutation would be ineffectual except under conditions of neutral evolution or extraordinarily high mutation rates. This opposing-pressures argument was long used to dismiss the possibility of internal tendencies in evolution, until the molecular era prompted renewed interest in neutral evolution. 1230:, a founder of ecology, defined an ecosystem as: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms...in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (i.e., exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system...." Each population within an ecosystem occupies a distinct 1272: 3672: 2208:). If one species can out-compete another, this could produce species selection, with the fitter species surviving and the other species being driven to extinction. The intermittent mass extinctions are also important, but instead of acting as a selective force, they drastically reduce diversity in a nonspecific manner and promote bursts of rapid evolution and speciation in survivors. 20047: 1524:, lessening the chance of it going extinct, while a wide geographic range increases the chance of speciation, by making it more likely that part of the population will become isolated. In this sense, microevolution and macroevolution might involve selection at different levels—with microevolution acting on genes and organisms, versus macroevolutionary processes such as 1520:

Macroevolution is the outcome of long periods of microevolution. Thus, the distinction between micro- and macroevolution is not a fundamental one—the difference is simply the time involved. However, in macroevolution, the traits of the entire species may be important. For instance, a large amount of variation among individuals allows a species to rapidly adapt to new

537: 2126:. This happened about 20,000 years ago, and the speciation process has been repeated in the laboratory, which allows the study of the genetic mechanisms involved in this process. Indeed, chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation, as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms. 1999:. In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct. However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype. The importance of hybridisation in producing 1839:, or a predator and its prey, these species can develop matched sets of adaptations. Here, the evolution of one species causes adaptations in a second species. These changes in the second species then, in turn, cause new adaptations in the first species. This cycle of selection and response is called coevolution. An example is the production of 20043: 1798:. It is also possible for structures that have been lost in evolution to reappear due to changes in developmental genes, such as a mutation in chickens causing embryos to grow teeth similar to those of crocodiles. It is now becoming clear that most alterations in the form of organisms are due to changes in a small set of conserved genes. 1476: 1480: 1479: 1475: 855:, sexual organisms exchange DNA between two matching chromosomes. Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies, but instead change which alleles are associated with each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles. Sex usually increases genetic variation and may increase the rate of evolution. 1481: 1971:

Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic. The Biological Species Concept (BSC) is a classic example of the interbreeding approach. Defined by evolutionary biologist

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connected natural selection and population genetics, based on Mendelian inheritance, into a unified theory that included random genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow. This new version of evolutionary theory focused on changes in allele frequencies in population. It explained patterns observed across

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Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history. Fossils, along with the comparative anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record. By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, palaeontologists can infer the lineages of those

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despite their small size and constitute the vast majority of Earth's biodiversity. Simple organisms have therefore been the dominant form of life on Earth throughout its history and continue to be the main form of life up to the present day, with complex life only appearing more diverse because it is

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is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment. This generates a legacy of effects that modify and feed back into the selection regime of subsequent generations. Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not under the direct control of genes include the

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continually producing simple forms of life that developed greater complexity in parallel lineages with an inherent progressive tendency, and postulated that on a local level, these lineages adapted to the environment by inheriting changes caused by their use or disuse in parents. (The latter process

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Prokaryotes inhabited the Earth from approximately 3–4 billion years ago. No obvious changes in morphology or cellular organisation occurred in these organisms over the next few billion years. The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6 and 2.7 billion years ago. The next major change in cell

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is an ongoing mass extinction associated with humanity's expansion across the globe over the past few thousand years. Present-day extinction rates are 100–1000 times greater than the background rate and up to 30% of current species may be extinct by the mid 21st century. Human activities are now the

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There are multiple ways to define the concept of "species". The choice of definition is dependent on the particularities of the species concerned. For example, some species concepts apply more readily toward sexually reproducing organisms while others lend themselves better toward asexual organisms.

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that will also cause the other alleles in the haplotype to become more common in the population; this effect is called genetic hitchhiking or genetic draft. Genetic draft caused by the fact that some neutral genes are genetically linked to others that are under selection can be partially captured by

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by genetic drift. In this model, most genetic changes in a population are thus the result of constant mutation pressure and genetic drift. This form of the neutral theory has been debated since it does not seem to fit some genetic variation seen in nature. A better-supported version of this model is

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The time it takes a neutral allele to become fixed by genetic drift depends on population size; fixation is more rapid in smaller populations. The number of individuals in a population is not critical, but instead a measure known as the effective population size. The effective population is usually

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Importantly, the fitness of an allele is not a fixed characteristic; if the environment changes, previously neutral or harmful traits may become beneficial and previously beneficial traits become harmful. However, even if the direction of selection does reverse in this way, traits that were lost in

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More offspring are produced than can possibly survive, and these conditions produce competition between organisms for survival and reproduction. Consequently, organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors are more likely to pass on their traits to the next generation than

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applied one of the previously more general terms for fixed natural types, "species", to plant and animal types, but he strictly identified each type of living thing as a species and proposed that each species could be defined by the features that perpetuated themselves generation after generation.

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cavefish that lost its eyesight during evolution. Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves. This helped identify genes required for

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Extinction is the disappearance of an entire species. Extinction is not an unusual event, as species regularly appear through speciation and disappear through extinction. Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on Earth are now extinct, and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of

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in 1942, the BSC states that "species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups." Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like other species concepts is not without controversy, for example, because genetic

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Adaptation occurs through the gradual modification of existing structures. Consequently, structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related organisms. This is the result of a single ancestral structure being adapted to function in different ways. The bones within

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A special case of natural selection is sexual selection, which is selection for any trait that increases mating success by increasing the attractiveness of an organism to potential mates. Traits that evolved through sexual selection are particularly prominent among males of several animal species.

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Recombination allows alleles on the same strand of DNA to become separated. However, the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per generation). As a result, genes close together on a chromosome may not always be shuffled away from each other and genes that are close

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Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations and between species. It can therefore be a source of variation that is new to a population or to a species. Gene flow can be caused by the movement of individuals between separate populations of organisms, as might be caused by the movement of

889:. The second cost is that any individual who reproduces sexually can only pass on 50% of its genes to any individual offspring, with even less passed on as each new generation passes. Yet sexual reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and multicellular organisms. The 4224:

in 1859, the idea that life had evolved was an active source of academic debate centred on the philosophical, social and religious implications of evolution. Today, the modern evolutionary synthesis is accepted by a vast majority of scientists. However, evolution remains a contentious concept for

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resistance. It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics and predicting the evolution and evolvability of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the

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The role of extinction in evolution is not very well understood and may depend on which type of extinction is considered. The causes of the continuous "low-level" extinction events, which form the majority of extinctions, may be the result of competition between species for limited resources (the

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However, mutational hypotheses for the evolution of composition suffered a reduction in scope when it was discovered that (1) GC-biased gene conversion makes an important contribution to composition in diploid organisms such as mammals and (2) bacterial genomes frequently have AT-biased mutation.

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For instance, mutation biases are frequently invoked in models of codon usage. Such models also include effects of selection, following the mutation-selection-drift model, which allows both for mutation biases and differential selection based on effects on translation. Hypotheses of mutation bias

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Contemporary thinking about the role of mutation biases reflects a different theory from that of Haldane and Fisher. More recent work showed that the original "pressures" theory assumes that evolution is based on standing variation: when evolution depends on events of mutation that introduce new

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An individual organism's phenotype results from both its genotype and the influence of the environment it has lived in. The modern evolutionary synthesis defines evolution as the change over time in this genetic variation. The frequency of one particular allele will become more or less prevalent

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skin comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children. The phenotype is the ability of the skin to tan when exposed to sunlight. However, some people tan more easily than others, due to differences in genotypic variation; a

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Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago, and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed. The current scientific consensus is that the complex biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler

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that are able to reproduce. On an even smaller scale, the somatic cells that make up the body of an animal limit their reproduction so they can maintain a stable organism, which then supports a small number of the animal's germ cells to produce offspring. Here, somatic cells respond to specific

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versus microevolution. Macroevolution refers to evolution that occurs at or above the level of species, in particular speciation and extinction, whereas microevolution refers to smaller evolutionary changes within a species or population, in particular shifts in allele frequency and adaptation.

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About half of the mutations in the coding regions of protein-coding genes are deleterious — the other half are neutral. A small percentage of the total mutations in this region confer a fitness benefit. Some of the mutations in other parts of the genome are deleterious but the vast majority are

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Evolutionary processes are generally thought of as processes by which these changes occur. Four such processes are widely recognized: natural selection (in the broad sense, to include sexual selection), genetic drift, mutation, and migration (Fisher 1930; Haldane 1932). The latter two generate

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Adaptation may cause either the gain of a new feature, or the loss of an ancestral feature. An example that shows both types of change is bacterial adaptation to antibiotic selection, with genetic changes causing antibiotic resistance by both modifying the target of the drug, or increasing the

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composed of four types of bases. The sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule specifies the genetic information, in a manner similar to a sequence of letters spelling out a sentence. Before a cell divides, the DNA is copied, so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA

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are linked, with natural selection and genetic drift acting most strongly on organisms undergoing speciation in novel habitats or small populations. As a result, the periods of stasis in the fossil record correspond to the parental population and the organisms undergoing speciation and rapid

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of an organism. Fitness is measured by an organism's ability to survive and reproduce, which determines the size of its genetic contribution to the next generation. However, fitness is not the same as the total number of offspring: instead fitness is indicated by the proportion of subsequent

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perspective, evolution occurs when there are changes in the frequencies of alleles within a population of interbreeding organisms, for example, the allele for black colour in a population of moths becoming more common. Mechanisms that can lead to changes in allele frequencies include natural

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with other species in an ever-changing environment. Another hypothesis is that sexual reproduction is primarily an adaptation for promoting accurate recombinational repair of damage in germline DNA, and that increased diversity is a byproduct of this process that may sometimes be adaptively

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More than 99% of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and

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or migration. Selection under these conditions can produce very rapid changes in the appearance and behaviour of organisms. As selection and drift act independently on populations isolated from the rest of their species, separation may eventually produce organisms that cannot interbreed.

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Although sexually favoured, traits such as cumbersome antlers, mating calls, large body size and bright colours often attract predation, which compromises the survival of individual males. This survival disadvantage is balanced by higher reproductive success in males that show these

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and how modifications of development and developmental processes produce novel features. These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the

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of humanity have the same types of natural causes as other inherited traits in animals. In some countries, notably the United States, these tensions between science and religion have fuelled the current creation–evolution controversy, a religious conflict focusing on politics and

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species. However, this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells, bones or teeth. Further, as prokaryotes such as bacteria and archaea share a limited set of common morphologies, their fossils do not provide information on their ancestry.

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generations that carry an organism's genes. For example, if an organism could survive well and reproduce rapidly, but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive, this organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness.

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around 250,000 years ago. However, despite the evolution of these large animals, smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth, with the majority of both biomass and species being prokaryotes.

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Evolution influences every aspect of the form and behaviour of organisms. Most prominent are the specific behavioural and physical adaptations that are the outcome of natural selection. These adaptations increase fitness by aiding activities such as finding food, avoiding

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that were the same for all visible things and that did not require the existence of any fixed natural categories or divine cosmic order. However, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences: the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types.

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During evolution, some structures may lose their original function and become vestigial structures. Such structures may have little or no function in a current species, yet have a clear function in ancestral species, or other closely related species. Examples include

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smaller than the total population since it takes into account factors such as the level of inbreeding and the stage of the lifecycle in which the population is the smallest. The effective population size may not be the same for every gene in the same population.

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species diverge without geographic isolation or changes in habitat. This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population. Generally, sympatric speciation in animals requires the evolution of both

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Adaptation is the process that makes organisms better suited to their habitat. Also, the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism's survival. For example, the adaptation of horses' teeth to the grinding of grass. By using the term

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between two diverging sexual populations are required for the populations to become new species. Gene flow may slow this process by spreading the new genetic variants also to the other populations. Depending on how far two species have diverged since their

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produced by mutations. For example, these DNA sequence comparisons have revealed that humans and chimpanzees share 98% of their genomes and analysing the few areas where they differ helps shed light on when the common ancestor of these species existed.

851:, as they cannot mix with genes of other organisms during reproduction. In contrast, the offspring of sexual organisms contain random mixtures of their parents' chromosomes that are produced through independent assortment. In a related process called 3625:

of modern animals appeared in the fossil record, as well as unique lineages that subsequently became extinct. Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis.

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Due to horizontal gene transfer, this "tree of life" may be more complicated than a simple branching tree, since some genes have spread independently between distantly related species. To solve this problem and others, some authors prefer to use the

1319:(CNE), which explains that complex systems can emerge and spread into a population through neutral transitions due to the principles of excess capacity, presuppression, and ratcheting, and it has been applied in areas ranging from the origins of the 1389:(arrival biases) can impose biases on evolution without requiring neutral evolution or high mutation rates. Several studies report that the mutations implicated in adaptation reflect common mutation biases though others dispute this interpretation. 1762:, which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by looking at its near relatives. However, in this species, the head has become so flattened that it assists in gliding from tree to tree—an exaptation. Within cells, 3805:

and were integrated into Christian learning, but Aristotle did not demand that real types of organisms always correspond one-for-one with exact metaphysical forms and specifically gave examples of how new types of living things could come to be.

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may further accelerate it in the future. Despite the estimated extinction of more than 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth, about 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of 1% described.

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of the system; one gene in the pair can acquire a new function while the other copy continues to perform its original function. Other types of mutations can even generate entirely new genes from previously noncoding DNA, a phenomenon termed

12888: 2031:, which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment. This differs from allopatric speciation in that the isolated populations are numerically much smaller than the parental population. Here, the 23510:

Piatigorsky, Joram; Kantorow, Marc; Gopal-Srivastava, Rashmi; Tomarev, Stanislav I. (1994). "Recruitment of enzymes and stress proteins as lens crystallins". In Jansson, Bengt; Jörnvall, Hans; Rydberg, Ulf; et al. (eds.).

17753:"Charles Darwin's hunch about early life was probably right – In a few scrawled notes to a friend, biologist Charles Darwin theorised how life began. Not only was it probably correct, his theory was a century ahead of its time" 6598: 2110:. This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis, since each parent's chromosomes are represented by a pair already. An example of such a speciation event is when the plant species 1515:. In the longer term, evolution produces new species through splitting ancestral populations of organisms into new groups that cannot or will not interbreed. These outcomes of evolution are distinguished based on time scale as 1245:, such as genes, cells, individual organisms, groups of organisms and species. Selection can act at multiple levels simultaneously. An example of selection occurring below the level of the individual organism are genes called 1727:, the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish, wings in flightless birds, the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes, and sexual traits in organisms that reproduce via asexual reproduction. Examples of 1702:

hands, due to the descent of all these structures from a common mammalian ancestor. However, since all living organisms are related to some extent, even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity, such as

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have evolved, they occur as a side effect of the overall number of organisms increasing, and simple forms of life still remain more common in the biosphere. For example, the overwhelming majority of species are microscopic

3614:. In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells. 1334:

It is usually difficult to measure the relative importance of selection and neutral processes, including drift. The comparative importance of adaptive and non-adaptive forces in driving evolutionary change is an area of

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and in nature. In sexually reproducing organisms, speciation results from reproductive isolation followed by genealogical divergence. There are four primary geographic modes of speciation. The most common in animals is

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About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi colonised the land and were soon followed by arthropods and other animals. Insects were particularly successful and even today make up the majority of animal species.

1980:. Some researchers have attempted a unifying monistic definition of species, while others adopt a pluralistic approach and suggest that there may be different ways to logically interpret the definition of a species. 1477: 1124:

If an allele increases fitness more than the other alleles of that gene, then with each generation this allele has a higher probability of becoming common within the population. These traits are said to be "selected

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Pan, Dabo; Weiwei Xue; Wenqi Zhang; et al. (October 2012). "Understanding the drug resistance mechanism of hepatitis C virus NS3/4A to ITMN-191 due to R155K, A156V, D168A/E mutations: a computational study".

2133:, which accounts for the pattern in the fossil record of short "bursts" of evolution interspersed with relatively long periods of stasis, where species remain relatively unchanged. In this theory, speciation and 928:. Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among bacteria. In medicine, this contributes to the spread of 1662:. An interesting but still controversial idea is that some adaptations might increase the ability of organisms to generate genetic diversity and adapt by natural selection (increasing organisms' evolvability). 694:). Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is very similar among all individuals of that species. However, discoveries in the field of 24979: 20082: 750:), which can introduce extra copies of a gene into a genome. Extra copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to evolve. This is important because most new genes evolve within 1455:

become blue during the height of mating season. Blue reflectance may be a form of intersexual communication. It is hypothesised that males with brighter blue coloration may signal greater sexual and genetic

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is an inherited characteristic and an individual might inherit the "brown-eye trait" from one of their parents. Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism's

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for the product (the bodily part or function), the two senses of the word may be distinguished. Adaptations are produced by natural selection. The following definitions are due to Theodosius Dobzhansky:

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Crawford, Ronald L.; Jung, Carina M.; Strap, Janice L. (October 2007). "The recent evolution of pentachlorophenol (PCP)-4-monooxygenase (PcpB) and associated pathways for bacterial degradation of PCP".

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Eon. Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old

1311:, according to which a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small population is not necessarily neutral in a large population. Other theories propose that genetic drift is dwarfed by other 3891: 10710: 4290:

decision of 1925 caused the subject to become very rare in American secondary biology textbooks for a generation, but it was gradually re-introduced later and became legally protected with the 1968

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such as antibiotic resistance genes being used to manipulate DNA. Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection (for example modified enzymes and new

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is usually conceived as a difference in expected rates for two different kinds of mutation, e.g., transition-transversion bias, GC-AT bias, deletion-insertion bias. This is related to the idea of

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contain these alleles and thus those alleles will be passed on. Other processes that may promote cooperation include group selection, where cooperation provides benefits to a group of organisms.

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Not all co-evolved interactions between species involve conflict. Many cases of mutually beneficial interactions have evolved. For instance, an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the

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sequence. Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes; different genes have different sequences of bases. Within cells, each long strand of DNA is called a

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Evolution by natural selection is the process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in successive generations of a population. It embodies three principles:

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New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and acquires a new function. This process is easier once a gene has been duplicated because it increases the

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insisted that species were unrelated and fixed, their similarities reflecting divine design for functional needs. In the meantime, Ray's ideas of benevolent design had been developed by

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More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms. For example, all living cells use the same basic set of nucleotides and

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Geffeney, Shana; Brodie, Edmund D. Jr.; Ruben, Peter C.; Brodie, Edmund D. III (23 August 2002). "Mechanisms of Adaptation in a Predator-Prey Arms Race: TTX-Resistant Sodium Channels".

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decision. Since then, the competing religious belief of creationism was legally disallowed in secondary school curricula in various decisions in the 1970s and 1980s, but it returned in

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act on genetic variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more or less common within a population over successive generations. The process of evolution has given rise to

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Soon after the emergence of these first multicellular organisms, a remarkable amount of biological diversity appeared over approximately 10 million years, in an event called the

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with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits. Fourth, organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups, similar to a family tree.

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An area of current investigation in evolutionary developmental biology is the developmental basis of adaptations and exaptations. This research addresses the origin and evolution of

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Rodríguez-Rojas, Alexandro; Rodríguez-Beltrán, Jerónimo; Couce, Alejandro; Blázquez, Jesús (August 2013). "Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance: A bitter fight against evolution".

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Natural selection most generally makes nature the measure against which individuals and individual traits, are more or less likely to survive. "Nature" in this sense refers to an

2320:. Evolutionary algorithms are now used to solve multi-dimensional problems more efficiently than software produced by human designers and also to optimise the design of systems. 1373:

have played an important role in the development of thinking about the evolution of genome composition, including isochores. Different insertion vs. deletion biases in different

24761: 9647: 4132: 361:, in the mid-19th century as an explanation for why organisms are adapted to their physical and biological environments. The theory was first set out in detail in Darwin's book 22942: 2106:

from each parent are from different species and cannot successfully pair. However, it is more common in plants because plants often double their number of chromosomes, to form

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becoming most common, with selection against the average value. This would be when either short or tall organisms had an advantage, but not those of medium height. Finally, in

579:. Some of these traits come from the interaction of its genotype with the environment while others are neutral. Some observable characteristics are not inherited. For example, 2300:

started in the 1960s and were extended with simulation of artificial selection. Artificial evolution became a widely recognised optimisation method as a result of the work of

885:. The first cost is that in sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young. This cost does not apply to hermaphroditic species, like most plants and many 784:

The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated, with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions (

21897: 13034: 7607: 2276:. Many human diseases are not static phenomena, but capable of evolution. Viruses, bacteria, fungi and cancers evolve to be resistant to host immune defences, as well as to 2256:

Understanding the changes that have occurred during an organism's evolution can reveal the genes needed to construct parts of the body, genes which may be involved in human

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The crucial break from the concept of constant typological classes or types in biology came with the theory of evolution through natural selection, which was formulated by

1758:: structures originally adapted for one function, but which coincidentally became somewhat useful for some other function in the process. One example is the African lizard 1377:

can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes. The hypothesis of Lynch regarding genome size relies on mutational biases toward increase or decrease in genome size.

932:, as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species. Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast 21736: 21176:; Verde, Licia; Peiris, Hiranya V.; et al. (2003). "First-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Determination of Cosmological Parameters". 1361:

proposed that systematic biases in mutation might be responsible for systematic differences in genomic GC composition between species. The identification of a GC-biased

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Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell's genome and are the ultimate source of genetic variation in all organisms. When mutations occur, they may alter the

14283:

Fraser, Christophe; Alm, Eric J.; Polz, Martin F.; et al. (6 February 2009). "The Bacterial Species Challenge: Making Sense of Genetic and Ecological Diversity".

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Okada, Hirosuke; Negoro, Seiji; Kimura, Hiroyuki; et al. (10 November 1983). "Evolutionary adaptation of plasmid-encoded enzymes for degrading nylon oligomers".

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Since then, further syntheses have extended evolution's explanatory power in the light of numerous discoveries, to cover biological phenomena across the whole of the

1191:

Natural selection within a population for a trait that can vary across a range of values, such as height, can be categorised into three different types. The first is

10838:

Hunt, John; Brooks, Robert; Jennions, Michael D.; et al. (23 December 2004). "High-quality male field crickets invest heavily in sexual display but die young".

5511:

Some of the values in table 1 on p. 193 were given incorrectly. The errors do not affect the conclusions drawn in the paper. The corrected table is reproduced below.

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eyes, or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates, can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly and function; this is called

2134: 21762: 26106: 367:. Evolution by natural selection is established by observable facts about living organisms: (1) more offspring are often produced than can possibly survive; (2) 24762: 16146: 16725: 4033:

that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries. In the 1930s, pioneers in the field of

11710:, p. 483: "Adaptation... could no longer be considered a static condition, a product of a creative past and became instead a continuing dynamic process." 3487:" as a metaphor or a mathematical model to illustrate the evolution of life. This view dates back to an idea briefly mentioned by Darwin but later abandoned. 1913:

signals that instruct them whether to grow, remain as they are, or die. If cells ignore these signals and multiply inappropriately, their uncontrolled growth

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Nardon, Paul; Grenier, Anne-Marie (1991). "Serial Endosymbiosis Theory and Weevil Evolution: The Role of Symbiosis". In Margulis, Lynn; Fester, René (eds.).

21476:(2003). "The Evolutionary Origin and Maintenance of Sexual Recombination: A Review of Contemporary Models". In MacIntyre, Ross J.; Clegg, Michael T. (eds.). 17341: 4786:

Ohtomo, Yoko; Kakegawa, Takeshi; Ishida, Akizumi; et al. (January 2014). "Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks".

1013:) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level. Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions in 948:, which have received a range of genes from bacteria, fungi and plants. Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across 821:) disrupt the pattern. The majority of pig breeds carry MC1R mutations disrupting wild-type colour and different mutations causing dominant black colouring. 10791:"Balancing natural and sexual selection in sockeye salmon: interactions between body size, reproductive opportunity and vulnerability to predation by bears" 25043: 20755: 10661: 1234:, or position, with distinct relationships to other parts of the system. These relationships involve the life history of the organism, its position in the 17762: 13607:"The evolutionary response of predators to dangerous prey: hotspots and coldspots in the geographic mosaic of coevolution between garter snakes and newts" 3977:

The mechanisms of reproductive heritability and the origin of new traits remained a mystery. Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of

1238:

and its geographic range. This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection.

19953: 11275: 4597: 3417:

wrote: "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe." In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355

1133:. Conversely, the lower fitness caused by having a less beneficial or deleterious allele results in this allele likely becoming rarer—they are "selected 10512:"Evidence for Heterogeneity in Recombination in the Human Pseudoautosomal Region: High Resolution Analysis by Sperm Typing and Radiation-Hybrid Mapping" 3868:

proposed that all warm-blooded animals could have descended from a single microorganism (or "filament"). The first full-fledged evolutionary scheme was

1774:

evolved by the recruitment of several pre-existing proteins that previously had different functions. Another example is the recruitment of enzymes from

13281: 792:

act as modules with simple independent functions, which can be mixed together to produce new combinations with new and complex functions. For example,

418:

molecules that pass information from generation to generation. The processes that change DNA in a population include natural selection, genetic drift,

20602:

It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material.

17471: 21958: 17179: 10071:

Petrov, Dmitri A.; Sangster, Todd A.; Johnston, J. Spencer; et al. (11 February 2000). "Evidence for DNA Loss as a Determinant of Genome Size".

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all species. These extinctions have happened continuously throughout the history of life, although the rate of extinction spikes in occasional mass

2098:

of two related species to produce a new hybrid species. This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile. This is because during

698:

have demonstrated that even relatively small differences in genotype can lead to dramatic differences in phenotype both within and between species.

20784:; Mesoudi, Alex; Pujol, Benoit; Blanchet, Simon (June 2011). "Beyond DNA: integrating inclusive inheritance into an extended theory of evolution". 20304: 1287:

within a population from one generation to the next. When selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies are equally likely to

22013: 6837:

Boucher, Yan; Douady, Christophe J.; Papke, R. Thane; et al. (December 2003). "Lateral gene transfer and the origins of prokaryotic groups".

4738:; Kudryavtsev, Anatoliy B.; Czaja, Andrew D.; Tripathi, Abhishek B. (5 October 2007). "Evidence of Archean life: Stromatolites and microfossils". 686:

Evolution can occur if there is genetic variation within a population. Variation comes from mutations in the genome, reshuffling of genes through

19747: 3070: 555:

Evolution in organisms occurs through changes in heritable characteristics—the inherited characteristics of an organism. In humans, for example,

12408:(November 2002). "Limbs in whales and limblessness in other vertebrates: mechanisms of evolutionary and developmental transformation and loss". 10813: 7387: 4146:

and informally called "evo-devo", emphasises how changes between generations (evolution) act on patterns of change within individual organisms (

3538: 1553:. Indeed, the evolution of microorganisms is particularly important to evolutionary research since their rapid reproduction allows the study of 24864: 21047: 19639: 4049:

set the foundations of evolution onto a robust statistical philosophy. The false contradiction between Darwin's theory, genetic mutations, and

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is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.

395: 17445: 3849:

in 1735 explicitly recognised the hierarchical nature of species relationships, but still viewed species as fixed according to a divine plan.

3819:

in 1377 AD, in which he asserted that humans developed from "the world of the monkeys", in a process by which "species become more numerous".

1369:, established the plausibility of mutational explanations for molecular patterns, which are now common in the molecular evolution literature. 16925: 15982:; Koch, Paul L.; Feranec, Robert S.; et al. (1 October 2004). "Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents". 3590:

eukaryotes, prokaryotes and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in the

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McKinney, Michael L. (1997). "How do rare species avoid extinction? A paleontological view". In Kunin, William E.; Gaston, Kevin J. (eds.).

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Johnson, Norman A.; Porter, Adam H. (November 2001). "Toward a new synthesis: population genetics and evolutionary developmental biology".

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connected Darwin's pangenesis theory to Weismann's germ/soma cell distinction and proposed that Darwin's pangenes were concentrated in the

3989:

and segregation of elements (later known as genes). Mendel's laws of inheritance eventually supplanted most of Darwin's pangenesis theory.

3361: 2333: 2233:

Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms. This has been used for thousands of years in the

1531:

A common misconception is that evolution has goals, long-term plans, or an innate tendency for "progress", as expressed in beliefs such as

1308: 17680: 15431: 7306: 4879: 811:

piglets. They are camouflage coloured and show a characteristic pattern of dark and light longitudinal stripes. However, mutations in the

22633:

Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems: An Introductory Analysis with Applications to Biology, Control, and Artificial Intelligence

21021: 19004: 14964:(July 2006). "Evolution in closely adjacent plant populations X: long-term persistence of prereproductive isolation at a mine boundary". 11727:

as "Any change in the structure or functioning of successive generations of a population that makes it better suited to its environment."

11531: 8702: 5049: 5022: 4254: 4187: 307: 23287: 18436: 17278:"Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics" 10291:

A. Stoltzfus (2019). "Understanding bias in the introduction of variation as an evolutionary cause". In Uller, T.; Laland, K.N. (eds.).

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Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep 20;229(4719):1277–81.

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and evolutionism; realistically, however, evolution has no long-term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity. Although

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has been used to explain the significance of sexual reproduction as a means to enable continual evolution and adaptation in response to

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Long, Manyuan; Betrán, Esther; Thornton, Kevin; Wang, Wen (November 2003). "The origin of new genes: glimpses from the young and old".

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The teaching of evolution in American secondary school biology classes was uncommon in most of the first half of the 20th century. The

4268: 4191: 22916: 14714:"Rapid large-scale evolutionary divergence in morphology and performance associated with exploitation of a different dietary resource" 4853: 1831:

Interactions between organisms can produce both conflict and cooperation. When the interaction is between pairs of species, such as a

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Yampolsky, Lev Y.; Stoltzfus, Arlin (20 December 2001). "Bias in the introduction of variation as an orienting factor in evolution".

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and the y-axis variable is the number of organisms. Group A is the original population and Group B is the population after selection.

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Lang, B. Franz; Gray, Michael W.; Burger, Gertraud (December 1999). "Mitochondrial genome evolution and the origin of eukaryotes".

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Rongling Wu; Min Lin (March 2006). "Functional mapping — how to map and study the genetic architecture of dynamic complex traits".

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Copley, Shelley D. (June 2000). "Evolution of a metabolic pathway for degradation of a toxic xenobiotic: the patchwork approach".

9043: 7654: 804:; they contain up to 100 independent domains that each catalyse one step in the overall process, like a step in an assembly line. 20586: 12546:"Descent with modification: the unity underlying homology and homoplasy as seen through an analysis of development and evolution" 8086: 3917: 2363: 19751: 14540:

Rice, William R.; Hostert, Ellen E. (December 1993). "Laboratory Experiments on Speciation: What Have We Learned in 40 Years?".

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evolution are found in small populations or geographically restricted habitats and therefore rarely being preserved as fossils.

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Duret, Laurent; Galtier, Nicolas (September 2009). "Biased Gene Conversion and the Evolution of Mammalian Genomic Landscapes".

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Fong, Daniel F.; Kane, Thomas C.; Culver, David C. (November 1995). "Vestigialization and Loss of Nonfunctional Characters".

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evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by-products of nylon manufacturing, and the soil bacterium

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Variation exists within populations of organisms with respect to morphology, physiology and behaviour (phenotypic variation).

199: 134: 17998: 17277: 10630: 7250:"Transgenerational Epigenetic Inheritance: Prevalence, Mechanisms, and Implications for the Study of Heredity and Evolution" 3860:

wrote of natural modifications occurring during reproduction and accumulating over many generations to produce new species.

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Jamshidi, Mo (15 August 2003). "Tools for intelligent control: fuzzy controllers, neural networks and genetic algorithms".

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around the average value and less diversity. This would, for example, cause organisms to eventually have a similar height.

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Ohno, Susumu (January 1997). "The reason for as well as the consequence of the Cambrian explosion in animal evolution".

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is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats.

1428:. This can be important when one allele in a particular haplotype is strongly beneficial: natural selection can drive a 25867: 25527: 24896: 24849: 24622: 19845: 17238: 13182: 10736: 10516: 9915:"Explaining complex codon usage patterns with selection for translational efficiency, mutation bias, and genetic drift" 7100: 4143: 3965:

shared a common ancestry. Some were disturbed by this since it implied that humans did not have a special place in the

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On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

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11930:"Inaugural Article: Historical contingency and the evolution of a key innovation in an experimental population of 8472:"Individuality and adaptation across levels of selection: how shall we name and generalise the unit of Darwinism?" 3881:.) These ideas were condemned by established naturalists as speculation lacking empirical support. In particular, 26184: 26174: 26098: 25373: 24025: 24001: 21364:(1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The British Society for the History of Science: 117–141. 19583: 17234: 14228: 10412:"The role of mutation bias in adaptive molecular evolution: insights from convergent changes in protein function" 9539: 9476: 8815: 7337:"Experimental alteration of DNA methylation affects the phenotypic plasticity of ecologically relevant traits in 6772:"How species evolve collectively: implications of gene flow and selection for the spread of advantageous alleles" 4151: 4062: 3895:(1802), which proposed complex adaptations as evidence of divine design and which was admired by Charles Darwin. 3660: 2205: 411: 300: 185: 175: 119: 25055: 20704: 20326:

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Sturm, Richard A.; Frudakis, Tony N. (August 2004). "Eye colour: portals into pigmentation genes and ancestry".

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has produced high levels of toxin in the newt and correspondingly high levels of toxin resistance in the snake.

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These charts depict the different types of genetic selection. On each graph, the x-axis variable is the type of

1025:. Heritability may also occur at even larger scales. For example, ecological inheritance through the process of 387:

of fitness). In successive generations, members of a population are therefore more likely to be replaced by the

26312: 26179: 25959: 25703: 25501: 25405: 25294: 24697: 21918: 21565: 18604:"Disparate rates, differing fates: tempo and mode of evolution changed from the Precambrian to the Phanerozoic" 17752: 9815: 3539: 3422: 3393:. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the 3130: 2928: 1416:. This tendency is measured by finding how often two alleles occur together on a single chromosome compared to 1316: 1276: 703: 434: 399: 180: 22896: 14223: 9222:"Domestication of self-splicing introns during eukaryogenesis: the rise of the complex spliceosomal machinery" 4646: 4204: 3535: 26423: 26413: 26377: 25964: 25708: 25447: 24015: 19892: 17668: 17476: 17351: 13886: 13831:

Hause, Bettina; Fester, Thomas (May 2005). "Molecular and cell biology of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis".

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Jeffery, William R. (May–June 2005). "Adaptive Evolution of Eye Degeneration in the Mexican Blind Cavefish".

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of this time speculated on the evolutionary change of species over time according to natural laws. In 1751,

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The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its

26317: 25819: 24888: 24830: 23339: 22637: 22593: 21233:"Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago" 19273: 18886: 18268: 13315: 12545: 10631:"Turning blue and ultraviolet: sex-specific colour change during the mating season in the Balkan moor frog" 5723: 5721:(17 May 2002). "Studying Genomes Through the Aeons: Protein Families, Pseudogenes and Proteome Evolution". 4183: 3831:

of the 17th century rejected the Aristotelian approach. It sought to explain natural phenomena in terms of

3516: 3355: 2988: 967:. It is possible that eukaryotes themselves originated from horizontal gene transfers between bacteria and 204: 170: 23957:. Evolution and the Genetics of Populations. Vol. 1. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 19374: 17519: 14839: 14109:

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has revealed the record of evolution left in organisms' genomes: dating when species diverged through the

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and communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that may underlay some of the mechanics in

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Bernstein H, Hopf FA, Michod RE. The molecular basis of the evolution of sex. Adv Genet. 1987;24:323-70.

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Simulation of genetic drift of 20 unlinked alleles in populations of 10 (top) and 100 (bottom). Drift to

1249:, which can replicate and spread throughout a genome. Selection at a level above the individual, such as 213: 24913: 20291: 18201: 14780: 14001: 12695:

ZhaoLei Zhang; Gerstein, Mark (August 2004). "Large-scale analysis of pseudogenes in the human genome".

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Radding, Charles M. (December 1982). "Homologous Pairing and Strand Exchange in Genetic Recombination".

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Miller, Jon D.; Scott, Eugenie C.; Okamoto, Shinji (11 August 2006). "Public Acceptance of Evolution".

19652: 11259: 9708: 7549: 6884: 6094: 3779: 3647: 3450: 2053: 1991:, it may still be possible for them to produce offspring, as with horses and donkeys mating to produce 1607:

is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats.

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Poole, Anthony M.; Penny, David (January 2007). "Evaluating hypotheses for the origin of eukaryotes".

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The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first

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activity of transporters that pump the drug out of the cell. Other striking examples are the bacteria

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Jäckel, Christian; Kast, Peter; Hilvert, Donald (June 2008). "Protein Design by Directed Evolution".

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Agrawal, Aneil F. (5 September 2006). "Evolution of Sex: Why Do Organisms Shuffle Their Genotypes?".

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Concepts and models used in evolutionary biology, such as natural selection, have many applications.

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of biological populations over successive generations. It occurs when evolutionary processes such as

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structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association called

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Maynard Smith, John (1998). "The Units of Selection". In Bock, Gregory R.; Goode, Jamie A. (eds.).

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1.6 million documented in a central database to date, leaving at least 80% not yet described.

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Penny, David; Poole, Anthony (December 1999). "The nature of the last universal common ancestor".

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Svensson, Erik I.; Berger, David (1 May 2019). "The Role of Mutation Bias in Adaptive Evolution".

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explained natural selection in detail and in a way that led to an increasingly wide acceptance of

1315:

forces in evolution, such as genetic hitchhiking, also known as genetic draft. Another concept is

702:

relative to other forms of that gene. Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of

26305: 26235: 26144: 25872: 25754: 25522: 25118: 24892: 24331: 24201: 23995: 22825: 22339: 22297: 22084: 20786: 20174: 19958: 17078: 15453:

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fungi that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil. This is a

1022: 1014: 813: 677: 617: 491: 343: 243: 190: 25074: 20867:

For the scientific and social reception of evolution in the 19th and early 20th centuries, see:

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Paszkowski, Uta (August 2006). "Mutualism and parasitism: the yin and yang of plant symbioses".

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Maxwell, Erin E.; Larsson, Hans C.E. (May 2007). "Osteology and myology of the wing of the Emu (

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Buckling, Angus; MacLean, R. Craig; Brockhurst, Michael A.; Colegrave, Nick (12 February 2009).

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Evolutionsstrategie; Optimierung technischer Systeme nach Prinzipien der biologischen Evolution

22926: 22794: 21416: 20987: 20645: 19992: 18900: 18394: 18326: 17660: 15999: 15979: 15397: 13465:"Evo-Devo and an Expanding Evolutionary Synthesis: A Genetic Theory of Morphological Evolution" 12747: 11223: 11092: 10676: 7264: 7249: 6404: 4931: 4139:

body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet.

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chemical reactions. The beginning of life may have included self-replicating molecules such as

3342: 2968: 2636: 2349: 2293: 2186:, during which the non-avian dinosaurs became extinct, is the most well-known, but the earlier 2130: 2088: 2067: 2057: 1983: 1976:

recombination among prokaryotes is not an intrinsic aspect of reproduction; this is called the

1928:

individual contains alleles which promote the helping activity, it is likely that its kin will

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Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo and the Making of the Animal Kingdom

22370:"Proceedings of a symposium held at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, 2002." 21520:

The Mendelian Revolution: The Emergence of Hereditarian Concepts in Modern Science and Society

20965:"Who Believes What? Clearing up Confusion over Intelligent Design and Young-Earth Creationism" 17562: 16968:

Schenk, Martijn F.; Szendro, Ivan G.; Krug, Joachim; de Visser, J. Arjan G.M. (28 June 2012).

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is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are

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Wible, John R.; Rougier, Guillermo W.; Novacek, Michael J.; Asher, Robert J. (21 June 2007).

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Ciccarelli, Francesca D.; Doerks, Tobias; von Mering, Christian; et al. (3 March 2006).

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Short, Roger Valentine (October 1975). "The contribution of the mule to scientific thought".

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Harris, Matthew P.; Hasso, Sean M.; Ferguson, Mark W.J.; Fallon, John F. (21 February 2006).

12789: 6102: 4283:, evolutionary biology experiences significantly more opposition from religious literalists. 4263: 4147: 4128: 4050: 3926: 3922: 3869: 3828: 3729: 3695: 3685: 3666: 3554:

showing the divergence of modern species from their common ancestor in the centre. The three

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was even more severe, with approximately 96% of all marine species driven to extinction. The

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Waters, Elizabeth R. (December 2003). "Molecular adaptation and the origin of land plants".

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Martin, William (October 2005). "The missing link between hydrogenosomes and mitochondria".

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Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness).

456:. Existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped by repeated formations of new species ( 26259: 26154: 26088: 25889: 25804: 25720: 25632: 25615: 25542: 25532: 25242: 25150: 25134: 24988: 24793: 24122: 23046: 21830: 21244: 21197: 20979: 20546: 20091: 19386: 19227: 19119: 18962: 18842: 18833:

McFadden, Geoffrey Ian (1 December 1999). "Endosymbiosis and evolution of the plant cell".

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Burke, John M.; Arnold, Michael L. (December 2001). "Genetics and the fitness of hybrids".

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Muñoz-Gómez, Sergio A.; Bilolikar, Gaurav; Wideman, Jeremy G.; et al. (1 April 2021).

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Collin, Rachel; Miglietta, Maria Pia (November 2008). "Reversing opinions on Dollo's Law".

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Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved. An extreme case is the

1336: 1324: 1246: 1200: 1196: 1184: 1098: 890: 874: 844: 473: 372: 368: 31: 25894: 25764: 24295:. Significant contributions by Murray P. Pendarvis (9th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: 22205:

Time Frames: The Rethinking of Darwinian Evolution and the Theory of Punctuated Equilibria

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Lancaster, Alex K.; Bardill, J. Patrick; True, Heather L.; Masel, Joanna (February 2010).

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Storz, Jay F.; Natarajan, Chandrasekhar; Signore, Anthony V.; et al. (22 July 2019).

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Peters, Andrew D.; Otto, Sarah P. (June 2003). "Liberating genetic variance through sex".

2075: 706:—when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely. 353:

of evolution by natural selection was conceived independently by two British naturalists,

8: 26322: 26280: 26230: 26149: 25997: 25989: 25919: 25899: 25845: 25689: 25442: 25385: 25247: 25230: 25208: 24618: 24205: 23908: 23476: 22209: 22042: 21641: 18705: 17346: 16214: 12295:+] and Its Implications for the Evolution of the Evolvability Properties of the [ 11303: 9721: 7483: 7128: 6201: 4884: 4840: 4605: 4398: 4073: 4034: 3958: 3950: 3791: 3090: 3049: 2317: 2277: 2238: 2191: 2118: 2071: 1882: 1848: 1817: 1398: 1207:

there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in

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Wilde, Simon A.; Valley, John W.; Peck, William H.; Graham, Colin M. (11 January 2001).

21201: 20983: 20679: 20550: 20095: 19390: 19375:"Cretaceous eutherians and Laurasian origin for placental mammals near the K/T boundary" 19231: 19123: 18846: 18721: 18619: 18390: 18217: 18027: 17904: 17800: 17405: 17192: 17098: 16893: 16550: 16290: 16227: 16168: 15995: 15929: 15855: 15796: 15732: 15673: 15619: 15344: 15277: 15222: 15149: 15133: 15092: 14855: 14800: 14729: 14492: 14296: 14174: 14064: 14017: 13950: 13846: 13793: 13738: 13573: 13423: 13127: 12681: 12623: 12355: 12078: 12012: 11949: 11607: 11544: 11417: 11362: 11176: 10991: 10914: 10851: 10472: 10204: 10086: 9930: 9871: 9828: 9768: 9660: 9133: 9015: 8958: 8569: 8487: 8351: 8151: 8055: 7889: 7427: 7359: 7202: 7124:"Evolution and Horizontal Transfer of dUTPase-Encoding Genes in Viruses and Their Hosts" 7064: 6948: 6882:

Walsh, Timothy R. (October 2006). "Combinatorial genetic evolution of multiresistance".

6789: 6670: 6522: 6400: 6355: 5151: 5043:"Evolution, Science, and Society: Evolutionary Biology and the National Research Agenda" 4944: 4801: 4753: 4618: 4518: 4310:

case. The debate over Darwin's ideas did not generate significant controversy in China.

2003:

of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals, with the

1967:

Speciation is the process where a species diverges into two or more descendant species.

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Labbé, Pierrick; Berticat, Claire; Berthomieu, Arnaud; et al. (16 November 2007).

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in the parallel evolution of depigmentation in independent populations of the cavefish

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Sémon, Marie; Wolfe, Kenneth H. (December 2007). "Consequences of genome duplication".

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Barluenga, Marta; Stölting, Kai N.; Salzburger, Walter; et al. (9 February 2006).

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Hoskin, Conrad J.; Higgle, Megan; McDonald, Keith R.; Moritz, Craig (27 October 2005).

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Hoekstra, Hopi E.; Hoekstra, Jonathan M.; Berrigan, David; et al. (31 July 2001).

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Jablonka, Eva; Lamb, Marion J. (December 2002). "The Changing Concept of Epigenetics".

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Gavrilets, Sergey (21 March 2006). "The Maynard Smith model of sympatric speciation".

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with each other, usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial

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For an overview of the philosophical, religious and cosmological controversies, see:

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Kunin, Victor; Goldovsky, Leon; Darzentas, Nikos; Ouzounis, Christos A. (July 2005).

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Wood, Troy E.; Takebayashi, Naoki; Barker, Michael S.; et al. (18 August 2009).

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Brodie, Edmund D. Jr.; Ridenhour, Benjamin J.; Brodie, Edmund D. III (October 2002).

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in 1844, the most controversial aspect of evolutionary biology is the implication of

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Herrel, Anthony; Huyghe, Katleen; Vanhooydonck, Bieke; et al. (25 March 2008).

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Orr, H. Allen (February 2005). "The genetic theory of adaptation: a brief history".

11576: 11244: 11130: 11066: 10897:

Baym, Michael; Lieberman, Tami D.; Kelsic, Eric D.; et al. (9 September 2016).

10118: 9737: 9676: 9516: 9424:"Natural selection shapes nucleotide polymorphism across the genome of the nematode 9292: 9067:"Constructive neutral evolution: exploring evolutionary theory's curious disconnect" 8603: 8120: 8026: 7975: 7650: 7522: 7459: 7383: 7141: 7096: 6442: 6177: 5875: 5809: 5414: 4761: 4542: 2056:, which is the evolution of traits that promote mating within a species, as well as 1291:

upward or downward in each successive generation because the alleles are subject to

1129:." Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival and increased 25929: 25496: 25474: 25282: 25014: 24996: 23520: 23257: 23050: 22930: 22866: 22813: 22088: 21838: 21426: 21365: 21316: 21280: 21252: 21205: 21131: 21062: 20997: 20924: 20879: 20875: 20823: 20795: 20737: 20719: 20655: 20582: 20554: 20537: 20452: 20388: 20335: 20247: 20183: 20117: 20099: 20001: 19948: 19901: 19841: 19660: 19592: 19448: 19422: 19394: 19345: 19313: 19285: 19235: 19127: 19064: 18958: 18910: 18850: 18809: 18805: 18768: 18725: 18670: 18633: 18623: 18572: 18537: 18529: 18488: 18472: 18432: 18404: 18336: 18280: 18221: 18158: 18106: 18090: 18049: 18031: 17961: 17950:

Bapteste, Eric; Walsh, David A. (June 2005). "Does the 'Ring of Life' ring true?".

17936: 17908: 17851: 17840:"From self-assembly of life to present-day bacteria: a possible role for nanocells" 17824: 17804: 17605: 17587: 17427: 17409: 17355: 17299: 17196: 17130: 17102: 17050: 17040: 16999: 16981: 16934: 16897: 16852: 16834: 16781: 16734: 16708: 16680: 16637: 16619: 16554: 16489: 16442: 16387: 16344: 16304: 16294: 16231: 16205: 16080: 16064: 16009: 15951: 15933: 15877: 15859: 15810: 15800: 15746: 15736: 15677: 15623: 15561: 15526: 15506: 15470: 15413: 15378: 15348: 15299: 15281: 15226: 15181: 15153: 15096: 15030: 14975: 14961: 14921: 14913: 14879: 14859: 14824: 14804: 14751: 14733: 14668: 14602: 14549: 14496: 14433: 14394: 14378: 14300: 14237: 14188: 14178: 14118: 14078: 14068: 14021: 13972: 13954: 13895: 13850: 13833: 13797: 13750: 13742: 13710: 13690: 13638: 13618: 13597: 13577: 13526: 13500: 13478: 13427: 13364: 13327: 13261: 13233: 13194: 13141: 13131: 13053: 12928: 12915:"The unresolved problem of the third molar: Would people be better off without it?" 12856: 12798: 12757: 12704: 12677: 12627: 12557: 12518: 12464: 12437: 12417: 12367: 12326: 12310: 12255: 12213: 12185: 12139: 12100: 12082: 12044: 12016: 11971: 11953: 11884: 11833: 11746: 11666: 11611: 11548: 11497: 11493: 11489: 11439: 11421: 11386: 11366: 11298: 11232: 11190: 11180: 11102: 11038: 11005: 10995: 10934: 10918: 10883: 10855: 10761: 10745: 10686: 10642: 10601: 10585: 10541: 10525: 10476: 10431: 10423: 10382: 10372: 10327: 10319: 10263: 10253: 10220: 10200: 10177: 10149: 10090: 10043: 10032:"Cytosine Deamination Plays a Primary Role in the Evolution of Mammalian Isochores" 9998: 9990: 9944: 9934: 9885: 9875: 9851: 9832: 9782: 9772: 9717: 9664: 9615: 9599: 9564: 9548: 9488: 9447: 9439: 9388: 9330: 9322: 9280: 9243: 9233: 9206: 9186: 9145: 9137: 9088: 9078: 9039: 9019: 8970: 8962: 8887: 8854: 8824: 8775: 8725: 8684: 8632: 8623: 8573: 8509: 8491: 8452: 8424: 8373: 8355: 8303: 8287: 8217: 8209: 8165: 8155: 8100: 8059: 7998: 7939: 7913: 7893: 7869: 7841: 7825: 7776: 7768: 7719: 7699: 7622: 7492: 7431: 7363: 7302: 7274: 7234: 7206: 7153: 7137: 7068: 7042: 7007: 6970: 6952: 6893: 6848: 6809: 6793: 6749: 6732: 6692: 6674: 6554: 6526: 6507:"Sex increases the efficacy of natural selection in experimental yeast populations" 6467: 6414: 6351: 6312: 6257: 6210: 6149: 6126: 6098: 6051: 6035: 5991: 5975: 5934: 5916: 5845: 5779: 5732: 5678: 5662: 5617: 5609: 5556: 5540: 5492: 5457: 5441: 5386: 5346: 5330: 5269: 5216: 5185: 5155: 5097: 5061: 5048:(Executive summary). New Brunswick, New Jersey: Office of University Publications, 4964: 4948: 4849: 4805: 4757: 4704: 4686: 4622: 4514: 4493: 4423: 4407: 4068: 4046: 3555: 2289: 2257: 2179: 1909: 1627: 1442: 1303: 1284: 1231: 1223: 1153: 1088:

These traits can be passed from generation to generation (heritability of fitness).

998: 949: 921: 743: 613: 511: 327: 281: 25774: 22757:

Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection

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Payne, Joshua L.; Menardo, Fabrizio; Trauner, Andrej; et al. (13 May 2019).

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and birds around 155 million years ago (both from "reptile"-like lineages),

3503: 3475: 3460: 3410: 3398: 3191: 2301: 2297: 1977: 1528:

acting on entire species and affecting their rates of speciation and extinction.

1429: 1413: 1406: 1250: 1042: 990: 956: 770: 488:, although direct comparison of genetic sequences is a more common method today. 469: 430: 109: 23669: 22375: 22092: 20530:"Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid" 20377:

Weiling, Franz (July 1991). "Historical study: Johann Gregor Mendel 1822–1884".

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of plants and animals. More recently, such selection has become a vital part of

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between heavy-metal-tolerant and heavy-metal-sensitive populations of grasses.

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Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation: Speciation and Morphogenesis

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Blount, Zachary D.; Borland, Christina Z.; Lenski, Richard E. (10 June 2008).

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followed by natural selection results in a population with darker colouration.

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Sprague, George F. Jr. (December 1991). "Genetic exchange between kingdoms".

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Barrett, Paul H.; Weinshank, Donald J.; Gottleber, Timothy T., eds. (1981).

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From DNA to Diversity: Molecular Genetics and the Evolution of Animal Design

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Roskov, Y.; Abucay, L.; Orrell, T.; Nicolson, D.; et al., eds. (2016).

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Mora, Camilo; Tittensor, Derek P.; Adl, Sina; et al. (23 August 2011).

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Lukeš, Julius; Archibald, John M.; Keeling, Patrick J.; et al. (2011).

7072: 6736: 6317: 6301:"Mutations in Domestic Animals Disrupting or Creating Pigmentation Patterns" 6300: 5057: 4013:

of the body, demonstrating that heredity passes through the germ line only.

2019:, which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by 612:. The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a 494:

have continued to study various aspects of evolution by forming and testing

26327: 26275: 26220: 26053: 26048: 25642: 25400: 25028: 24865:"Evolution of Evolution – 150 Years of Darwin's 'On the Origin of Species'" 24462: 24419: 24374: 24254: 23776: 23734: 23614: 23164: 23029: 22804: 22744: 22663: 22581: 22243: 22009: 21976: 21829:. Geological Society Special Publication. Vol. 190. pp. 205–221. 21788: 21607: 21599: 21377: 21294: 21272: 21151: 21082: 20944: 20881:... And Still We Evolve: A Handbook for the Early History of Modern Science 20815: 20751: 20574: 20521: 20472: 20355: 20131: 20021: 19921: 19883: 19525: 19468: 19414: 19305: 19255: 19188: 18978: 18930: 18862: 18825: 18780: 18737: 18690: 18586: 18551: 18533: 18502: 18476: 18424: 18356: 18300: 18178: 18120: 18063: 17981: 17928: 17873: 17816: 17784: 17730: 17619: 17441: 17208: 17200: 17122: 17064: 17013: 16954: 16866: 16803: 16754: 16700: 16651: 16576: 16511: 16462: 16409: 16318: 16299: 16251: 16094: 16068: 16029: 15965: 15914:"Human impacts on the rates of recent, present and future bird extinctions" 15891: 15864: 15760: 15689: 15573: 15538: 15484: 15427: 15370: 15313: 15246: 15173: 15116: 15050: 14995: 14979: 14871: 14779:

Losos, Jonathan B.; Warhelt, Kenneth I.; Schoener, Thomas W. (1 May 1997).

14765: 14696: 14657:"Evidence for Rapid Speciation Following a Founder Event in the Laboratory" 14622: 14577: 14518: 14453: 14408: 14343: 14312: 14202: 14130: 14092: 13986: 13907: 13862: 13817: 13764: 13718: 13702: 13630: 13589: 13538: 13492: 13441: 13302: 13253: 13155: 13073: 12940: 12876: 12818: 12769: 12724: 12639: 12577: 12530: 12484: 12453:"Serial homology and the evolution of mammalian limb covariation structure" 12429: 12379: 12340: 12267: 12239: 12205: 12159: 12087: 11985: 11906: 11873:

Due to Interplay of the MexAB-OprM Efflux Pump and the DNA Gyrase Mutation"

11766: 11686: 11631: 11568: 11511: 11378: 11122: 11058: 11019: 10948: 10875: 10775: 10749: 10706: 10629:

Ries, C; Spaethe, J; Sztatecsny, M; Strondl, C; Hödl, W (20 October 2008).

10615: 10589: 10555: 10488: 10445: 10427: 10396: 10341: 10277: 10212: 10169: 10110: 10057: 9958: 9880: 9810: 9796: 9729: 9629: 9578: 9508: 9461: 9400: 9257: 9198: 9159: 9115: 9102: 9083: 9031: 8984: 8909: 8846: 8779: 8666: 8595: 8523: 8360: 8291: 8231: 8179: 8160: 8112: 8071: 8018: 7967: 7905: 7855: 7809: 7790: 7711: 7642: 7603: 7570: 7514: 7474: 7451: 7294: 7226: 7167: 7088: 6984: 6957: 6913: 6868: 6823: 6679: 6546: 6487: 6434: 6277: 6261: 6232: 6169: 6118: 6065: 6005: 5948: 5907: 5867: 5832:"The Modulation of DNA Content: Proximate Causes and Ultimate Consequences" 5752: 5692: 5631: 5544: 5497: 5480: 5445: 5406: 5360: 5236: 5177: 5117: 4978: 4918: 4718: 4691: 4642: 4437: 4389: 4287: 4167: 4096: 4018: 4010: 3954: 3832: 3611: 3572: 3406: 3390: 3150: 2888: 2048: 1840: 1824: 1732: 1670: 1532: 1496: 1358: 989:

in the DNA. These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems.

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The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts

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Allin, Edgar F. (December 1975). "Evolution of the mammalian middle ear".

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Liu, Na; Okamura, Katsutomo; Tyler, David M.; et al. (October 2008).

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Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity

3583:-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants. 1908:, where sterile insects feed and guard the small number of organisms in a 1582:. The bones of these animals have the same basic structure, but have been 1571: 1218:, that is, a system in which organisms interact with every other element, 26354: 26225: 25954: 25489: 25319: 25225: 25183: 24781:

was created from a revision of this article dated 18 April 2005

24415: 23892: 23390: 23213:

The Biology of Rarity: Causes and consequences of rare—common differences

22152: 21778: 21192: 19000: 16819:"Forty Years of Erratic Insecticide Resistance Evolution in the Mosquito 16666: 15905: 15075:; Anstett, Marie-Charlotte; Lexer, Christian; et al. (11 May 2006). 13681:

Sachs, Joel L. (September 2006). "Cooperation within and among species".

12599: 12058: 11814:"Genetics of Natural Populations. XXV. Genetic Changes in Populations of 11400:

Whitman, William B.; Coleman, David C.; Wiebe, William J. (9 June 1998).

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All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral

3372: 2834: 2796: 1893: 1807: 1744: 1647: 1632: 1320: 1227: 985:

Some heritable changes cannot be explained by changes to the sequence of

980: 960: 894: 751: 595:

Heritable characteristics are passed from one generation to the next via

477: 263: 41:

For a more accessible and less technical introduction to this topic, see

25794: 20437:

Stamhuis, Ida H.; Meijer, Onno G.; Zevenhuizen, Erik J. A. (June 1999).

19398: 17912: 17387:"Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon" 17027:

Read, Andrew F.; Lynch, Penelope A.; Thomas, Matthew B. (7 April 2009).

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Weinberg, James R.; Starczak, Victoria R.; Jörg, Daniele (August 1992).

13517:(March 2007). "The co-evolutionary genetics of ecological communities". 13057: 12631: 11615: 10859: 8671:"The neutral theory of molecular evolution: a review of recent evidence" 7210: 6530: 5979: 5430:"Levels of genetic polymorphism: marker loci versus quantitative traits" 3985:

reported that traits were inherited in a predictable manner through the

3864:, suggested that species could degenerate into different organisms, and 3801:

order. Variations of this idea became the standard understanding of the

1956: 1920:

Such cooperation within species may have evolved through the process of

653: 26215: 26116: 26038: 26025: 25659: 25459: 25346: 25324: 25277: 25272: 25220: 25188: 25103: 24133:. Very Short Introductions. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. 23130:

The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance

23103:

Systematics and the Origin of Species from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist

23097: 23042: 22714: 22550:(4th ed.). Sudbury, Massachusetts: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. 21307: 20696: 20667: 20339: 20203: 19672: 19612: 19131: 18708:(9 April 2004). "Ancient Invasions: From Endosymbionts to Organelles". 18674: 18340: 18314: 18094: 16970:"Quantifying the Adaptive Potential of an Antibiotic Resistance Enzyme" 15019:"Natural selection and divergence in mate preference during speciation" 14688: 14569: 12802: 12358:(February 2008). "Evolution of evolvability in a developmental model". 11853: 9023: 8689: 8428: 8331: 7959: 7757:"Frequency-Dependent Selection and the Evolution of Assortative Mating" 7748: 6471: 5964:"The evolution and functional diversification of animal microRNA genes" 5850: 5204: 4534: 4209: 3978: 3878: 3815: 3607: 3495: 3380: 3170: 2170: 2147: 2107: 2095: 2036: 1972: 1961: 1941: 1870: 1783: 1775: 1755: 1724: 1712: 1566: 1541: 1312: 1235: 1178:, where the intermediate phenotype is favoured over the extreme traits. 1148: 986: 945: 870:

the sexual population remains the same size each generation, where the

801: 725: 609: 604: 556: 544: 495: 465: 461: 457: 376: 223: 144: 89: 21411:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 899. Berlin; New York: 20464: 14249: 12860: 10357:"Transition bias influences the evolution of antibiotic resistance in 9856:"Altered base ratios in the DNA of an Escherichia coli mutator strain" 5527:"Factors affecting levels of genetic diversity in natural populations" 4411: 4236:

have reconciled their beliefs with evolution through concepts such as

2063: 1754:

However, many traits that appear to be simple adaptations are in fact

944:

has occurred. An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic

754:

from pre-existing genes that share common ancestors. For example, the

437:(LUCA), which lived approximately 3.5–3.8 billion years ago. The 30:

This article is about evolution in biology. For related articles, see

26349: 26200: 25809: 25427: 24946: 24917: 24430:. Cold Spring Harbor, New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. 23858: 22970:. Collier Books. Science Library, CS9 (New rev. ed.). New York: 22912: 22752: 21256: 20558: 20325: 19648: 18225: 17382: 17106: 16721: 16669:(December 2006). "Cancer as an evolutionary and ecological process". 14808: 13884:

Bertram, John S. (December 2000). "The molecular biology of cancer".

12468: 12020: 11370: 11161:"Tempo and mode in the macroevolutionary reconstruction of Darwinism" 10240:"Evidence That Mutation Is Universally Biased towards AT in Bacteria" 7897: 6655:"Sexual reproduction as an adaptation to resist parasites (a review)" 6458: 4809: 4116: 4022: 3994: 3942: 3809:

A number of Arab Muslim scholars wrote about evolution, most notably

3787: 3737: 3736:. Such proposals survived into Roman times. The poet and philosopher 3675: 3643: 3631: 3563: 3471: 3456: 3394: 2680: 2620: 2281: 2039:

increases selection on homozygotes, leading to rapid genetic change.

1996: 1704: 1690: 1656: 1512: 1504: 1452: 1425: 1215: 1187:, in which the extreme phenotypes are favoured over the intermediate. 1166: 1130: 1094: 994: 955:

Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of

907: 808: 759: 755: 691: 621: 580: 575: 502:

from the field or laboratory and on data generated by the methods of

423: 388: 324: 104: 21321: 20913:(30 December 2006). "Intelligent design and biological complexity". 20799: 20659: 20239:

Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London. Zoology

19452: 18149:

Jablonski, David (25 June 1999). "The Future of the Fossil Record".

18079:"The net of life: Reconstructing the microbial phylogenetic network" 17808: 16684: 16494: 16477: 14672: 13530: 11837: 11750: 11670: 9492: 9392: 9190: 8729: 8636: 7829: 7703: 6153: 5666: 5390: 5334: 5220: 5160: 5135: 4927:

3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia"

4262:

that humans share common ancestry with apes and that the mental and

3634:

first appeared around 364 million years ago, followed by early

3598:

occurred in multiple independent events, in organisms as diverse as

1424:. A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a 26252: 25454: 24336:(Canto ed.). Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. 23726: 23710: 23134: 22860: 21564:(3rd completely rev. and expanded ed.). Berkeley, California: 21209: 20456: 20187: 19596: 18372:"Toward Automatic Reconstruction of a Highly Resolved Tree of Life" 17757: 14241: 14122: 10529: 8415: 7626: 7278: 4112: 4006: 3966: 3837: 3795: 3252: 2701: 2683: 2246: 1951: 1832: 1767: 1698:

bat wings, for example, are very similar to those in mice feet and

1579: 1271: 1208: 1046: 788:). When new genes are assembled from shuffling pre-existing parts, 763: 720: 715: 600: 585: 566: 531: 527: 445: 419: 124: 72: 24723: 24681: 24582:

The Origins of Order: Self-organization and Selection in Evolution

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The foundations of The origin of species, a sketch written in 1842

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and the evolution of tetrodotoxin resistance in its predator, the

25637: 25351: 24845: 23749:(PhD thesis). Problemata (in German). Vol. 15. Afterword by 23335:"Based on a conference held in Bellagio, Italy, June 25–30, 1989" 22862:

Rethinking Evolution: The Revolution That's Hiding in Plain Sight

22759:. Complex Adaptive Systems. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. 22721:(2nd ed.). Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. 20884:(3rd revised ed.). Nanaimo, BC: Liberal Studies Department, 20631:"Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution" 19846:"The Imaginary Lamarck: A Look at Bogus 'History' in Schoolbooks" 19439:(28 July 2011). "Palaeontology: An icon knocked from its perch". 18369: 16275:"Lessons from the past: Evolutionary impacts of mass extinctions" 15455:"Chloroplast DNA indicates a single origin of the allotetraploid 14711: 13935:"The emergence of a superorganism through intergroup competition" 4469:, pp. 1–22, Chapter 1: Introduction to the Chemistry of Life 4387: 3671: 3635: 3559: 2768: 2735: 2099: 2091:

and nonrandom mating, to allow reproductive isolation to evolve.

1901: 1699: 1665: 1583: 1521: 1142: 1006: 968: 589: 507: 391:

of parents with favourable characteristics for that environment.

54: 27:

Change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations

24642: 24601: 24351: 24272: 24185: 24065: 23972: 23876: 23834: 23768: 23542: 23420: 23322: 23234: 23156: 23111: 23072: 23021: 22979: 22843: 22774: 22736: 22655: 22611: 22315: 22227: 22186: 22144: 22060: 22001: 21968: 21926: 21671: 21625: 21537: 21456: 15452: 10293:

Evolutionary Causation: Biological and Philosophical Reflections

9813:(July 1962). "On the Evolution of the Base Composition of DNA". 8876:"Is the population size of a species relevant to its evolution?" 8133: 7479:"Perspective: Seven Reasons (Not) to Neglect Niche Construction" 3937:. At the end of 1859, Darwin's publication of his "abstract" as 3466: 2060:, which is when two species become more distinct in appearance. 1507:

or attracting mates. Organisms can also respond to selection by

1447: 913:

mice between inland and coastal populations, or the movement of

858: 506:. Their discoveries have influenced not just the development of 21409:

Evolution and Biocomputation: Computational Models of Evolution

21352:

Xiaoxing Jin (March 2019). "Translation and transmutation: the

18076: 16169:"Researchers find that Earth may be home to 1 trillion species" 16053:"Climate change, species–area curves and the extinction crisis" 15329:"Genomic Clues to the Evolutionary Success of Polyploid Plants" 13112:"The reducible complexity of a mitochondrial molecular machine" 9977:"The selection-mutation-drift theory of synonymous codon usage" 7330: 4226: 4133:

nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution

3998: 3929:

sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858. Their

3798: 3639: 3622: 3599: 3402: 2745: 2717: 2265: 1736: 914: 797: 758:

uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for

561: 480:

traits tend to be more similar among species that share a more

438: 383:); and (4) traits can be passed from generation to generation ( 276: 24925:

Video (1980; Cosmos animation; 8:01): "Evolution" – Carl Sagan

24704:. Translation by Mark Epstein. Princeton, New Jersey; Oxford: 19332:"The Palaeozoic Ancestry of Salamanders, Frogs and Caecilians" 17342:"Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth" 17029:"How to Make Evolution-Proof Insecticides for Malaria Control" 13183:"Lens crystallins: gene recruitment and evolutionary dynamism" 13016: 13014: 10789:

Quinn, Thomas P.; Hendry, Andrew P.; Buck, Gregory B. (2001).

9172: 4734: 4671:

Glansdorff, Nicolas; Ying Xu; Labedan, Bernard (9 July 2008).

4252:. As had been demonstrated by responses to the publication of 3911:

in terms of variable populations. Darwin used the expression "

2280:. These same problems occur in agriculture with pesticide and 1877:

relationship as the plants provide the fungi with sugars from

1557:

and the observation of evolution and adaptation in real time.

1412:

together tend to be inherited together, a phenomenon known as

742:

Mutations can involve large sections of a chromosome becoming

25558: 20492: 20490: 15134:"Sympatric speciation in Nicaraguan crater lake cichlid fish" 12787:) and its bearing on the evolution of vestigial structures". 11866: 10899:"Spatiotemporal microbial evolution on antibiotic landscapes" 9308:"The Probability of Fixation in Populations of Changing Size" 8539:, pp. 55–66, Chapter 3: Natural Selection and Adaptation 4002: 3297: 2652: 1708: 1374: 1010: 547:

are in the centre, surrounded by phosphate–sugar chains in a

536: 18561:"Archean microfossils: a reappraisal of early life on Earth" 15904: 15391: 15259: 15071: 10628: 9474: 1302:

most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of

735:, or prevent the gene from functioning, or have no effect. 24541:

Keywords and Concepts in Evolutionary Developmental Biology

24167:

Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History

22038:

Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life

21737:

Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts

17271: 16816: 15717:"In the light of evolution II: Biodiversity and extinction" 15660:(28 March 1986). "Biological extinction in Earth history". 14477:"Polyploid Hybrids: Multiple Origins of a Treefrog Species" 13623:

10.1554/0014-3820(2002)056[2067:teropt]2.0.co;2

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van der Kooi, Casper J.; Schwander, Tanja (November 2014).

11083:(March–April 2000). "The scale independence of evolution". 10509: 10070: 8087:"Atavisms: Medical, Genetic, and Evolutionary Implications" 5598:"Rates and fitness consequences of new mutations in humans" 4220:

In the 19th century, particularly after the publication of

4107:

in 1953 demonstrated a physical mechanism for inheritance.

3418: 2726: 2162: 1992: 1199:

is selection for extreme trait values and often results in

510:

but also other fields including agriculture, medicine, and

24702:

Forms of Becoming: The Evolutionary Biology of Development

24044:

A Concordance to Darwin's Origin of Species, First Edition

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Altermann, Wladyslaw; Kazmierczak, Józef (November 2003).

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Bell, Elizabeth A.; Boehnike, Patrick; Harrison, T. Mark;

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Young, Nathan M.; HallgrÍmsson, Benedikt (December 2005).

10726: 10354: 9701: 9699: 9697: 8764:"The neutral theory is dead. Long live the neutral theory" 7331:

Bossdorf, Oliver; Arcuri, Davide; Richards, Christina L.;

7040: 5644: 4785: 4394:"The Niche Construction Perspective: A Critical Appraisal" 1693:

leg bones, both suggesting an adaptation from land to sea.

24820: 23905:

Fundamentals of Biochemistry: Life at the Molecular Level

21172: 20436: 19890:(August 2007). "Précis of Evolution in Four Dimensions". 18461:"Cell evolution and Earth history: stasis and revolution" 14047:

Wilson, Edward O.; Hölldobler, Bert (20 September 2005).

13649:"Whatever Doesn't Kill Some Animals Can Make Them Deadly" 13559: 13405: 13109: 12291:"The Spontaneous Appearance Rate of the Yeast Prion [ 12288: 11998: 11137: 10409: 10306:

Stoltzfus, Arlin; McCandlish, David M. (September 2017).

8136:"Strength and tempo of directional selection in the wild" 7122:

Baldo, Angela M.; McClure, Marcella A. (September 1999).

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National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

4325: – Notion that species can revert to primitive forms 4213: 4092: 3962: 3434: 3334: 3293: 1905: 1897: 1495:

growing across a plate with increasing concentrations of

596: 540: 415: 25075:"EEB 122: Principles of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior" 21686: 19372: 19005:"Genetic Flip Helped Organisms Go From One Cell to Many" 18262: 17787:(11 July 2002). "The antiquity of RNA-based evolution". 14367:"The Ecological Genetics of Homoploid Hybrid Speciation" 11237:

10.1666/0094-8373(2000)26[15:MAMSAH]2.0.CO;2

10896: 10299: 6933:

endosymbiont transferred to X chromosome of host insect"

5705: 4670: 1093:

those with traits that do not confer an advantage. This

920:

Gene transfer between species includes the formation of

584:

striking example are people with the inherited trait of

21522:. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. 19990:(June 2009). "Why Darwin rejected intelligent design". 19041: 18010:

Doolittle, W. Ford; Bapteste, Eric (13 February 2007).

17576:"How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?" 17573: 17380: 17253: 15978: 15604:"Diversification and extinction in the history of life" 14365:

Gross, Briana L.; Rieseberg, Loren H. (May–June 2005).

12608:"Deep homology and the origins of evolutionary novelty" 10837: 10019: 9694: 7608:"Rethinking the Theoretical Foundation of Sociobiology" 7047:"Massive Horizontal Gene Transfer in Bdelloid Rotifers" 6926: 6836: 5961: 3794:

in which all things have an intended role to play in a

3409:

discovered in Western Greenland as well as "remains of

2010:

Speciation has been observed multiple times under both

1365:

mutator strain in 1967, along with the proposal of the

766:; all four are descended from a single ancestral gene. 24544:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 18947:(December 2001). "Building a multicellular organism". 16768:

Woodford, Neil; Ellington, Matthew J. (January 2007).

16726:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects

16106: 16104: 15398:"A Unique Recent Origin of the Allotetraploid Species 15327:

Hegarty, Matthew J.; Hiscock, Simon J. (20 May 2008).

13274: 12913:

Silvestri, Anthony R. Jr.; Singh, Iqbal (April 2003).

9000:"On the Possibility of Constructive Neutral Evolution" 6139: 1685:

bones, which were adapted from front leg bones, while

1105:

roles they perform. Consequences of selection include

24507:(1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 24170:(1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 22254:. Theoretical Introduction (2nd ed.). New York: 21690:; Grenier, Jennifer K.; Weatherbee, Scott D. (2005). 21230: 20502: 16665:

Merlo, Lauren M.F.; Pepper, John W.; Reid, Brian J.;

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Pallen, Mark J.; Matzke, Nicholas J. (October 2006).

12839: 12694: 12399: 12397: 8931:

Neher, Richard A.; Shraiman, Boris I. (August 2011).

6645: 997:, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by 21732:

Numbers of Living Species in Australia and the World

19824: 19822: 16770:"The emergence of antibiotic resistance by mutation" 16664: 16124: 16122: 15838:

Novacek, Michael J.; Cleland, Elsa E. (8 May 2001).

15077:"Sympatric speciation in palms on an oceanic island" 14778: 9913:

Shah, Premal; Gilchrist, Michael A. (21 June 2011).

9588:"Selectionism and Neutralism in Molecular Evolution" 9535:"Selectionism and Neutralism in Molecular Evolution" 8659: 5903:"Gene Duplication: The Genomic Trade in Spare Parts" 5649:; Rosenberg, Susan M.; Ira, Grzegorz (August 2009). 5586:, pp. 79–102, Chapter 4: Mutation and Variation 5479:

Butlin, Roger K.; Tregenza, Tom (29 December 2000).

5428:

Butlin, Roger K.; Tregenza, Tom (28 February 1998).

5257: 2312:

in particular became popular through the writing of

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(June 1997). 8536: 6500: 5583: 5376: 4562: 4244:who believe that evolution is contradicted by the 4208:As evolution became widely accepted in the 1870s, 3933:were presented together at an 1858 meeting of the 3654: 588:, who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to 24827:"Evolution Resources from the National Academies" 24469:. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. 23513:Toward a Molecular Basis of Alcohol Use and Abuse 22822:The Phenomenon of Teilhard: Prophet for a New Age 21960:The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals 19834: 19819: 19637:(December 1967). "The Metaphysics of Evolution". 19577:Torrey, Harry Beal; Felin, Frances (March 1937). 18887:"Environmental Diversity of Bacteria and Archaea" 18703: 18522:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 18465:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 18009: 17318: 17180:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 16767: 16430: 16119: 16057:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 15710: 14336:Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. Supplement 12450: 12172: 11469: 10660:Andersson, Malte; Simmons, Leigh W. (June 2006). 10578:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 10416:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 10308:"Mutational Biases Influence Parallel Adaptation" 9422:Cutter, Asher D.; Choi, Jae Young (August 2010). 8866: 8864: 8280:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 8085:Tomić, Nenad; Meyer-Rochow, Victor Benno (2011). 8084: 5532:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 5525:Amos, William; Harwood, John (28 February 1998). 5485:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 5434:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 4997: 4873: 4871: 4588: 4586: 3401:started to solidify following the earlier molten 2129:Speciation events are important in the theory of 26400: 23721:]. Vol. I. 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Vol. 213. 22415:Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2017). 20836: 19748:University of California Museum of Paleontology 19035: 18446: 17335: 17333: 17026: 16204: 13999: 13928: 13275:Baguñà, Jaume; Garcia-Fernàndez, Jordi (2003). 12842:"On the fate of sexual traits under asexuality" 10788: 10233: 9270: 9118:"Constructive Neutral Evolution 20 Years Later" 8039: 7814:"Fitness and its role in evolutionary genetics" 7664: 7535: 6765: 5301: 5299: 5129: 5127: 4909: 4907: 4248:found in their religions and who raise various 3528: 2323: 2195:primary cause of the ongoing extinction event; 23802: 23753:. Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog. 23621:The Origins of Theoretical Population Genetics 23249: 22171:. San Francisco, California: Freeman, Cooper. 21996:. Cambridge: Printed at the University Press. 21640: 21358:The British Journal for the History of Science 19942: 19657:The British Society for the History of Science 19640:The British Journal for the History of Science 19163:Valentine, James W.; Jablonski, David (2003). 18793: 18455: 17837: 17632: 17567: 17520:"Meet Luca, the Ancestor of All Living Things" 17276:; Dupréa, Bernard; Hamelin, Bruno (May 1980). 16376:"The Molecular Genetics of Crop Domestication" 16110: 15912:; Peterson, Alan; et al. (18 July 2006). 15837: 15505: 15326: 14364: 14159:"Ernst Mayr and the modern concept of species" 12912: 12782: 12665: 11307:. Houston, Texas: The TalkOrigins Foundation. 11211: 11154: 11152: 11032: 10458: 10284: 10227: 8861: 7472: 6245: 6078: 5427: 4868: 4836:"Oldest fossil found: Meet your microbial mom" 4829: 4827: 4781: 4779: 4583: 4568: 25119: 24586:. New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press. 24249:Darwin's Ghost: The Origin of Species Updated 23891: 23440:. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. 23302: 23250:Miller, G. Tyler; Spoolman, Scott E. (2012). 23036: 22994: 22159: 21827:The Age of the Earth: from 4004 BC to AD 2002 21471: 20619: 20224: 20168: 19828: 18993: 18313: 17949: 17744: 17552: 17508: 16926:International Journal of Medical Microbiology 16200: 16198: 16196: 15774: 15772: 15770: 15586: 15554:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 15519:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 14209: 14104: 14102: 13723:"Five Rules for the Evolution of Cooperation" 13227: 12697:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 12511:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 12504: 12502: 11335: 9912: 9366: 9219: 8930: 8547: 8545: 8400: 7000:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 6719: 6567: 5822: 5085: 4466: 4378: 2357: 2035:causes rapid speciation after an increase in 1058:selection, genetic drift, and mutation bias. 484:, which historically was used to reconstruct 301: 23659: 23515:. Experientia. Vol. 71. Basel; Boston: 23401:(3rd ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: 21351: 19882: 17641: 17330: 17324: 16161: 13032: 12353: 12238: 11299:"Claim CB932: Evolution of degenerate forms" 10290: 10193:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 10190: 9638: 9375: 9305: 8530: 7988: 7598: 7411: 7121: 5577: 5296: 5124: 4904: 4488: 4486: 4392:; Shuker, David M.; et al. (May 2014). 4304:(ID), to be excluded once again in the 2005 4021:and when expressed they could move into the 3362:Timeline of the evolutionary history of life 847:organisms, genes are inherited together, or 410:to give rise to modern evolutionary theory. 24627:. Oxford; New York: W.H. Freeman Spektrum. 24538:Hall, Brian K.; Olson, Wendy, eds. (2003). 23475:. Facts on File science library. New York: 22929:(1916). 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Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 22117: 22075: 21941:The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online 21895:The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online 20773: 20695: 20625: 18877: 18660: 18142: 18127: 17339: 17143: 16193: 16177:. Arlington County, Virginia. 2 May 2016. 15767: 15551: 14960: 14772: 14474: 14218: 14156: 14099: 13779: 12920:Journal of the American Dental Association 12508: 12499: 12403: 11869:"High-Level Fluoroquinolone Resistance in 11811: 11799: 11787: 11481:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 11260:"Is the human race evolving or devolving?" 10782: 10622: 10403: 10348: 10184: 10134:"DNA loss and evolution of genome size in 9421: 8811:"Neutral theory: a historical perspective" 8542: 8465: 7415:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 7405: 7324: 7241: 7180: 6455: 5651:"Mechanisms of change in gene copy number" 4833: 4730: 4728: 4192:Rejection of evolution by religious groups 4119:. Advances were also made in phylogenetic 3972: 2364: 2350: 2318:automatic evolution of computer programmes 2094:One type of sympatric speciation involves 1433:an appropriate effective population size. 1253:, may allow the evolution of cooperation. 498:as well as constructing theories based on 308: 294: 25018: 25000: 24914:History of Evolution in the United States 23473:The Cell: Evolution of the First Organism 22462:Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 22294:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection 21821: 21420: 21403: 21320: 21191: 20991: 20953: 20741: 20723: 20649: 20607: 20514: 20407: 20251: 20121: 20103: 19936: 19707:Explorations in African Political Thought 19570: 19349: 19337:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 18904: 18637: 18627: 18576: 18541: 18492: 18398: 18330: 18148: 18110: 18053: 18035: 17855: 17609: 17591: 17431: 17413: 17265: 17259: 17223: 17054: 17044: 17003: 16985: 16856: 16838: 16785: 16641: 16623: 16558: 16493: 16391: 16308: 16298: 16272: 16084: 16003: 15955: 15937: 15881: 15863: 15814: 15804: 15750: 15740: 15474: 15417: 15352: 15303: 15285: 15208: 14925: 14892: 14755: 14737: 14500: 14398: 14192: 14182: 14108: 14082: 14072: 13976: 13958: 13754: 13482: 13431: 13145: 13135: 12751: 12330: 12226: 12104: 12086: 11975: 11957: 11888: 11583: 11501: 11443: 11425: 11257: 11217: 11194: 11184: 11096: 11009: 10999: 10976:"Biological design in science classrooms" 10938: 10765: 10680: 10605: 10545: 10435: 10386: 10376: 10331: 10267: 10257: 10047: 10002: 9948: 9938: 9889: 9879: 9786: 9776: 9619: 9568: 9451: 9334: 9247: 9237: 9149: 9092: 9082: 9064: 8997: 8974: 8948: 8891: 8870: 8828: 8688: 8577: 8513: 8495: 8377: 8359: 8307: 8221: 8169: 8159: 7845: 7780: 7529: 7496: 7268: 7157: 6974: 6956: 6813: 6696: 6678: 6593: 6577: 6575: 6408: 6316: 6298: 6214: 6055: 5995: 5938: 5920: 5849: 5783: 5682: 5621: 5595: 5560: 5496: 5461: 5350: 5159: 5031: 4985: 4968: 4708: 4690: 4592: 4483: 4427: 4056: 3782:of fixed natural possibilities, known as 3425:(LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth. 1743:, and other behavioural vestiges such as 26360:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 25133: 24789:, and does not reflect subsequent edits. 24772: 23855:Archetype: A Natural History of the Self 23210: 22858: 21345: 20830: 20689: 20508: 20370: 20062: 19986: 19840: 19746:(Online exhibit). 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While other scientific fields such as 4203: 3953:applied Darwin's ideas to humans, using 3700: 3690: 3680: 3670: 3524: 3521:Timeline of evolutionary history of life 3465: 2151: 2062: 1955: 1811: 1664: 1570: 1472: 1446: 1279:is more rapid in the smaller population. 1270: 1147: 1041: 959:and bacteria, during the acquisition of 857: 824: 719: 535: 371:among individuals with respect to their 23849: 23675:(6th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: 23613: 23609:from the original on 18 September 2015. 23579:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. 23307:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. 22789: 22626: 22373: 22330: 22031: 21728: 21694:(2nd ed.). Malden, Massachusetts: 21224: 20862: 20425: 20376: 20286: 19814: 19627: 19326: 18654: 17647: 17154: 16129:Novacek, Michael J. (8 November 2014). 16128: 13883: 13462: 13005: 12737: 12606:; Carroll, Sean B. 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Another engulfment of 2517:−1000 — 2497:−1500 — 2477:−2000 — 2457:−2500 — 2437:−3000 — 2417:−3500 — 2397:−4000 — 2377:−4500 — 2374: 2274:applications in medicine 2226:Evolutionary computation 1984:Barriers to reproduction 1885:that suppress the plant 1865:Co-operation (evolution) 1420:, which is called their 1019:developmental plasticity 941:Callosobruchus chinensis 935:Saccharomyces cerevisiae 926:horizontal gene transfer 853:homologous recombination 524:Introduction to genetics 464:), and loss of species ( 364:On the Origin of Species 239:Evolutionary development 82:Mechanisms and processes 26306:Dual inheritance theory 26145:History of paleontology 25002:10.1073/pnas.1406556111 24967:Papadimitriou, Christos 24920:. 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Charles J. 6262:10.1002/cbic.200700751 6079:Orengo, Christine A.; 5596:Keightley, PD (2012). 5545:10.1098/rstb.1998.0200 5498:10.1098/rstb.2000.2000 5446:10.1098/rstb.1998.0201 4692:10.1186/1745-6150-3-29 4217: 4057:The 'modern synthesis' 3987:independent assortment 3874:spontaneous generation 3716: 3698: 3688: 3678: 3567: 3479: 2304:in the 1960s. He used 2249:) in a process called 2174: 2131:punctuated equilibrium 2104:homologous chromosomes 2079: 2068:Geographical isolation 2058:character displacement 1964: 1853:evolutionary arms race 1828: 1827:in its amphibian prey. 1766:such as the bacterial 1694: 1587: 1578:bones in the limbs of 1555:experimental evolution 1499: 1457: 1422:linkage disequilibrium 1280: 1188: 1050: 878: 728: 552: 482:recent common ancestor 452:fossils to fossilised 76: 34:. For other uses, see 26286:Evolutionary medicine 26160:Mendelian inheritance 25868:Biological complexity 25856:Programmed cell death 25548:Phenotypic plasticity 25268:Evolutionary pressure 25258:Evidence of evolution 25156:Timeline of evolution 24909:Adobe Flash required. 24766: 24617:Maynard Smith, John; 24123:Charlesworth, Deborah 23994:Further information: 23913:John Wiley & Sons 23817:Yale University Press 23788:. Oxford: Blackwell. 23784:Ridley, Mark (2004). 23344:Institute of Medicine 23253:Environmental Science 23172:Mayr, Ernst (2002) . 23047:John Wiley & Sons 21900:18 March 2022 at the 21784:Why Evolution is True 20782:Champagne, Frances A. 20300:. Chicago, Illinois: 20292:"Thomas Henry Huxley" 19118:(Suppl. 1): S23–S27. 19069:10.1242/dev.126.5.851 16672:Nature Reviews Cancer 15419:10.1093/molbev/msk006 14383:10.1093/jhered/esi026 14229:Philosophy of Science 13357:Journal of Morphology 13037:The Origin of Species 13023:, pp. 1235–1236. 12790:Journal of Morphology 12762:10.1093/jhered/esi028 11820:Drosophila persimilis 11470:Schloss, Patrick D.; 10574:"Genetic hitchhiking" 10324:10.1093/molbev/msx180 9778:10.1073/pnas.48.4.582 9604:10.1093/molbev/msk009 9553:10.1093/molbev/msi242 9444:10.1101/gr.104331.109 8105:10.1353/pbm.2011.0034 7536:Chapman, Michael J.; 6501:Goddard, Matthew R.; 6040:10.1101/gr.098376.109 4953:10.1089/ast.2013.1030 4844:. Yonkers, New York: 4364:"Evolution Resources" 4207: 4178:Further information: 4129:Theodosius Dobzhansky 4103:with contribution of 4053:was thus reconciled. 4051:Mendelian inheritance 3927:Alfred Russel Wallace 3923:Thomas Robert Malthus 3870:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 3813:, who wrote the book 3770:In contrast to these 3704: 3696:Thomas Robert Malthus 3694: 3686:Alfred Russel Wallace 3684: 3674: 3667:History of speciation 3665:Further information: 3550: 3498:. The development of 3474:are descendants of a 3469: 3445:Further information: 3407:metasedimentary rocks 3371:Further information: 2155: 2146:Further information: 2066: 2049:Anthoxanthum odoratum 2044:parapatric speciation 2029:peripatric speciation 2021:habitat fragmentation 2017:allopatric speciation 1959: 1946:Further information: 1863:Further information: 1815: 1806:Further information: 1796:middle ear in mammals 1791:embryonic development 1780:xenobiotic metabolism 1668: 1574: 1565:Further information: 1489:antibiotic resistance 1486: 1450: 1441:Further information: 1403:Hill–Robertson effect 1397:Further information: 1325:microbial communities 1309:nearly neutral theory 1274: 1261:Further information: 1205:stabilising selection 1193:directional selection 1176:stabilizing selection 1163:directional selection 1151: 1045: 979:Further information: 930:antibiotic resistance 906:Further information: 861: 835:Genetic recombination 829:Further information: 825:Sex and recombination 748:genetic recombination 723: 638:Further information: 539: 522:Further information: 404:Mendelian inheritance 359:Alfred Russel Wallace 323:is the change in the 75: 26424:Evolutionary biology 26414:Biological evolution 26260:Teleology in biology 26155:Blending inheritance 25533:Genetic assimilation 25396:Artificial selection 25135:Evolutionary biology 24798:More spoken articles 24658:Mayr, Ernst (2001). 24210:. London; New York: 24046:. Ithaca, New York: 24036:Introductory reading 23127:Mayr, Ernst (1982). 23049:. pp. 203–221. 23002:The Evolution of Sex 22338:. 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Arkansas 4200:Evolution in fiction 4164:cultural inheritance 4086:biological hierarchy 3947:alternative theories 3899:Darwinian revolution 3415:Stephen Blair Hedges 3385:RNA world hypothesis 2306:evolution strategies 2278:pharmaceutical drugs 2113:Arabidopsis thaliana 2084:sympatric speciation 1201:two different values 1197:disruptive selection 1185:disruptive selection 1118:evolutionary fitness 891:Red Queen hypothesis 875:Asexual reproduction 794:polyketide synthases 628:Sources of variation 282:Evolution portal 214:Evolutionary biology 153:Research and history 32:Outline of evolution 18:Biological evolution 26323:Molecular evolution 26281:Ecological genetics 26150:Transitional fossil 25940:Sexual reproduction 25780:endomembrane system 25709:pollinator-mediated 25665:dolphins and whales 25443:Parental investment 25072:Stearns, Stephen C. 25058:on 18 December 2017 24993:2014PNAS..11110620C 24987:(29): 10620–10623. 24805:General information 24698:Minelli, Alessandro 24576:Kauffman, Stuart A. 24416:Barton, Nicholas H. 24119:Charlesworth, Brian 23909:Hoboken, New Jersey 23901:Pratt, Charlotte W. 23805:Stearns, Stephen C. 23615:Provine, William B. 23519:. pp. 241–50. 22996:Maynard Smith, John 22332:Futuyma, Douglas J. 22298:The Clarendon Press 21835:2001GSLSP.190..205D 21823:Dalrymple, G. 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For example, the 2239:genetic engineering 2124:Arabidopsis suecica 2119:Arabidopsis arenosa 2089:genetic differences 1849:common garter snake 1822:defensive substance 1818:common garter snake 1635:as a nutrient in a 1399:Genetic hitchhiking 1393:Genetic hitchhiking 1111:genetic hitchhiking 1038:Evolutionary forces 864:twofold cost of sex 831:Sexual reproduction 688:sexual reproduction 644:Population genetics 408:population genetics 259:Population genetics 249:Molecular evolution 229:Ecological genetics 140:Population genetics 26296:Cultural evolution 25411:Fisher's principle 25340:Handicap principle 25330:Parallel evolution 25194:Adaptive radiation 25052:Harvard University 24829:. Washington, DC: 24768: 24501:Bergstrom, Carl T. 24424:Eisen, Jonathan A. 24420:Briggs, Derek E.G. 23907:(Fifth ed.). 23715:Historia Plantarum 23665:Johnson, George B. 23567:Pigliucci, Massimo 23217:Chapman & Hall 22382:Sinauer Associates 22165:Gould, Stephen Jay 21474:Wills, Christopher 20911:Zuckerkandl, Emile 20850:, pp. 376–379 20340:10.1007/BF03195671 20288:Desmond, Adrian J. 20232:(20 August 1858). 20159:, pp. 145–146 19988:Sulloway, Frank J. 19328:Carroll, Robert L. 19278:Biological Reviews 19132:10.1007/PL00000055 19009:The New York Times 19003:(7 January 2016). 18892:Systematic Biology 18675:10.1002/bies.20516 18471:(1470): 969–1006. 18341:10.1101/gr.3737405 18273:Trends in Genetics 18095:10.1101/gr.3666505 17740:on 24 August 2015. 17525:The New York Times 17362:on 23 October 2015 17274:Allègre, Claude J. 17262:, pp. 205–221 17231:"Age of the Earth" 16606:Astyanax mexicanus 16600:"A novel role for 16135:The New York Times 15600:Benton, Michael J. 15513:(December 2007). " 14894:Templeton, Alan R. 14059:(38): 13367–1371. 13654:The New York Times 13171:, pp. 241–250 12947:on 23 August 2014. 12849:Biological Reviews 12803:10.1002/jmor.10527 12604:Tabin, Clifford J. 12550:Biological Reviews 12229:, pp. 205–259 11655:Lenski, Richard E. 10635:Journal of Zoology 10422:(1777): 20180238. 10030:(September 2000). 10028:Zuckerkandl, Emile 10026:Fryxell, Karl J.; 9973:Bulmer, Michael G. 9024:10.1007/PL00006540 8872:Gillespie, John H. 8690:10.1266/jjg.66.367 8429:10.1007/BF00133725 8401:Maynard Smith 1998 8272:Gould, Stephen Jay 7753:Servedio, Maria R. 7688:Hurst, Laurence D. 7477:(September 2006). 7473:Laland, Kevin N.; 7333:Pigliucci, Massimo 7181:Rivera, Maria C.; 6722:, pp. 113–117 6568:Maynard Smith 1978 6472:10.1002/bies.10291 6081:Thornton, Janet M. 5851:10.1101/gr.9.4.317 5828:Hebert, Paul D. N. 5089:Trends in Genetics 5067:on 31 January 2012 4736:Schopf, J. William 4594:Doolittle, W. Ford 4366:. Washington, DC: 4302:intelligent design 4238:theistic evolution 4218: 4125:evolutionary trees 4076:in palaeontology. 4074:fossil transitions 3997:that give rise to 3945:at the expense of 3717: 3699: 3689: 3679: 3619:Cambrian explosion 3568: 3500:molecular genetics 3480: 3318:Quaternary ice age 3253:Earliest tetrapods 3212:Cambrian explosion 3171:Cryogenian ice age 3030:Atmospheric oxygen 3009:Pongola glaciation 2637:Multicellular life 2589:Single-celled life 2314:John Henry Holland 2310:Genetic algorithms 2251:directed evolution 2243:selectable markers 2222:Selective breeding 2175: 2169:at the end of the 2080: 2042:The third mode is 1965: 1948:Assortative mating 1845:rough-skinned newt 1829: 1764:molecular machines 1760:Holaspis guentheri 1749:primitive reflexes 1741:vermiform appendix 1695: 1673:skeleton. Letters 1588: 1586:for specific uses. 1500: 1458: 1357:Noboru Sueoka and 1352:developmental bias 1285:allele frequencies 1281: 1189: 1051: 1027:niche construction 950:biological domains 883:John Maynard Smith 879: 729: 553: 486:phylogenetic trees 342:at every level of 77: 26396: 26395: 26012:Uniformitarianism 25965:Sex-determination 25470:Sexual dimorphism 25465:Natural selection 25369:Unit of selection 25335:Signalling theory 25080:Open Yale Courses 24943:Lenski, Richard E 24899:. 28 January 2010 24764: 24715:978-0-691-13568-7 24673:978-0-465-04426-9 24662:What Evolution Is 24634:978-0-7167-4525-9 24593:978-0-19-507951-7 24551:978-0-674-00904-2 24514:978-0-393-91341-5 24476:978-0-87893-089-0 24461:Coyne, Jerry A.; 24437:978-0-87969-684-9 24384:978-1-85828-946-5 24343:978-0-521-45128-4 24306:978-0-07-246463-4 24285:American version. 24264:978-0-375-50103-6 24221:978-0-385-40985-8 24177:978-0-393-02705-1 24140:978-0-19-280251-4 24094:978-0-393-06016-4 24057:978-0-8014-1319-3 24002:Library resources 23964:978-0-226-91038-3 23922:978-1-118-91840-1 23868:978-0-7100-0980-7 23826:978-0-300-08469-6 23795:978-1-4051-0345-9 23760:978-3-7728-0373-4 23719:History of Plants 23686:978-0-07-112261-0 23636:978-0-226-68464-2 23586:978-0-262-51367-8 23534:978-3-7643-2940-2 23517:Birkhäuser Verlag 23486:978-0-8160-4946-2 23447:978-0-19-926797-2 23412:978-0-7216-6941-0 23359:978-0-309-10586-6 23314:978-0-262-13269-5 23267:978-1-111-98893-7 23226:978-0-412-63380-5 23187:978-0-297-60741-0 23174:What Evolution Is 23148:978-0-674-36445-5 23133:. Translation of 23064:978-0-471-97770-4 23013:978-0-521-29302-0 22876:978-1-78634-726-8 22835:978-0-86554-498-7 22766:978-0-262-11170-6 22728:978-0-521-27455-5 22686:978-1-107-03491-4 22647:978-0-472-08460-9 22603:978-0-252-06814-0 22557:978-0-7637-0066-9 22515:978-0-7167-0617-5 22471:978-0-674-00613-3 22426:978-1-60535-605-1 22391:978-0-87893-187-3 22349:978-0-19-517234-8 22307:978-0-19-850440-5 22290:Fisher, Ronald A. 22265:978-0-387-20191-7 22219:978-0-671-49555-8 22178:978-0-87735-325-6 22136:978-0-231-02837-0 22102:978-1-4684-8096-2 22087:. pp. 1–34. 22052:978-0-684-80290-9 21852:978-1-86239-093-5 21798:978-0-670-02053-9 21750:978-0-642-56860-1 21705:978-1-4051-1950-4 21663:978-0-521-38564-0 21617:978-0-7126-6837-8 21575:978-0-520-23693-6 21529:978-0-8018-3888-0 21491:978-1-4419-3385-0 21440:978-3-540-59046-0 21354:Origin of Species 21243:(6817): 175–178. 21130:(5788): 765–766. 20545:(4356): 737–738. 20528:(25 April 1953). 19558:on 23 August 2014 19447:(7357): 458–459. 19047:Erwin, Douglas H. 18885:(1 August 2001). 18879:DeLong, Edward F. 18716:(5668): 253–257. 18614:(15): 6735–6742. 18528:(1470): 869–885. 18325:(12): 1746–1758. 18265:Koonin, Eugene V. 17899:(7295): 219–222. 17795:(6894): 214–221. 17272:Manhesa, Gérard; 17093:(4603): 208–209. 16733:(10): 1526–1534. 16488:(7239): 695–698. 16285:(10): 5393–5398. 16206:Kutschera, Ulrich 16063:(1465): 163–171. 15850:(10): 5466–5470. 15791:(15): 6758–6763. 15589:, pp. 82–115 15507:Bomblies, Kirsten 15339:(10): R435–R444. 15087:(7090): 210–213. 14962:Antonovics, Janis 14724:(12): 4792–4795. 14291:(5915): 741–746. 14222:(December 1992). 14117:(10): 2197–2215. 13945:(23): 9736–9740. 13617:(10): 2067–2082. 12861:10.1111/brv.12078 12618:(7231): 818–823. 12463:(12): 2691–2704. 12356:Wagner, Günter P. 12007:(5939): 203–206. 11944:(23): 7899–7906. 11602:(7231): 824–829. 11474:(December 2004). 11412:(12): 6578–6583. 11171:(15): 6764–6771. 10968:Scott, Eugenie C. 10236:Petrov, Dmitri A. 10234:Hershberg, Ruth; 9975:(November 1991). 9852:Yanofsky, Charles 9547:(12): 2318–2342. 9533:(December 2005). 8886:(11): 2161–2169. 8874:(November 2001). 8564:(20): R837–R838. 8334:(18 March 1997). 8286:(1366): 307–314. 8196:(November 1979). 8146:(16): 9157–9160. 7997:(11): 2727–2741. 7884:(4663): 710–713. 7872:(14 March 1959). 7870:Haldane, J. B. S. 7606:(December 2007). 7604:Wilson, Edward O. 7580:on 23 August 2014 7540:(December 1998). 7197:(7005): 152–155. 7043:Meselson, Matthew 6777:Molecular Ecology 6517:(7033): 636–640. 6395:(17): R696–R704. 6034:(10): 1693–1695. 5645:Hastings, P. J.; 5539:(1366): 177–186. 5440:(1366): 187–198. 5146:(7092): 398–401. 4939:(12): 1103–1124. 4789:Nature Geoscience 4596:(February 2000). 4496:(November 1970). 4412:10.1111/evo.12332 4109:Molecular biology 4105:Rosalind Franklin 4080:Further syntheses 4031:a mutation theory 3877:was later called 3790:understanding of 3606:, cyanobacteria, 3552:Evolutionary tree 3511:Evolution of life 3351: 3350: 3335:million years ago 3326: 3325: 3305: 3304: 3281: 3280: 3260: 3259: 3240: 3239: 3232:Andean glaciation 3219: 3218: 3199: 3198: 3179: 3178: 3158: 3157: 3138: 3137: 3118: 3117: 3098: 3097: 3078: 3077: 3058: 3057: 3037: 3036: 3017: 3016: 2996: 2995: 2976: 2975: 2956: 2955: 2936: 2935: 2916: 2915: 2896: 2895: 2285:molecular level. 2258:genetic disorders 2180:extinction events 2158:Tyrannosaurus rex 2076:Galápagos Islands 1660:pentachlorophenol 1653:metabolic pathway 1526:species selection 1484: 1304:neutral mutations 1298:According to the 1068:Natural selection 1062:Natural selection 946:bdelloid rotifers 733:product of a gene 640:Genetic diversity 634:Genetic variation 412:In this synthesis 351:scientific theory 332:natural selection 318: 317: 130:Natural selection 16:(Redirected from 26431: 26419:Biology theories 26386: 26376: 26375: 26175:Modern synthesis 25935:Multicellularity 25930:Mosaic evolution 25815:auditory ossicle 25497:Social selection 25480:Flowering plants 25475:Sexual selection 25128: 25121: 25114: 25105: 25104: 25100: 25098: 25096: 25067: 25065: 25063: 25054:. Archived from 25032: 25022: 25004: 24973:(22 July 2014). 24961: 24959: 24957: 24926: 24908: 24906: 24904: 24884: 24882: 24880: 24871:. Archived from 24860: 24858: 24856: 24841: 24839: 24837: 24788: 24786: 24775: 24774: 24765: 24755: 24753: 24748: 24735: 24693: 24665: 24654: 24613: 24585: 24571: 24534: 24496: 24457: 24409:Advanced reading 24404: 24363: 24326: 24284: 24252: 24241: 24197: 24160: 24132: 24114: 24077: 23984: 23956: 23942: 23888: 23851:Stevens, Anthony 23846: 23814: 23799: 23780: 23743:Rechenberg, Ingo 23738: 23706: 23674: 23656: 23624: 23610: 23562: 23506: 23467: 23432: 23400: 23386: 23384: 23382: 23334: 23299: 23297: 23295: 23246: 23207: 23168: 23123: 23092: 23033: 23005: 22991: 22969: 22958: 22952: 22950: 22931:Tufts University 22908: 22906: 22904: 22867:World Scientific 22855: 22814:Internet Archive 22808: 22786: 22748: 22706: 22678: 22667: 22628:Holland, John H. 22623: 22577: 22549: 22535: 22506:Worth Publishers 22491: 22446: 22411: 22369: 22327: 22285: 22244:Ewens, Warren J. 22239: 22198: 22156: 22114: 22072: 22028: 22026: 22024: 22018: 21995: 21980: 21938: 21892: 21880: 21818: 21774: 21772: 21770: 21725: 21688:Carroll, Sean B. 21683: 21637: 21595: 21563: 21554:Bowler, Peter J. 21549: 21516:Bowler, Peter J. 21511: 21468: 21424: 21390: 21389: 21349: 21343: 21342: 21324: 21291: 21285: 21284: 21257:10.1038/35051550 21228: 21222: 21221: 21195: 21193:astro-ph/0302209 21170: 21164: 21163: 21119: 21113: 21108: 21102: 21101: 21099: 21093:. Archived from 21052: 21043: 21037: 21036: 21034: 21032: 21026: 20995: 20969: 20957: 20951: 20948: 20901: 20899: 20897: 20872:Johnston, Ian C. 20857: 20851: 20845: 20839: 20834: 20828: 20827: 20777: 20771: 20770: 20768: 20766: 20760: 20745: 20727: 20709: 20693: 20687: 20686: 20684: 20678:. Archived from 20653: 20635: 20623: 20617: 20611: 20605: 20604: 20599: 20597: 20591: 20559:10.1038/171737a0 20534: 20518: 20512: 20506: 20500: 20494: 20485: 20484: 20434: 20428: 20423: 20417: 20411: 20405: 20404: 20374: 20368: 20367: 20323: 20317: 20316: 20314: 20312: 20290:(17 July 2014). 20284: 20278: 20277: 20275: 20273: 20255: 20222: 20216: 20215: 20182:(936): 127–153. 20170:Sokal, Robert R. 20166: 20160: 20154: 20148: 20142: 20136: 20135: 20125: 20107: 20072:(16 June 2009). 20066: 20060: 20059: 20057: 20055: 20040: 20034: 20033: 19984: 19978: 19974: 19972: 19970: 19940: 19934: 19933: 19880: 19874: 19873: 19871: 19869: 19860:. Archived from 19838: 19832: 19826: 19817: 19812: 19806: 19805: 19803: 19801: 19782: 19776: 19775:, pp. 73–75 19770: 19764: 19763: 19761: 19759: 19735: 19729: 19716: 19710: 19705:Kiros, Teodros. 19703: 19697: 19696:, pp. 43–44 19691: 19685: 19684: 19631: 19625: 19624: 19574: 19568: 19567: 19565: 19563: 19557: 19551:. Archived from 19534: 19522: 19516: 19511: 19505: 19499: 19493: 19487: 19481: 19480: 19433: 19427: 19426: 19370: 19364: 19363: 19353: 19324: 19318: 19317: 19270:Mayhew, Peter J. 19266: 19260: 19259: 19213: 19207: 19204: 19202: 19200: 19175:(7–8): 517–522. 19159: 19107: 19101: 19100: 19098: 19096: 19049:(1 March 1999). 19039: 19033: 19032: 19030: 19028: 18997: 18991: 18990: 18941: 18935: 18934: 18908: 18875: 18869: 18866: 18829: 18791: 18785: 18784: 18756: 18750: 18749: 18701: 18695: 18694: 18658: 18652: 18651: 18641: 18631: 18599: 18593: 18590: 18580: 18555: 18545: 18513: 18507: 18506: 18496: 18459:(29 June 2006). 18453: 18444: 18443: 18441: 18402: 18376: 18367: 18361: 18360: 18334: 18311: 18305: 18304: 18260: 18254: 18253: 18226:10.1038/311019a0 18197: 18191: 18190: 18146: 18140: 18131: 18125: 18124: 18114: 18074: 18068: 18067: 18057: 18039: 18022:(7): 2043–2049. 18007: 18001: 17992: 17986: 17985: 17947: 17941: 17940: 17884: 17878: 17877: 17859: 17835: 17829: 17828: 17785:Joyce, Gerald F. 17781: 17775: 17774: 17772: 17770: 17748: 17742: 17741: 17739: 17733:. Archived from 17708: 17699: 17693: 17692: 17690: 17688: 17656: 17650: 17645: 17639: 17630: 17624: 17623: 17613: 17595: 17571: 17565: 17556: 17550: 17549: 17547: 17545: 17518:(25 July 2016). 17512: 17506: 17505: 17503: 17501: 17467: 17461: 17460: 17458: 17456: 17450: 17435: 17417: 17391: 17378: 17372: 17371: 17369: 17367: 17358:. Archived from 17356:Associated Press 17337: 17328: 17322: 17316: 17315: 17269: 17263: 17257: 17251: 17250: 17248: 17246: 17227: 17221: 17220: 17174: 17168: 17163: 17157: 17152: 17146: 17141: 17135: 17134: 17107:10.1038/181208a0 17075: 17069: 17068: 17058: 17048: 17024: 17018: 17017: 17007: 16989: 16965: 16959: 16958: 16933:(6–7): 293–297. 16920: 16914: 16913: 16877: 16871: 16870: 16860: 16842: 16814: 16808: 16807: 16789: 16765: 16759: 16758: 16719: 16713: 16712: 16662: 16656: 16655: 16645: 16627: 16595: 16589: 16588: 16562: 16530: 16524: 16523: 16497: 16473: 16467: 16466: 16428: 16422: 16421: 16395: 16386:(7): 1309–1321. 16367: 16361: 16360: 16329: 16323: 16322: 16312: 16302: 16270: 16264: 16263: 16202: 16191: 16190: 16188: 16186: 16165: 16159: 16158: 16156: 16154: 16126: 16117: 16108: 16099: 16098: 16088: 16048: 16042: 16041: 16007: 15976: 15970: 15969: 15959: 15941: 15902: 15896: 15895: 15885: 15867: 15835: 15829: 15828: 15818: 15808: 15776: 15765: 15764: 15754: 15744: 15711:Avise, John C.; 15708: 15702: 15701: 15654: 15648: 15647: 15602:(7 April 1995). 15596: 15590: 15584: 15578: 15577: 15549: 15543: 15542: 15503: 15497: 15496: 15478: 15469:(5): 1019–1029. 15450: 15444: 15443: 15441: 15439: 15421: 15412:(6): 1217–1231. 15389: 15383: 15382: 15356: 15324: 15318: 15317: 15307: 15289: 15257: 15251: 15250: 15206: 15200: 15197: 15195: 15193: 15144:(7077): 719–23. 15128: 15069: 15063: 15062: 15014: 15008: 15007: 14958: 14952: 14951: 14949: 14947: 14929: 14912:(4): 1011–1038. 14890: 14884: 14883: 14835: 14829: 14828: 14809:10.1038/387070a0 14776: 14770: 14769: 14759: 14741: 14709: 14703: 14700: 14667:(4): 1214–1220. 14651: 14649: 14647: 14626: 14589: 14548:(6): 1637–1653. 14537: 14531: 14530: 14504: 14487:(7): R245–R247. 14472: 14466: 14465: 14419: 14413: 14412: 14402: 14362: 14356: 14355: 14331: 14325: 14324: 14280: 14274: 14268: 14262: 14261: 14220:Ereshefsky, Marc 14216: 14207: 14206: 14196: 14186: 14154: 14143: 14142: 14106: 14097: 14096: 14086: 14076: 14044: 14038: 14037: 13997: 13991: 13990: 13980: 13962: 13931:Hölldobler, Bert 13929:Reeve, H. Kern; 13926: 13920: 13919: 13881: 13875: 13874: 13828: 13822: 13821: 13777: 13771: 13768: 13758: 13719:Nowak, Martin A. 13714: 13678: 13672: 13669: 13667: 13665: 13651: 13642: 13601: 13557: 13551: 13550: 13515:Wade, Michael J. 13511: 13505: 13504: 13486: 13460: 13454: 13453: 13435: 13403: 13397: 13396: 13352: 13346: 13343: 13310: 13289:(7–8): 705–713. 13272: 13266: 13265: 13225: 13219: 13218: 13178: 13172: 13166: 13160: 13159: 13149: 13139: 13107: 13101: 13100: 13098: 13096: 13090: 13084:. Archived from 13043: 13030: 13024: 13018: 13009: 13003: 12997: 12996:, pp. 85–86 12991: 12985: 12979: 12973: 12967: 12961: 12955: 12949: 12948: 12943:. Archived from 12910: 12904: 12903: 12901: 12899: 12893: 12846: 12837: 12831: 12830: 12780: 12774: 12773: 12755: 12735: 12729: 12728: 12692: 12686: 12685: 12663: 12652: 12651: 12596: 12590: 12589: 12541: 12535: 12534: 12506: 12497: 12496: 12469:10.1554/05-233.1 12448: 12442: 12441: 12401: 12392: 12391: 12354:Draghi, Jeremy; 12351: 12345: 12344: 12334: 12286: 12280: 12279: 12254:(7): 1498–1512. 12236: 12230: 12224: 12218: 12217: 12170: 12164: 12163: 12125: 12119: 12118: 12108: 12090: 12073:(8): 2421–2425. 12055: 12049: 12048: 12021:10.1038/306203a0 11996: 11990: 11989: 11979: 11961: 11932:Escherichia coli 11925: 11919: 11918: 11892: 11864: 11858: 11857: 11809: 11803: 11797: 11791: 11785: 11779: 11778: 11734: 11728: 11717: 11711: 11705: 11699: 11698: 11650: 11644: 11643: 11587: 11581: 11580: 11522: 11516: 11515: 11505: 11467: 11458: 11457: 11447: 11429: 11397: 11391: 11390: 11371:10.1038/35059227 11343:Carroll, Sean B. 11339: 11333: 11327: 11321: 11320: 11318: 11316: 11294: 11288: 11287: 11285: 11283: 11255: 11249: 11248: 11219:Jablonski, David 11215: 11209: 11208: 11198: 11188: 11156: 11147: 11141: 11135: 11134: 11100: 11081:Leroi, Armand M. 11077: 11071: 11070: 11030: 11024: 11023: 11013: 11003: 10964: 10953: 10952: 10942: 10894: 10888: 10887: 10835: 10829: 10828: 10826: 10824: 10818: 10795: 10786: 10780: 10779: 10769: 10724: 10718: 10717: 10715: 10684: 10666: 10657: 10651: 10650: 10626: 10620: 10619: 10609: 10566: 10560: 10559: 10549: 10507: 10501: 10500: 10456: 10450: 10449: 10439: 10407: 10401: 10400: 10390: 10380: 10352: 10346: 10345: 10335: 10318:(9): 2163–2172. 10303: 10297: 10296: 10288: 10282: 10281: 10271: 10261: 10231: 10225: 10224: 10188: 10182: 10181: 10129: 10123: 10122: 10068: 10062: 10061: 10051: 10042:(9): 1371–1383. 10023: 10017: 10016: 10006: 9969: 9963: 9962: 9952: 9942: 9910: 9904: 9903: 9893: 9883: 9866:(5): 1895–1902. 9850:Cox, Edward C.; 9847: 9841: 9840: 9807: 9801: 9800: 9790: 9780: 9748: 9742: 9741: 9703: 9692: 9687: 9681: 9680: 9642: 9636: 9633: 9623: 9582: 9572: 9527: 9521: 9520: 9472: 9466: 9465: 9455: 9438:(8): 1103–1111. 9419: 9413: 9412: 9373: 9364: 9363: 9361: 9359: 9353: 9338: 9312: 9303: 9297: 9296: 9268: 9262: 9261: 9251: 9241: 9217: 9211: 9210: 9170: 9164: 9163: 9153: 9113: 9107: 9106: 9096: 9086: 9062: 9056: 9055: 9053: 9051: 8995: 8989: 8988: 8978: 8952: 8928: 8922: 8921: 8895: 8868: 8859: 8858: 8832: 8823:(6): 2075–2091. 8806: 8800: 8799: 8760:Kreitman, Martin 8756: 8750: 8749: 8713: 8707: 8706: 8692: 8663: 8657: 8656: 8614: 8608: 8607: 8581: 8549: 8540: 8534: 8528: 8527: 8517: 8499: 8463: 8457: 8456: 8423:(1–3): 269–274. 8410: 8404: 8398: 8392: 8391: 8381: 8363: 8346:(6): 2091–2094. 8328: 8322: 8321: 8311: 8268: 8259: 8254: 8248: 8242: 8236: 8235: 8225: 8190: 8184: 8183: 8173: 8163: 8131: 8125: 8124: 8082: 8076: 8075: 8037: 8031: 8030: 7986: 7980: 7979: 7938:(6): 1210–1226. 7924: 7918: 7917: 7898:10.1038/183710a0 7866: 7860: 7859: 7849: 7806: 7795: 7794: 7784: 7767:(4): 2091–2112. 7745: 7739: 7730: 7724: 7723: 7684: 7673: 7668: 7662: 7661: 7659: 7653:. Archived from 7612: 7596: 7590: 7589: 7587: 7585: 7579: 7573:. Archived from 7546: 7533: 7527: 7526: 7500: 7491:(9): 1751–1762. 7470: 7464: 7463: 7409: 7403: 7402: 7400: 7398: 7392: 7345: 7328: 7322: 7321: 7319: 7317: 7311: 7272: 7254: 7245: 7239: 7238: 7178: 7172: 7171: 7161: 7136:(9): 7710–7721. 7119: 7113: 7112: 7110: 7108: 7038: 7032: 7031: 6995: 6989: 6988: 6978: 6960: 6924: 6918: 6917: 6879: 6873: 6872: 6834: 6828: 6827: 6817: 6784:(6): 1341–1356. 6763: 6757: 6746: 6740: 6729: 6723: 6717: 6711: 6710: 6700: 6682: 6665:(9): 3566–3573. 6643: 6637: 6636: 6634: 6632: 6626: 6620:. Archived from 6603: 6595:Van Valen, Leigh 6591: 6585: 6579: 6570: 6565: 6559: 6558: 6498: 6492: 6491: 6453: 6447: 6446: 6412: 6382: 6376: 6375: 6337: 6331: 6330: 6320: 6296: 6290: 6289: 6243: 6237: 6236: 6218: 6188: 6182: 6181: 6137: 6131: 6130: 6076: 6070: 6069: 6059: 6022:(October 2009). 6016: 6010: 6009: 5999: 5959: 5953: 5952: 5942: 5924: 5898: 5892: 5891: 5889: 5887: 5853: 5824:Gregory, T. Ryan 5820: 5814: 5813: 5787: 5763: 5757: 5756: 5731:(5): 1155–1174. 5714: 5708: 5703: 5697: 5696: 5686: 5647:Lupski, James R. 5642: 5636: 5635: 5625: 5593: 5587: 5581: 5575: 5574: 5564: 5522: 5516: 5513: 5500: 5475: 5465: 5425: 5419: 5418: 5374: 5365: 5364: 5354: 5314: 5308: 5303: 5294: 5293: 5255: 5249: 5248: 5201:Hill, William G. 5196: 5190: 5189: 5163: 5131: 5122: 5121: 5083: 5077: 5076: 5074: 5072: 5066: 5060:. Archived from 5047: 5035: 5029: 5013: 5007: 5006:, pp. xv-16 5001: 4995: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4972: 4919:Hazen, Robert M. 4911: 4902: 4901: 4899: 4897: 4875: 4866: 4865: 4863: 4861: 4850:Associated Press 4831: 4822: 4821: 4810:10.1038/ngeo2025 4783: 4774: 4773: 4748:(3–4): 141–155. 4732: 4723: 4722: 4712: 4694: 4668: 4662: 4661: 4659: 4657: 4651: 4645:. Archived from 4602: 4590: 4581: 4575:Kampourakis 2014 4572: 4566: 4560: 4554: 4553: 4551: 4502: 4490: 4481: 4476: 4470: 4464: 4458: 4452: 4446: 4445: 4431: 4406:(5): 1231–1243. 4390:Laland, Kevin N. 4385: 4376: 4375: 4360: 4354: 4345: 4298:pseudoscientific 4269:public education 4160:parental effects 4069:modern synthesis 4047:J. B. S. Haldane 3761: 3758: 3755: 3752: 3749: 3527: 3461:vestigial traits 3312: 3307: 3288: 3283: 3267: 3262: 3247: 3242: 3226: 3221: 3206: 3201: 3186: 3181: 3165: 3160: 3151:Earliest animals 3145: 3140: 3125: 3120: 3105: 3100: 3085: 3080: 3065: 3060: 3044: 3039: 3024: 3019: 3003: 2998: 2983: 2978: 2963: 2958: 2949:Earliest fossils 2943: 2938: 2923: 2918: 2903: 2898: 2883: 2878: 2857: 2826: 2788: 2786: 2760: 2758: 2665: 2558: 2553: 2548: 2543: 2538: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2518: 2513: 2508: 2503: 2498: 2493: 2488: 2483: 2478: 2473: 2468: 2463: 2458: 2453: 2448: 2443: 2438: 2433: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2413: 2408: 2403: 2398: 2393: 2388: 2383: 2378: 2366: 2359: 2352: 2346: 2336: 2329: 2290:computer science 1628:Escherichia coli 1485: 1469:Natural outcomes 1443:Sexual selection 1437:Sexual selection 1337:current research 1174:Graph 2 depicts 1154:phenotypic trait 1107:nonrandom mating 1099:seemingly fitted 1015:genetic networks 999:RNA interference 957:eukaryotic cells 673: 656: 512:computer science 310: 303: 296: 280: 279: 186:Modern synthesis 181:Level of support 120:Modern synthesis 50: 49: 21: 26439: 26438: 26434: 26433: 26432: 26430: 26429: 26428: 26399: 26398: 26397: 26392: 26364: 26291:Group selection 26264: 26189: 26093: 26020: 25982:Tempo and modes 25976: 25831: 25735: 25552: 25511: 25387: 25380: 25357:Species complex 25170: 25161:History of life 25137: 25132: 25094: 25092: 25085:Yale University 25070: 25061: 25059: 25042: 25037:Online lectures 24971:Vazirani, Umesh 24964: 24955: 24953: 24941: 24924: 24902: 24900: 24887: 24878: 24876: 24863: 24854: 24852: 24844: 24835: 24833: 24825: 24802: 24801: 24790: 24784: 24782: 24779:This audio file 24776: 24769: 24760: 24757: 24751: 24750: 24746: 24743: 24738: 24716: 24696: 24674: 24657: 24635: 24619:Szathmáry, Eörs 24616: 24594: 24574: 24552: 24537: 24515: 24499: 24477: 24460: 24438: 24414: 24385: 24366: 24344: 24329: 24307: 24290: 24265: 24244: 24222: 24200: 24178: 24163: 24141: 24117: 24095: 24080: 24058: 24041: 24032: 24031: 24030: 24010: 24009: 24005: 23998: 23992: 23990:Further reading 23987: 23965: 23923: 23897:Voet, Judith G. 23869: 23827: 23796: 23761: 23687: 23661:Raven, Peter H. 23637: 23587: 23573:, eds. (2010). 23571:Müller, Gerd B. 23535: 23487: 23448: 23413: 23391:Odum, Eugene P. 23380: 23378: 23360: 23315: 23293: 23291: 23268: 23227: 23188: 23149: 23065: 23014: 22948: 22946: 22922:De Rerum Natura 22902: 22900: 22877: 22836: 22767: 22729: 22687: 22648: 22604: 22590:Colin Patterson 22558: 22516: 22472: 22427: 22392: 22350: 22308: 22266: 22220: 22201: 22179: 22161:Eldredge, Niles 22137: 22103: 22053: 22033:Dennett, Daniel 22022: 22020: 22016: 21993: 21985:Darwin, Francis 21955:Darwin, Charles 21948:Wayback Machine 21909:Darwin, Charles 21902:Wayback Machine 21885:Darwin, Charles 21853: 21799: 21779:Coyne, Jerry A. 21768: 21766: 21751: 21706: 21664: 21618: 21576: 21530: 21492: 21441: 21422:10.1.1.493.6534 21399: 21394: 21393: 21350: 21346: 21322:10.1641/B570313 21292: 21288: 21229: 21225: 21171: 21167: 21120: 21116: 21109: 21105: 21097: 21050: 21044: 21040: 21030: 21028: 21024: 20993:10.1.1.404.1340 20967: 20961:Ross, Marcus R. 20958: 20954: 20909: 20895: 20893: 20870: 20858: 20854: 20846: 20842: 20835: 20831: 20800:10.1038/nrg3028 20778: 20774: 20764: 20762: 20758: 20707: 20703:(11 May 2010). 20694: 20690: 20682: 20660:10.2307/4444260 20651:10.1.1.324.2891 20633: 20624: 20620: 20612: 20608: 20595: 20593: 20589: 20532: 20526:Crick, F. H. C. 20519: 20515: 20507: 20503: 20495: 20488: 20435: 20431: 20424: 20420: 20412: 20408: 20375: 20371: 20324: 20320: 20310: 20308: 20285: 20281: 20271: 20269: 20230:Wallace, Alfred 20226:Darwin, Charles 20223: 20219: 20167: 20163: 20155: 20151: 20143: 20139: 20067: 20063: 20053: 20051: 20042: 20041: 20037: 19985: 19981: 19968: 19966: 19947: 19941: 19937: 19888:Lamb, Marion J. 19881: 19877: 19867: 19865: 19839: 19835: 19827: 19820: 19813: 19809: 19799: 19797: 19784: 19783: 19779: 19771: 19767: 19757: 19755: 19736: 19732: 19717: 19713: 19709:. 2001, page 55 19704: 19700: 19692: 19688: 19632: 19628: 19575: 19571: 19561: 19559: 19555: 19532: 19523: 19519: 19512: 19508: 19500: 19496: 19488: 19484: 19453:10.1038/475458a 19434: 19430: 19371: 19367: 19325: 19321: 19272:(August 2007). 19267: 19263: 19214: 19210: 19198: 19196: 19162: 19108: 19104: 19094: 19092: 19040: 19036: 19026: 19024: 18998: 18994: 18942: 18938: 18906:10.1.1.321.8828 18883:Pace, Norman R. 18876: 18872: 18832: 18792: 18788: 18767:(10): 457–459. 18757: 18753: 18702: 18698: 18659: 18655: 18600: 18596: 18558: 18514: 18510: 18454: 18447: 18439: 18400:10.1.1.381.9514 18374: 18368: 18364: 18332:10.1.1.673.9212 18319:Genome Research 18312: 18308: 18261: 18257: 18212:(5981): 19–23. 18198: 18194: 18147: 18143: 18132: 18128: 18083:Genome Research 18075: 18071: 18008: 18004: 17993: 17989: 17948: 17944: 17885: 17881: 17836: 17832: 17809:10.1038/418214a 17782: 17778: 17768: 17766: 17749: 17745: 17737: 17706: 17700: 17696: 17686: 17684: 17657: 17653: 17646: 17642: 17631: 17627: 17586:(8): e1001127. 17572: 17568: 17557: 17553: 17543: 17541: 17513: 17509: 17499: 17497: 17468: 17464: 17454: 17452: 17448: 17389: 17379: 17375: 17365: 17363: 17350:. Yonkers, NY: 17338: 17331: 17323: 17319: 17270: 17266: 17258: 17254: 17244: 17242: 17237:. 9 July 2007. 17229: 17228: 17224: 17175: 17171: 17164: 17160: 17153: 17149: 17144:Rechenberg 1973 17142: 17138: 17079:Fraser, Alex S. 17076: 17072: 17039:(4): e1000058. 17025: 17021: 16980:(6): e1002783. 16966: 16962: 16921: 16917: 16878: 16874: 16815: 16811: 16766: 16762: 16720: 16716: 16685:10.1038/nrc2013 16679:(12): 924–935. 16667:Maley, Carlo C. 16663: 16659: 16618:(1): e1000326. 16596: 16592: 16539:Current Biology 16531: 16527: 16495:10.1038/458695a 16474: 16470: 16429: 16425: 16372:Smith, Bruce D. 16368: 16364: 16330: 16326: 16271: 16267: 16210:Niklas, Karl J. 16203: 16194: 16184: 16182: 16167: 16166: 16162: 16152: 16150: 16127: 16120: 16109: 16102: 16049: 16045: 15990:(5693): 70–75. 15977: 15973: 15903: 15899: 15836: 15832: 15777: 15768: 15709: 15705: 15655: 15651: 15614:(5207): 52–58. 15597: 15593: 15585: 15581: 15550: 15546: 15504: 15500: 15451: 15447: 15437: 15435: 15390: 15386: 15333:Current Biology 15325: 15321: 15258: 15254: 15207: 15203: 15191: 15189: 15131: 15070: 15066: 15015: 15011: 14959: 14955: 14945: 14943: 14891: 14887: 14836: 14832: 14795:(6628): 70–73. 14777: 14773: 14710: 14706: 14673:10.2307/2409766 14654: 14645: 14643: 14629: 14592: 14538: 14534: 14481:Current Biology 14473: 14469: 14420: 14416: 14363: 14359: 14338:(23): 359–364. 14332: 14328: 14281: 14277: 14269: 14265: 14217: 14210: 14155: 14146: 14107: 14100: 14045: 14041: 13998: 13994: 13933:(5 June 2007). 13927: 13923: 13882: 13878: 13829: 13825: 13778: 13774: 13717: 13679: 13675: 13663: 13661: 13645: 13604: 13558: 13554: 13531:10.1038/nrg2031 13512: 13508: 13461: 13457: 13412:Current Biology 13404: 13400: 13353: 13349: 13313: 13273: 13269: 13226: 13222: 13179: 13175: 13167: 13163: 13108: 13104: 13094: 13092: 13088: 13052:(10): 784–790. 13041: 13031: 13027: 13019: 13012: 13004: 13000: 12992: 12988: 12980: 12976: 12968: 12964: 12956: 12952: 12911: 12907: 12897: 12895: 12891: 12844: 12838: 12834: 12781: 12777: 12753:10.1.1.572.6605 12736: 12732: 12693: 12689: 12664: 12655: 12597: 12593: 12542: 12538: 12507: 12500: 12449: 12445: 12402: 12395: 12352: 12348: 12287: 12283: 12237: 12233: 12225: 12221: 12171: 12167: 12126: 12122: 12056: 12052: 11997: 11993: 11926: 11922: 11865: 11861: 11838:10.2307/2406099 11810: 11806: 11800:Dobzhansky 1970 11798: 11794: 11790:, pp. 1–34 11788:Dobzhansky 1968 11786: 11782: 11751:10.1038/nrg1523 11735: 11731: 11723:(2010) defines 11718: 11714: 11706: 11702: 11671:10.1038/nrg1088 11651: 11647: 11588: 11584: 11523: 11519: 11468: 11461: 11398: 11394: 11340: 11336: 11328: 11324: 11314: 11312: 11295: 11291: 11281: 11279: 11256: 11252: 11216: 11212: 11157: 11150: 11142: 11138: 11098:10.1.1.120.1020 11078: 11074: 11031: 11027: 10974:(15 May 2007). 10965: 10956: 10895: 10891: 10836: 10832: 10822: 10820: 10816: 10793: 10787: 10783: 10725: 10721: 10713: 10682:10.1.1.595.4050 10664: 10658: 10654: 10627: 10623: 10567: 10563: 10508: 10504: 10457: 10453: 10408: 10404: 10371:(5): e3000265. 10353: 10349: 10304: 10300: 10289: 10285: 10252:(9): e1001115. 10232: 10228: 10189: 10185: 10130: 10126: 10069: 10065: 10024: 10020: 9970: 9966: 9911: 9907: 9848: 9844: 9808: 9804: 9749: 9745: 9704: 9695: 9688: 9684: 9643: 9639: 9585: 9528: 9524: 9493:10.1038/nrg2207 9487:(11): 845–856. 9473: 9469: 9432:Genome Research 9420: 9416: 9393:10.1038/nrg2526 9374: 9367: 9357: 9355: 9351: 9310: 9304: 9300: 9269: 9265: 9218: 9214: 9191:10.1002/iub.489 9171: 9167: 9114: 9110: 9063: 9059: 9049: 9047: 8996: 8992: 8929: 8925: 8869: 8862: 8807: 8803: 8762:(August 1996). 8757: 8753: 8730:10.1139/g89-009 8714: 8710: 8664: 8660: 8637:10.1139/g89-037 8615: 8611: 8558:Current Biology 8554:"Genetic drift" 8550: 8543: 8535: 8531: 8464: 8460: 8411: 8407: 8399: 8395: 8329: 8325: 8269: 8262: 8255: 8251: 8243: 8239: 8191: 8187: 8132: 8128: 8083: 8079: 8050:(11): 602–609. 8038: 8034: 7987: 7983: 7925: 7921: 7867: 7863: 7830:10.1038/nrg2603 7812:(August 2009). 7807: 7798: 7746: 7742: 7731: 7727: 7704:10.1038/nrg2506 7685: 7676: 7669: 7665: 7660:on 11 May 2011. 7657: 7610: 7597: 7593: 7583: 7581: 7577: 7544: 7534: 7530: 7471: 7467: 7410: 7406: 7396: 7394: 7390: 7343: 7329: 7325: 7315: 7313: 7309: 7270:10.1.1.617.6333 7252: 7246: 7242: 7179: 7175: 7120: 7116: 7106: 7104: 7039: 7035: 6996: 6992: 6925: 6921: 6880: 6876: 6835: 6831: 6764: 6760: 6747: 6743: 6730: 6726: 6718: 6714: 6651:Axelrod, Robert 6647:Hamilton, W. D. 6644: 6640: 6630: 6628: 6624: 6601: 6592: 6588: 6580: 6573: 6566: 6562: 6499: 6495: 6454: 6450: 6410:10.1.1.475.9645 6388:Current Biology 6383: 6379: 6338: 6334: 6297: 6293: 6244: 6240: 6191:Wang, Minglei; 6189: 6185: 6154:10.1038/nrg1204 6148:(11): 865–875. 6138: 6134: 6077: 6073: 6028:Genome Research 6017: 6013: 5974:(10): 985–996. 5960: 5956: 5899: 5895: 5885: 5883: 5837:Genome Research 5821: 5817: 5778:(3b): 541–547. 5764: 5760: 5715: 5711: 5704: 5700: 5667:10.1038/nrg2593 5643: 5639: 5594: 5590: 5582: 5578: 5523: 5519: 5478: 5426: 5422: 5391:10.1038/nrg1804 5375: 5368: 5335:10.1038/nrg2452 5329:(11): 855–867. 5315: 5311: 5304: 5297: 5256: 5252: 5221:10.1038/nrg2322 5197: 5193: 5161:10.1038/441398a 5132: 5125: 5084: 5080: 5070: 5068: 5064: 5045: 5036: 5032: 5027:Wayback Machine 5014: 5010: 5002: 4998: 4990: 4986: 4912: 4905: 4895: 4893: 4876: 4869: 4859: 4857: 4832: 4825: 4784: 4777: 4733: 4726: 4669: 4665: 4655: 4653: 4649: 4600: 4591: 4584: 4573: 4569: 4561: 4557: 4549: 4500: 4491: 4484: 4477: 4473: 4465: 4461: 4453: 4449: 4386: 4379: 4362: 4361: 4357: 4346: 4342: 4337: 4319: 4313: 4281:religious texts 4264:moral faculties 4260:human evolution 4202: 4176: 4082: 4065: 4059: 3991:August Weismann 3975: 3931:separate papers 3901: 3825: 3776:Aristotelianism 3768: 3759: 3756: 3753: 3750: 3743:De rerum natura 3722: 3669: 3663: 3657: 3549: 3525: 3523: 3515:Main articles: 3513: 3504:molecular clock 3476:common ancestor 3453: 3443: 3387: 3369: 3364: 3358: 3352: 3347: 3346: 3338: 3322: 3321: 3310: 3301: 3300: 3286: 3277: 3276: 3265: 3256: 3255: 3245: 3236: 3235: 3224: 3215: 3214: 3204: 3195: 3194: 3192:Ediacaran biota 3184: 3175: 3174: 3163: 3154: 3153: 3143: 3134: 3133: 3131:Earliest plants 3123: 3114: 3113: 3103: 3094: 3093: 3083: 3074: 3073: 3063: 3054: 3053: 3042: 3033: 3032: 3022: 3013: 3012: 3001: 2992: 2991: 2989:Earliest oxygen 2981: 2972: 2971: 2961: 2952: 2951: 2941: 2932: 2931: 2921: 2912: 2911: 2901: 2892: 2891: 2881: 2874: 2873: 2872: 2867: 2866: 2865: 2860: 2859: 2858: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2833: 2829: 2828: 2827: 2823: 2821: 2819: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2802: 2801: 2800: 2799: 2798: 2797: 2795: 2791: 2790: 2789: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2771: 2770: 2769: 2767: 2763: 2762: 2761: 2756: 2754: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2744: 2740: 2739: 2738: 2731: 2730: 2729: 2722: 2721: 2720: 2713: 2712: 2711: 2706: 2705: 2704: 2697: 2696: 2695: 2688: 2687: 2686: 2676: 2675: 2674: 2669: 2668: 2667: 2663: 2661: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2653: 2648: 2647: 2646: 2641: 2640: 2639: 2632: 2631: 2630: 2625: 2624: 2623: 2616: 2615: 2614: 2609: 2608: 2607: 2600: 2599: 2598: 2593: 2592: 2591: 2584: 2583: 2582: 2577: 2576: 2575: 2568: 2567: 2566: 2559: 2556: 2554: 2551: 2549: 2546: 2544: 2541: 2539: 2536: 2534: 2531: 2529: 2526: 2524: 2521: 2519: 2516: 2514: 2511: 2509: 2506: 2504: 2501: 2499: 2496: 2494: 2491: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2481: 2479: 2476: 2474: 2471: 2469: 2466: 2464: 2461: 2459: 2456: 2454: 2451: 2449: 2446: 2444: 2441: 2439: 2436: 2434: 2431: 2429: 2426: 2424: 2421: 2419: 2416: 2414: 2411: 2409: 2406: 2404: 2401: 2399: 2396: 2394: 2391: 2389: 2386: 2384: 2381: 2379: 2376: 2370: 2344: 2338: 2334: 2326: 2302:Ingo Rechenberg 2298:artificial life 2228: 2216:Main articles: 2214: 2150: 2144: 2135:rapid evolution 1978:species problem 1954: 1944: 1938: 1867: 1861: 1810: 1804: 1569: 1563: 1551:more noticeable 1537:complex species 1473: 1471: 1445: 1439: 1430:selective sweep 1409: 1407:Selective sweep 1395: 1345: 1269: 1259: 1251:group selection 1179: 1170: 1157: 1076: 1070: 1064: 1040: 991:DNA methylation 983: 977: 910: 904: 841: 827: 718: 712: 684: 683: 682: 681: 680: 676:Black morph in 674: 665: 664: 663: 657: 646: 636: 630: 534: 520: 470:history of life 328:characteristics 314: 274: 205:Theory and fact 110:History of life 46: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 26437: 26427: 26426: 26421: 26416: 26411: 26394: 26393: 26391: 26390: 26380: 26369: 26366: 26365: 26363: 26362: 26357: 26352: 26347: 26342: 26341: 26340: 26330: 26325: 26320: 26315: 26310: 26309: 26308: 26303: 26298: 26288: 26283: 26278: 26272: 26270: 26266: 26265: 26263: 26262: 26257: 26256: 26255: 26250: 26245: 26244: 26243: 26233: 26228: 26223: 26218: 26213: 26203: 26197: 26195: 26191: 26190: 26188: 26187: 26182: 26177: 26172: 26167: 26162: 26157: 26152: 26147: 26142: 26141: 26140: 26131:Charles Darwin 26128: 26127: 26126: 26114: 26109: 26103: 26101: 26095: 26094: 26092: 26091: 26086: 26081: 26076: 26071: 26069:Non-ecological 26066: 26061: 26056: 26051: 26046: 26041: 26036: 26030: 26028: 26022: 26021: 26019: 26018: 26009: 26000: 25986: 25984: 25978: 25977: 25975: 25974: 25969: 25968: 25967: 25962: 25957: 25952: 25947: 25937: 25932: 25927: 25922: 25917: 25912: 25907: 25902: 25897: 25892: 25887: 25886: 25885: 25875: 25870: 25865: 25860: 25859: 25858: 25853: 25842: 25840: 25833: 25832: 25830: 25829: 25828: 25827: 25822: 25820:nervous system 25817: 25812: 25807: 25799: 25798: 25797: 25792: 25787: 25782: 25777: 25772: 25762: 25757: 25752: 25746: 25744: 25737: 25736: 25734: 25733: 25728: 25723: 25718: 25713: 25712: 25711: 25701: 25700: 25699: 25694: 25693: 25692: 25687: 25677: 25672: 25667: 25662: 25657: 25656: 25655: 25650: 25640: 25630: 25625: 25624: 25623: 25613: 25608: 25603: 25598: 25597: 25596: 25586: 25581: 25580: 25579: 25569: 25563: 25561: 25554: 25553: 25551: 25550: 25545: 25540: 25535: 25530: 25525: 25519: 25517: 25513: 25512: 25510: 25509: 25504: 25499: 25494: 25493: 25492: 25487: 25482: 25472: 25467: 25462: 25457: 25452: 25451: 25450: 25445: 25435: 25430: 25425: 25424: 25423: 25413: 25408: 25403: 25398: 25392: 25390: 25382: 25381: 25379: 25378: 25377: 25376: 25366: 25361: 25360: 25359: 25354: 25344: 25343: 25342: 25332: 25327: 25322: 25320:Origin of life 25317: 25312: 25307: 25305:Microevolution 25302: 25300:Macroevolution 25297: 25292: 25287: 25286: 25285: 25275: 25270: 25265: 25260: 25255: 25250: 25245: 25240: 25238:Common descent 25235: 25234: 25233: 25223: 25218: 25216:Baldwin effect 25213: 25212: 25211: 25206: 25196: 25191: 25186: 25180: 25178: 25172: 25171: 25169: 25168: 25163: 25158: 25153: 25148: 25142: 25139: 25138: 25131: 25130: 25123: 25116: 25108: 25102: 25101: 25068: 25039: 25038: 25034: 25033: 24962: 24938: 24937: 24933: 24932: 24921: 24910: 24885: 24875:on 19 May 2011 24861: 24842: 24823: 24807: 24806: 24791: 24777: 24770: 24758: 24745: 24744: 24742: 24741:External links 24739: 24737: 24736: 24714: 24694: 24672: 24655: 24633: 24614: 24592: 24572: 24550: 24535: 24513: 24497: 24475: 24458: 24436: 24411: 24410: 24406: 24405: 24383: 24364: 24342: 24327: 24305: 24288: 24287: 24286: 24263: 24220: 24198: 24176: 24161: 24139: 24115: 24093: 24078: 24056: 24038: 24037: 24033: 24029: 24028: 24023: 24018: 24012: 24011: 24000: 23999: 23991: 23988: 23986: 23985: 23963: 23947:Wright, Sewall 23943: 23921: 23889: 23867: 23847: 23825: 23800: 23794: 23781: 23759: 23739: 23707: 23685: 23657: 23635: 23611: 23585: 23563: 23533: 23507: 23485: 23468: 23446: 23433: 23411: 23387: 23358: 23336: 23313: 23300: 23266: 23247: 23225: 23208: 23186: 23169: 23147: 23124: 23094: 23063: 23034: 23012: 22992: 22959: 22909: 22875: 22856: 22834: 22817: 22787: 22765: 22749: 22727: 22711:Kirk, Geoffrey 22707: 22685: 22668: 22646: 22624: 22602: 22578: 22556: 22540:Hall, Brian K. 22536: 22514: 22492: 22470: 22447: 22425: 22412: 22390: 22371: 22348: 22328: 22306: 22286: 22264: 22240: 22218: 22199: 22177: 22157: 22135: 22115: 22101: 22073: 22051: 22029: 21987:, ed. (1909). 21981: 21951: 21905: 21881: 21851: 21819: 21797: 21775: 21749: 21726: 21704: 21684: 21662: 21638: 21616: 21596: 21574: 21550: 21528: 21512: 21490: 21469: 21439: 21405:Altenberg, Lee 21400: 21398: 21395: 21392: 21391: 21344: 21315:(3): 278–284. 21297:(March 2007). 21286: 21223: 21210:10.1086/377226 21186:(1): 175–194. 21165: 21114: 21103: 21038: 20978:(3): 319–323. 20952: 20950: 20949: 20907: 20902: 20866: 20865: 20852: 20840: 20829: 20794:(7): 475–486. 20772: 20697:Avise, John C. 20688: 20644:(3): 125–129. 20629:(March 1973). 20618: 20606: 20513: 20501: 20486: 20457:10.1086/384323 20451:(2): 238–267. 20429: 20418: 20406: 20369: 20334:(3): 177–184. 20318: 20279: 20217: 20188:10.1086/282646 20161: 20149: 20137: 20070:Sober, Elliott 20061: 20035: 20000:(2): 173–183. 19979: 19977: 19976: 19935: 19900:(4): 353–365. 19875: 19833: 19818: 19807: 19777: 19765: 19730: 19728: 19727: 19711: 19698: 19686: 19635:Hull, David L. 19626: 19597:10.1086/394520 19569: 19517: 19506: 19494: 19482: 19428: 19365: 19319: 19284:(3): 425–454. 19261: 19226:(3): 456–463. 19208: 19206: 19205: 19102: 19063:(5): 851–859. 19034: 18992: 18936: 18899:(4): 470–478. 18870: 18868: 18867: 18841:(6): 513–519. 18786: 18751: 18696: 18653: 18594: 18592: 18591: 18571:(9): 611–617. 18508: 18445: 18362: 18306: 18279:(9): 472–479. 18255: 18192: 18141: 18126: 18089:(7): 954–959. 18069: 18002: 17987: 17960:(6): 256–261. 17942: 17879: 17850:(5): 573–582. 17830: 17776: 17743: 17694: 17651: 17640: 17625: 17566: 17551: 17516:Wade, Nicholas 17507: 17462: 17373: 17329: 17317: 17290:(3): 370–382. 17264: 17260:Dalrymple 2001 17252: 17222: 17169: 17158: 17147: 17136: 17070: 17019: 16960: 16915: 16888:(5): 365–369. 16872: 16809: 16760: 16714: 16657: 16590: 16545:(1): R23–R24. 16525: 16468: 16423: 16362: 16333:Bull, James J. 16324: 16265: 16222:(6): 255–276. 16192: 16160: 16118: 16100: 16043: 16005:10.1.1.574.332 15971: 15897: 15830: 15766: 15703: 15658:Raup, David M. 15649: 15591: 15579: 15560:(6): 505–512. 15544: 15525:(6): 500–504. 15511:Weigel, Detlef 15498: 15445: 15384: 15319: 15252: 15217:(2): 172–182. 15201: 15199: 15198: 15064: 15029:(3): 309–327. 15009: 14953: 14896:(April 1980). 14885: 14830: 14771: 14704: 14702: 14701: 14652: 14627: 14601:(3): 111–114. 14532: 14467: 14414: 14377:(3): 241–252. 14357: 14326: 14275: 14263: 14242:10.1086/289701 14236:(4): 671–690. 14208: 14144: 14123:10.1554/02-727 14098: 14039: 13992: 13921: 13894:(6): 167–223. 13876: 13841:(2): 184–196. 13823: 13788:(4): 364–370. 13772: 13770: 13769: 13673: 13671: 13670: 13643: 13552: 13525:(3): 185–195. 13506: 13455: 13418:(4): 371–377. 13398: 13363:(4): 403–437. 13347: 13345: 13344: 13326:(2): 309–345. 13267: 13220: 13193:(8): 301–306. 13173: 13161: 13102: 13025: 13010: 12998: 12986: 12974: 12962: 12950: 12927:(4): 450–455. 12905: 12855:(4): 805–819. 12832: 12797:(5): 423–441. 12775: 12746:(3): 185–196. 12730: 12703:(4): 328–335. 12687: 12653: 12591: 12556:(3): 409–433. 12536: 12517:(6): 672–677. 12498: 12443: 12416:(6): 445–458. 12406:Hall, Brian K. 12404:Bejder, Lars; 12393: 12366:(2): 301–315. 12346: 12309:(2): 393–400. 12299:+] System" 12281: 12231: 12227:Altenberg 1995 12219: 12184:(5): 525–539. 12177:Biodegradation 12165: 12138:(6): 261–265. 12120: 12061:(April 1984). 12050: 11991: 11920: 11883:(6): 391–395. 11859: 11804: 11792: 11780: 11745:(2): 119–127. 11729: 11712: 11700: 11665:(6): 457–469. 11645: 11582: 11517: 11488:(4): 686–691. 11472:Handelsman, Jo 11459: 11392: 11334: 11322: 11289: 11250: 11231:(sp4): 15–52. 11210: 11148: 11136: 11072: 11025: 10954: 10889: 10830: 10781: 10719: 10675:(6): 296–302. 10652: 10641:(3): 229–236. 10621: 10561: 10530:10.1086/302754 10524:(2): 557–566. 10502: 10467:(5): 422–434. 10451: 10402: 10347: 10298: 10283: 10226: 10183: 10124: 10063: 10018: 9989:(3): 897–907. 9964: 9905: 9842: 9802: 9763:(4): 582–592. 9743: 9693: 9682: 9655:(7): 838–844. 9637: 9635: 9634: 9598:(5): 2318–42. 9531:Nei, Masatoshi 9522: 9467: 9414: 9387:(3): 195–205. 9365: 9321:(2): 723–733. 9298: 9263: 9226:Biology Direct 9212: 9185:(7): 528–537. 9165: 9128:(3): 172–182. 9108: 9071:Biology Direct 9057: 9010:(2): 169–181. 8990: 8943:(4): 975–996. 8923: 8860: 8801: 8751: 8708: 8683:(4): 367–386. 8658: 8631:(1): 221–227. 8609: 8541: 8529: 8458: 8405: 8393: 8323: 8260: 8249: 8237: 8208:(3): 773–795. 8185: 8126: 8099:(3): 332–353. 8077: 8032: 7981: 7928:Lande, Russell 7919: 7861: 7824:(8): 531–539. 7796: 7749:Otto, Sarah P. 7740: 7725: 7674: 7663: 7627:10.1086/522809 7621:(4): 327–348. 7591: 7557:(4): 319–326. 7538:Margulis, Lynn 7528: 7465: 7404: 7354:(3): 541–553. 7323: 7279:10.1086/598822 7263:(2): 131–176. 7240: 7183:Lake, James A. 7173: 7114: 7033: 7006:(4): 530–533. 6990: 6919: 6892:(5): 476–482. 6874: 6829: 6758: 6756:. PMID 3324702 6741: 6739:. PMID 3898363 6724: 6712: 6638: 6586: 6571: 6560: 6493: 6466:(6): 533–537. 6448: 6377: 6332: 6291: 6256:(6): 826–848. 6238: 6183: 6132: 6095:Annual Reviews 6071: 6011: 5954: 5893: 5844:(4): 317–324. 5830:(April 1999). 5815: 5758: 5719:Gerstein, Mark 5709: 5698: 5661:(8): 551–564. 5637: 5608:(2): 295–304. 5588: 5576: 5517: 5515: 5514: 5491:(1404): 1865. 5420: 5385:(3): 229–237. 5366: 5309: 5295: 5268:(8): 330–335. 5250: 5215:(4): 255–266. 5205:Wray, Naomi R. 5191: 5123: 5096:(8): 327–332. 5078: 5041:, ed. (1999). 5030: 5008: 4996: 4984: 4903: 4867: 4823: 4775: 4724: 4678:Biology Direct 4663: 4582: 4567: 4555: 4482: 4471: 4459: 4457:, pp. 3–5 4447: 4377: 4355: 4339: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4332: 4331: 4326: 4318: 4315: 4246:creation myths 4175: 4172: 4081: 4078: 4061:Main article: 4058: 4055: 4025:to change the 3974: 3971: 3909:Alfred Wallace 3905:Charles Darwin 3900: 3897: 3883:Georges Cuvier 3866:Erasmus Darwin 3845:introduced by 3824: 3821: 3780:actualisations 3767: 3764: 3721: 3718: 3707:Charles Darwin 3659:Main article: 3656: 3653: 3581:cyanobacterial 3577:hydrogenosomes 3512: 3509: 3447:Common descent 3442: 3441:Common descent 3439: 3368: 3367:Origin of life 3365: 3354:Main article: 3349: 3348: 3339: 3332: 3328: 3327: 3324: 3323: 3316: 3315: 3313: 3303: 3302: 3292: 3291: 3289: 3279: 3278: 3271: 3270: 3268: 3258: 3257: 3251: 3250: 3248: 3238: 3237: 3230: 3229: 3227: 3217: 3216: 3210: 3209: 3207: 3197: 3196: 3190: 3189: 3187: 3177: 3176: 3169: 3168: 3166: 3156: 3155: 3149: 3148: 3146: 3136: 3135: 3129: 3128: 3126: 3116: 3115: 3111:Earliest fungi 3109: 3108: 3106: 3096: 3095: 3089: 3088: 3086: 3076: 3075: 3069: 3068: 3066: 3056: 3055: 3048: 3047: 3045: 3035: 3034: 3028: 3027: 3025: 3015: 3014: 3007: 3006: 3004: 2994: 2993: 2987: 2986: 2984: 2974: 2973: 2969:LHB meteorites 2967: 2966: 2964: 2954: 2953: 2947: 2946: 2944: 2934: 2933: 2927: 2926: 2924: 2914: 2913: 2909:Earliest water 2907: 2906: 2904: 2894: 2893: 2887: 2886: 2884: 2875: 2870: 2869: 2868: 2863: 2862: 2861: 2832: 2831: 2830: 2794: 2793: 2792: 2766: 2765: 2764: 2743: 2742: 2741: 2734: 2733: 2732: 2725: 2724: 2723: 2716: 2715: 2714: 2709: 2708: 2707: 2700: 2699: 2698: 2691: 2690: 2689: 2679: 2678: 2677: 2672: 2671: 2670: 2651: 2650: 2649: 2644: 2643: 2642: 2635: 2634: 2633: 2628: 2627: 2626: 2619: 2618: 2617: 2612: 2611: 2610: 2605:Photosynthesis 2603: 2602: 2601: 2596: 2595: 2594: 2587: 2586: 2585: 2580: 2579: 2578: 2571: 2570: 2569: 2564: 2563: 2562: 2560: 2557:0 — 2555: 2550: 2545: 2540: 2535: 2530: 2525: 2520: 2515: 2510: 2505: 2500: 2495: 2490: 2485: 2480: 2475: 2470: 2465: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2440: 2435: 2430: 2425: 2420: 2415: 2410: 2405: 2400: 2395: 2390: 2385: 2380: 2375: 2372: 2371: 2369: 2368: 2361: 2354: 2343: 2340: 2339: 2332: 2327: 2325: 2322: 2213: 2210: 2197:global warming 2143: 2140: 2033:founder effect 2005:gray tree frog 1940:Main article: 1937: 1934: 1879:photosynthesis 1860: 1857: 1803: 1800: 1642:Flavobacterium 1622: 1621: 1618:adaptive trait 1614: 1608: 1597:adaptive trait 1562: 1559: 1517:macroevolution 1470: 1467: 1438: 1435: 1394: 1391: 1367:neutral theory 1344: 1341: 1293:sampling error 1258: 1255: 1183:Graph 3 shows 1161:Graph 1 shows 1090: 1089: 1086: 1083: 1066:Main article: 1063: 1060: 1039: 1036: 976: 973: 924:organisms and 903: 900: 826: 823: 786:exon shuffling 714:Main article: 711: 708: 675: 668: 667: 666: 658: 651: 650: 649: 648: 647: 632:Main article: 629: 626: 519: 516: 355:Charles Darwin 316: 315: 313: 312: 305: 298: 290: 287: 286: 285: 284: 269: 268: 267: 266: 261: 256: 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 218: 217: 210: 209: 208: 207: 202: 197: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 155: 154: 150: 149: 148: 147: 142: 137: 135:Neutral theory 132: 127: 122: 117: 112: 107: 102: 97: 92: 84: 83: 79: 78: 68: 67: 59: 58: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 26436: 26425: 26422: 26420: 26417: 26415: 26412: 26410: 26407: 26406: 26404: 26389: 26385: 26381: 26379: 26371: 26370: 26367: 26361: 26358: 26356: 26353: 26351: 26348: 26346: 26343: 26339: 26336: 26335: 26334: 26333:Phylogenetics 26331: 26329: 26326: 26324: 26321: 26319: 26316: 26314: 26311: 26307: 26304: 26302: 26299: 26297: 26294: 26293: 26292: 26289: 26287: 26284: 26282: 26279: 26277: 26274: 26273: 26271: 26267: 26261: 26258: 26254: 26251: 26249: 26246: 26242: 26239: 26238: 26237: 26236:Structuralism 26234: 26232: 26229: 26227: 26224: 26222: 26219: 26217: 26214: 26212: 26211:Catastrophism 26209: 26208: 26207: 26204: 26202: 26199: 26198: 26196: 26192: 26186: 26183: 26181: 26178: 26176: 26173: 26171: 26170:Neo-Darwinism 26168: 26166: 26163: 26161: 26158: 26156: 26153: 26151: 26148: 26146: 26143: 26139: 26138: 26134: 26133: 26132: 26129: 26125: 26124: 26120: 26119: 26118: 26115: 26113: 26110: 26108: 26105: 26104: 26102: 26100: 26096: 26090: 26087: 26085: 26084:Reinforcement 26082: 26080: 26077: 26075: 26072: 26070: 26067: 26065: 26062: 26060: 26057: 26055: 26052: 26050: 26047: 26045: 26042: 26040: 26037: 26035: 26032: 26031: 26029: 26027: 26023: 26017: 26016:Catastrophism 26013: 26010: 26008: 26007:Macromutation 26004: 26003:Micromutation 26001: 25999: 25995: 25991: 25988: 25987: 25985: 25983: 25979: 25973: 25970: 25966: 25963: 25961: 25958: 25956: 25953: 25951: 25948: 25946: 25943: 25942: 25941: 25938: 25936: 25933: 25931: 25928: 25926: 25923: 25921: 25918: 25916: 25913: 25911: 25910:Immune system 25908: 25906: 25903: 25901: 25898: 25896: 25893: 25891: 25888: 25884: 25881: 25880: 25879: 25876: 25874: 25871: 25869: 25866: 25864: 25861: 25857: 25854: 25852: 25849: 25848: 25847: 25844: 25843: 25841: 25839: 25834: 25826: 25823: 25821: 25818: 25816: 25813: 25811: 25808: 25806: 25803: 25802: 25800: 25796: 25793: 25791: 25788: 25786: 25783: 25781: 25778: 25776: 25773: 25771: 25770:symbiogenesis 25768: 25767: 25766: 25763: 25761: 25758: 25756: 25753: 25751: 25748: 25747: 25745: 25743: 25738: 25732: 25729: 25727: 25724: 25722: 25719: 25717: 25714: 25710: 25707: 25706: 25705: 25702: 25698: 25695: 25691: 25688: 25686: 25683: 25682: 25681: 25678: 25676: 25673: 25671: 25668: 25666: 25663: 25661: 25658: 25654: 25651: 25649: 25646: 25645: 25644: 25641: 25639: 25636: 25635: 25634: 25631: 25629: 25626: 25622: 25619: 25618: 25617: 25614: 25612: 25609: 25607: 25604: 25602: 25599: 25595: 25592: 25591: 25590: 25587: 25585: 25582: 25578: 25575: 25574: 25573: 25570: 25568: 25565: 25564: 25562: 25560: 25555: 25549: 25546: 25544: 25541: 25539: 25536: 25534: 25531: 25529: 25526: 25524: 25521: 25520: 25518: 25514: 25508: 25505: 25503: 25500: 25498: 25495: 25491: 25488: 25486: 25483: 25481: 25478: 25477: 25476: 25473: 25471: 25468: 25466: 25463: 25461: 25458: 25456: 25453: 25449: 25446: 25444: 25441: 25440: 25439: 25438:Kin selection 25436: 25434: 25433:Genetic drift 25431: 25429: 25426: 25422: 25419: 25418: 25417: 25414: 25412: 25409: 25407: 25404: 25402: 25399: 25397: 25394: 25393: 25391: 25389: 25383: 25375: 25372: 25371: 25370: 25367: 25365: 25362: 25358: 25355: 25353: 25350: 25349: 25348: 25345: 25341: 25338: 25337: 25336: 25333: 25331: 25328: 25326: 25323: 25321: 25318: 25316: 25313: 25311: 25308: 25306: 25303: 25301: 25298: 25296: 25293: 25291: 25288: 25284: 25281: 25280: 25279: 25276: 25274: 25271: 25269: 25266: 25264: 25261: 25259: 25256: 25254: 25251: 25249: 25246: 25244: 25241: 25239: 25236: 25232: 25229: 25228: 25227: 25224: 25222: 25219: 25217: 25214: 25210: 25207: 25205: 25202: 25201: 25200: 25197: 25195: 25192: 25190: 25187: 25185: 25182: 25181: 25179: 25177: 25173: 25167: 25164: 25162: 25159: 25157: 25154: 25152: 25149: 25147: 25144: 25143: 25140: 25136: 25129: 25124: 25122: 25117: 25115: 25110: 25109: 25106: 25090: 25086: 25082: 25081: 25076: 25073: 25069: 25057: 25053: 25049: 25045: 25041: 25040: 25036: 25035: 25030: 25026: 25021: 25016: 25012: 25008: 25003: 24998: 24994: 24990: 24986: 24982: 24981: 24976: 24972: 24968: 24963: 24952: 24948: 24944: 24940: 24939: 24935: 24934: 24931: 24927: 24922: 24919: 24915: 24911: 24898: 24894: 24890: 24886: 24874: 24870: 24866: 24862: 24851: 24847: 24843: 24832: 24828: 24824: 24822: 24818: 24817: 24812: 24809: 24808: 24804: 24803: 24799: 24795: 24780: 24733: 24729: 24725: 24721: 24717: 24711: 24707: 24703: 24699: 24695: 24691: 24687: 24683: 24679: 24675: 24669: 24664: 24663: 24656: 24652: 24648: 24644: 24640: 24636: 24630: 24626: 24625: 24620: 24615: 24611: 24607: 24603: 24599: 24595: 24589: 24584: 24583: 24577: 24573: 24569: 24565: 24561: 24557: 24553: 24547: 24543: 24542: 24536: 24532: 24528: 24524: 24520: 24516: 24510: 24506: 24502: 24498: 24494: 24490: 24486: 24482: 24478: 24472: 24468: 24464: 24463:Orr, H. Allen 24459: 24455: 24451: 24447: 24443: 24439: 24433: 24429: 24425: 24421: 24417: 24413: 24412: 24408: 24407: 24402: 24398: 24394: 24390: 24386: 24380: 24376: 24372: 24371: 24365: 24361: 24357: 24353: 24349: 24345: 24339: 24335: 24334: 24328: 24324: 24320: 24316: 24312: 24308: 24302: 24298: 24294: 24289: 24282: 24278: 24274: 24270: 24266: 24260: 24256: 24251: 24250: 24243: 24242: 24239: 24235: 24231: 24227: 24223: 24217: 24213: 24209: 24208: 24203: 24199: 24195: 24191: 24187: 24183: 24179: 24173: 24169: 24168: 24162: 24158: 24154: 24150: 24146: 24142: 24136: 24131: 24130: 24124: 24120: 24116: 24112: 24108: 24104: 24100: 24096: 24090: 24086: 24085: 24079: 24075: 24071: 24067: 24063: 24059: 24053: 24049: 24045: 24040: 24039: 24035: 24034: 24027: 24024: 24022: 24019: 24017: 24014: 24013: 24008: 24003: 23997: 23982: 23978: 23974: 23970: 23966: 23960: 23955: 23954: 23948: 23944: 23940: 23936: 23932: 23928: 23924: 23918: 23914: 23910: 23906: 23902: 23898: 23894: 23890: 23886: 23882: 23878: 23874: 23870: 23864: 23860: 23856: 23852: 23848: 23844: 23840: 23836: 23832: 23828: 23822: 23818: 23813: 23812: 23806: 23801: 23797: 23791: 23787: 23782: 23778: 23774: 23770: 23766: 23762: 23756: 23752: 23751:Manfred Eigen 23748: 23744: 23740: 23736: 23732: 23728: 23724: 23720: 23716: 23712: 23708: 23704: 23700: 23696: 23692: 23688: 23682: 23678: 23673: 23672: 23666: 23662: 23658: 23654: 23650: 23646: 23642: 23638: 23632: 23628: 23623: 23622: 23616: 23612: 23608: 23604: 23600: 23596: 23592: 23588: 23582: 23578: 23577: 23572: 23568: 23564: 23560: 23556: 23552: 23548: 23544: 23540: 23536: 23530: 23526: 23522: 23518: 23514: 23508: 23504: 23500: 23496: 23492: 23488: 23482: 23478: 23477:Facts on File 23474: 23469: 23465: 23461: 23457: 23453: 23449: 23443: 23439: 23434: 23430: 23426: 23422: 23418: 23414: 23408: 23404: 23399: 23398: 23392: 23388: 23377: 23373: 23369: 23365: 23361: 23355: 23351: 23350: 23345: 23341: 23337: 23332: 23328: 23324: 23320: 23316: 23310: 23306: 23301: 23289: 23285: 23281: 23277: 23273: 23269: 23263: 23259: 23255: 23254: 23248: 23244: 23240: 23236: 23232: 23228: 23222: 23218: 23214: 23209: 23205: 23201: 23197: 23193: 23189: 23183: 23179: 23175: 23170: 23166: 23162: 23158: 23154: 23150: 23144: 23140: 23139:Belknap Press 23136: 23132: 23131: 23125: 23121: 23117: 23113: 23109: 23105: 23104: 23099: 23095: 23090: 23086: 23082: 23078: 23074: 23070: 23066: 23060: 23056: 23052: 23048: 23044: 23040: 23035: 23031: 23027: 23023: 23019: 23015: 23009: 23004: 23003: 22997: 22993: 22989: 22985: 22981: 22977: 22973: 22972:Collier Books 22968: 22967: 22960: 22956: 22944: 22940: 22936: 22932: 22928: 22924: 22923: 22918: 22914: 22910: 22898: 22894: 22890: 22886: 22882: 22878: 22872: 22868: 22864: 22863: 22857: 22853: 22849: 22845: 22841: 22837: 22831: 22827: 22823: 22818: 22815: 22812: at the 22811: 22806: 22802: 22798: 22797: 22792: 22788: 22784: 22780: 22776: 22772: 22768: 22762: 22758: 22754: 22753:Koza, John R. 22750: 22746: 22742: 22738: 22734: 22730: 22724: 22720: 22716: 22712: 22708: 22704: 22700: 22696: 22692: 22688: 22682: 22677: 22676: 22669: 22665: 22661: 22657: 22653: 22649: 22643: 22639: 22635: 22634: 22629: 22625: 22621: 22617: 22613: 22609: 22605: 22599: 22595: 22591: 22587: 22583: 22582:Hennig, Willi 22579: 22575: 22571: 22567: 22563: 22559: 22553: 22548: 22547: 22541: 22537: 22533: 22529: 22525: 22521: 22517: 22511: 22507: 22503: 22502: 22497: 22493: 22489: 22485: 22481: 22477: 22473: 22467: 22463: 22459: 22455: 22454: 22448: 22444: 22440: 22436: 22432: 22428: 22422: 22418: 22413: 22409: 22405: 22401: 22397: 22393: 22387: 22383: 22379: 22378: 22372: 22367: 22363: 22359: 22355: 22351: 22345: 22341: 22337: 22333: 22329: 22325: 22321: 22317: 22313: 22309: 22303: 22299: 22295: 22291: 22287: 22283: 22279: 22275: 22271: 22267: 22261: 22257: 22253: 22249: 22245: 22241: 22237: 22233: 22229: 22225: 22221: 22215: 22211: 22207: 22206: 22200: 22196: 22192: 22188: 22184: 22180: 22174: 22170: 22166: 22162: 22158: 22154: 22150: 22146: 22142: 22138: 22132: 22128: 22124: 22120: 22116: 22112: 22108: 22104: 22098: 22094: 22090: 22086: 22082: 22078: 22074: 22070: 22066: 22062: 22058: 22054: 22048: 22044: 22040: 22039: 22034: 22030: 22015: 22011: 22007: 22003: 21999: 21992: 21991: 21986: 21982: 21978: 21974: 21970: 21966: 21962: 21961: 21956: 21952: 21949: 21945: 21942: 21936: 21932: 21928: 21924: 21920: 21916: 21915: 21910: 21906: 21903: 21899: 21896: 21890: 21886: 21882: 21878: 21874: 21870: 21866: 21862: 21858: 21854: 21848: 21844: 21840: 21836: 21832: 21828: 21824: 21820: 21816: 21812: 21808: 21804: 21800: 21794: 21790: 21786: 21785: 21780: 21776: 21764: 21760: 21756: 21752: 21746: 21742: 21738: 21734: 21733: 21727: 21723: 21719: 21715: 21711: 21707: 21701: 21697: 21693: 21689: 21685: 21681: 21677: 21673: 21669: 21665: 21659: 21655: 21651: 21647: 21643: 21639: 21635: 21631: 21627: 21623: 21619: 21613: 21609: 21605: 21601: 21600:Browne, Janet 21597: 21593: 21589: 21585: 21581: 21577: 21571: 21567: 21562: 21561: 21555: 21551: 21547: 21543: 21539: 21535: 21531: 21525: 21521: 21517: 21513: 21509: 21505: 21501: 21497: 21493: 21487: 21483: 21479: 21475: 21470: 21466: 21462: 21458: 21454: 21450: 21446: 21442: 21436: 21432: 21428: 21423: 21418: 21414: 21410: 21406: 21402: 21401: 21387: 21383: 21379: 21375: 21371: 21367: 21363: 21359: 21355: 21348: 21340: 21336: 21332: 21328: 21323: 21318: 21314: 21310: 21309: 21304: 21302: 21296: 21295:Branch, Glenn 21290: 21282: 21278: 21274: 21270: 21266: 21262: 21258: 21254: 21250: 21246: 21242: 21238: 21234: 21227: 21219: 21215: 21211: 21207: 21203: 21199: 21194: 21189: 21185: 21181: 21180: 21175: 21169: 21161: 21157: 21153: 21149: 21145: 21141: 21137: 21133: 21129: 21125: 21118: 21112: 21107: 21096: 21092: 21088: 21084: 21080: 21076: 21072: 21068: 21064: 21060: 21056: 21049: 21042: 21023: 21019: 21015: 21011: 21007: 21003: 20999: 20994: 20989: 20985: 20981: 20977: 20973: 20966: 20962: 20956: 20946: 20942: 20938: 20934: 20930: 20926: 20922: 20918: 20917: 20912: 20908: 20906: 20903: 20891: 20887: 20883: 20882: 20877: 20873: 20869: 20868: 20864: 20861: 20860: 20856: 20849: 20844: 20838: 20833: 20825: 20821: 20817: 20813: 20809: 20805: 20801: 20797: 20793: 20789: 20788: 20783: 20776: 20757: 20753: 20749: 20744: 20739: 20735: 20731: 20726: 20721: 20717: 20713: 20706: 20702: 20698: 20692: 20681: 20677: 20673: 20669: 20665: 20661: 20657: 20652: 20647: 20643: 20639: 20632: 20628: 20622: 20616:, p. 280 20615: 20610: 20603: 20588: 20584: 20580: 20576: 20572: 20568: 20564: 20560: 20556: 20552: 20548: 20544: 20540: 20539: 20531: 20527: 20523: 20522:Watson, J. D. 20517: 20510: 20509:Levinson 2019 20505: 20498: 20493: 20491: 20482: 20478: 20474: 20470: 20466: 20462: 20458: 20454: 20450: 20446: 20445: 20440: 20433: 20427: 20422: 20416:, p. 480 20415: 20410: 20402: 20398: 20394: 20390: 20386: 20382: 20381: 20373: 20365: 20361: 20357: 20353: 20349: 20345: 20341: 20337: 20333: 20329: 20322: 20306: 20303: 20299: 20298: 20293: 20289: 20283: 20267: 20263: 20259: 20254: 20249: 20245: 20241: 20240: 20235: 20231: 20227: 20221: 20213: 20209: 20205: 20201: 20197: 20193: 20189: 20185: 20181: 20177: 20176: 20171: 20165: 20158: 20153: 20147:, p. 165 20146: 20141: 20133: 20129: 20124: 20119: 20115: 20111: 20106: 20101: 20097: 20093: 20089: 20085: 20084: 20079: 20077: 20071: 20065: 20049: 20045: 20039: 20031: 20027: 20023: 20019: 20015: 20011: 20007: 20003: 19999: 19995: 19994: 19989: 19983: 19964: 19960: 19957:. Cambridge: 19956: 19955: 19950: 19946: 19945: 19944: 19939: 19931: 19927: 19923: 19919: 19915: 19911: 19907: 19903: 19899: 19895: 19894: 19889: 19885: 19884:Jablonka, Eva 19879: 19863: 19859: 19855: 19851: 19847: 19843: 19837: 19831:, p. 162 19830: 19825: 19823: 19816: 19811: 19795: 19791: 19787: 19781: 19774: 19769: 19753: 19749: 19745: 19741: 19734: 19726: 19723: 19722: 19720: 19715: 19708: 19702: 19695: 19690: 19682: 19678: 19674: 19670: 19666: 19662: 19658: 19655:on behalf of 19654: 19650: 19646: 19642: 19641: 19636: 19630: 19622: 19618: 19614: 19610: 19606: 19602: 19598: 19594: 19590: 19586: 19585: 19580: 19573: 19554: 19550: 19546: 19542: 19538: 19531: 19527: 19526:Sedley, David 19521: 19515: 19510: 19503: 19498: 19491: 19486: 19478: 19474: 19470: 19466: 19462: 19458: 19454: 19450: 19446: 19442: 19438: 19432: 19424: 19420: 19416: 19412: 19408: 19404: 19400: 19396: 19392: 19388: 19384: 19380: 19376: 19369: 19361: 19357: 19352: 19347: 19343: 19339: 19338: 19333: 19329: 19323: 19315: 19311: 19307: 19303: 19299: 19295: 19291: 19287: 19283: 19279: 19275: 19271: 19265: 19257: 19253: 19249: 19245: 19241: 19237: 19233: 19229: 19225: 19221: 19220: 19212: 19194: 19190: 19186: 19182: 19178: 19174: 19170: 19166: 19161: 19160: 19157: 19153: 19149: 19145: 19141: 19137: 19133: 19129: 19125: 19121: 19117: 19113: 19106: 19090: 19086: 19082: 19078: 19074: 19070: 19066: 19062: 19058: 19057: 19052: 19048: 19044: 19038: 19022: 19018: 19014: 19010: 19006: 19002: 18996: 18988: 18984: 18980: 18976: 18972: 18968: 18964: 18960: 18956: 18952: 18951: 18946: 18940: 18932: 18928: 18924: 18920: 18916: 18912: 18907: 18902: 18898: 18894: 18893: 18888: 18884: 18880: 18874: 18864: 18860: 18856: 18852: 18848: 18844: 18840: 18836: 18831: 18830: 18827: 18823: 18819: 18815: 18811: 18807: 18803: 18799: 18798: 18790: 18782: 18778: 18774: 18770: 18766: 18762: 18755: 18747: 18743: 18739: 18735: 18731: 18727: 18723: 18719: 18715: 18711: 18707: 18700: 18692: 18688: 18684: 18680: 18676: 18672: 18668: 18664: 18657: 18649: 18645: 18640: 18635: 18630: 18625: 18621: 18617: 18613: 18609: 18605: 18598: 18588: 18584: 18579: 18574: 18570: 18566: 18562: 18557: 18556: 18553: 18549: 18544: 18539: 18535: 18531: 18527: 18523: 18519: 18512: 18504: 18500: 18495: 18490: 18486: 18482: 18478: 18474: 18470: 18466: 18462: 18458: 18452: 18450: 18438: 18434: 18430: 18426: 18422: 18418: 18414: 18410: 18406: 18401: 18396: 18392: 18388: 18384: 18380: 18373: 18366: 18358: 18354: 18350: 18346: 18342: 18338: 18333: 18328: 18324: 18320: 18316: 18310: 18302: 18298: 18294: 18290: 18286: 18282: 18278: 18274: 18270: 18266: 18259: 18251: 18247: 18243: 18239: 18235: 18231: 18227: 18223: 18219: 18215: 18211: 18207: 18203: 18196: 18188: 18184: 18180: 18176: 18172: 18168: 18164: 18160: 18156: 18152: 18145: 18139: 18135: 18130: 18122: 18118: 18113: 18108: 18104: 18100: 18096: 18092: 18088: 18084: 18080: 18073: 18065: 18061: 18056: 18051: 18047: 18043: 18038: 18033: 18029: 18025: 18021: 18017: 18013: 18006: 18000: 17996: 17991: 17983: 17979: 17975: 17971: 17967: 17963: 17959: 17955: 17954: 17946: 17938: 17934: 17930: 17926: 17922: 17918: 17914: 17910: 17906: 17902: 17898: 17894: 17890: 17883: 17875: 17871: 17867: 17863: 17858: 17853: 17849: 17845: 17841: 17834: 17826: 17822: 17818: 17814: 17810: 17806: 17802: 17798: 17794: 17790: 17786: 17780: 17764: 17760: 17759: 17754: 17747: 17736: 17732: 17728: 17724: 17720: 17716: 17712: 17705: 17698: 17682: 17678: 17674: 17670: 17666: 17662: 17655: 17649: 17644: 17638: 17634: 17629: 17621: 17617: 17612: 17607: 17603: 17599: 17594: 17589: 17585: 17581: 17577: 17570: 17564: 17560: 17559:McKinney 1997 17555: 17539: 17535: 17531: 17527: 17526: 17521: 17517: 17511: 17495: 17491: 17487: 17483: 17479: 17478: 17473: 17466: 17447: 17443: 17439: 17434: 17429: 17425: 17421: 17416: 17411: 17407: 17403: 17399: 17395: 17388: 17384: 17383:Mao, Wendy L. 17377: 17361: 17357: 17353: 17349: 17348: 17343: 17336: 17334: 17326: 17321: 17313: 17309: 17305: 17301: 17297: 17293: 17289: 17285: 17284: 17279: 17275: 17268: 17261: 17256: 17240: 17236: 17232: 17226: 17218: 17214: 17210: 17206: 17202: 17198: 17194: 17190: 17186: 17182: 17181: 17173: 17167: 17162: 17156: 17151: 17145: 17140: 17132: 17128: 17124: 17120: 17116: 17112: 17108: 17104: 17100: 17096: 17092: 17088: 17084: 17080: 17074: 17066: 17062: 17057: 17052: 17047: 17042: 17038: 17034: 17030: 17023: 17015: 17011: 17006: 17001: 16997: 16993: 16988: 16983: 16979: 16975: 16974:PLOS Genetics 16971: 16964: 16956: 16952: 16948: 16944: 16940: 16936: 16932: 16928: 16927: 16919: 16911: 16907: 16903: 16899: 16895: 16891: 16887: 16883: 16882:Weed Research 16876: 16868: 16864: 16859: 16854: 16850: 16846: 16841: 16836: 16832: 16828: 16827:PLOS Genetics 16824: 16822: 16821:Culex pipiens 16813: 16805: 16801: 16797: 16793: 16788: 16783: 16779: 16775: 16771: 16764: 16756: 16752: 16748: 16744: 16740: 16736: 16732: 16728: 16727: 16718: 16710: 16706: 16702: 16698: 16694: 16690: 16686: 16682: 16678: 16674: 16673: 16668: 16661: 16653: 16649: 16644: 16639: 16635: 16631: 16626: 16621: 16617: 16613: 16612:PLOS Genetics 16609: 16607: 16603: 16594: 16586: 16582: 16578: 16574: 16570: 16566: 16561: 16556: 16552: 16548: 16544: 16540: 16536: 16529: 16521: 16517: 16513: 16509: 16505: 16501: 16496: 16491: 16487: 16483: 16479: 16472: 16464: 16460: 16456: 16452: 16448: 16444: 16440: 16436: 16435: 16427: 16419: 16415: 16411: 16407: 16403: 16399: 16394: 16389: 16385: 16381: 16377: 16373: 16366: 16358: 16354: 16350: 16346: 16342: 16338: 16334: 16328: 16320: 16316: 16311: 16306: 16301: 16296: 16292: 16288: 16284: 16280: 16276: 16269: 16261: 16257: 16253: 16249: 16245: 16241: 16237: 16233: 16229: 16225: 16221: 16217: 16216: 16211: 16207: 16201: 16199: 16197: 16180: 16176: 16175: 16170: 16164: 16148: 16144: 16140: 16136: 16132: 16125: 16123: 16116: 16112: 16107: 16105: 16096: 16092: 16087: 16082: 16078: 16074: 16070: 16066: 16062: 16058: 16054: 16047: 16039: 16035: 16031: 16027: 16023: 16019: 16015: 16011: 16006: 16001: 15997: 15993: 15989: 15985: 15981: 15975: 15967: 15963: 15958: 15953: 15949: 15945: 15940: 15935: 15931: 15927: 15923: 15919: 15915: 15911: 15907: 15901: 15893: 15889: 15884: 15879: 15875: 15871: 15866: 15861: 15857: 15853: 15849: 15845: 15841: 15834: 15826: 15822: 15817: 15812: 15807: 15802: 15798: 15794: 15790: 15786: 15782: 15775: 15773: 15771: 15762: 15758: 15753: 15748: 15743: 15738: 15734: 15730: 15726: 15722: 15718: 15714: 15707: 15699: 15695: 15691: 15687: 15683: 15679: 15675: 15671: 15667: 15663: 15659: 15653: 15645: 15641: 15637: 15633: 15629: 15625: 15621: 15617: 15613: 15609: 15605: 15601: 15595: 15588: 15583: 15575: 15571: 15567: 15563: 15559: 15555: 15548: 15540: 15536: 15532: 15528: 15524: 15520: 15516: 15512: 15508: 15502: 15494: 15490: 15486: 15482: 15477: 15472: 15468: 15464: 15460: 15458: 15449: 15433: 15429: 15425: 15420: 15415: 15411: 15407: 15403: 15401: 15395: 15394:Tavaré, Simon 15388: 15380: 15376: 15372: 15368: 15364: 15360: 15355: 15350: 15346: 15342: 15338: 15334: 15330: 15323: 15315: 15311: 15306: 15301: 15297: 15293: 15288: 15283: 15279: 15275: 15271: 15267: 15263: 15256: 15248: 15244: 15240: 15236: 15232: 15228: 15224: 15220: 15216: 15212: 15205: 15187: 15183: 15179: 15175: 15171: 15167: 15163: 15159: 15155: 15151: 15147: 15143: 15139: 15135: 15130: 15129: 15126: 15122: 15118: 15114: 15110: 15106: 15102: 15098: 15094: 15090: 15086: 15082: 15078: 15074: 15068: 15060: 15056: 15052: 15048: 15044: 15040: 15036: 15032: 15028: 15024: 15020: 15013: 15005: 15001: 14997: 14993: 14989: 14985: 14981: 14977: 14973: 14969: 14968: 14963: 14957: 14941: 14937: 14933: 14928: 14923: 14919: 14915: 14911: 14907: 14903: 14901: 14895: 14889: 14881: 14877: 14873: 14869: 14865: 14861: 14857: 14853: 14849: 14845: 14841: 14834: 14826: 14822: 14818: 14814: 14810: 14806: 14802: 14798: 14794: 14790: 14786: 14784: 14775: 14767: 14763: 14758: 14753: 14749: 14745: 14740: 14735: 14731: 14727: 14723: 14719: 14715: 14708: 14698: 14694: 14690: 14686: 14682: 14678: 14674: 14670: 14666: 14662: 14658: 14653: 14641: 14637: 14633: 14628: 14624: 14620: 14616: 14612: 14608: 14604: 14600: 14596: 14591: 14590: 14587: 14583: 14579: 14575: 14571: 14567: 14563: 14559: 14555: 14551: 14547: 14543: 14536: 14528: 14524: 14520: 14516: 14512: 14508: 14503: 14498: 14494: 14490: 14486: 14482: 14478: 14471: 14463: 14459: 14455: 14451: 14447: 14443: 14439: 14435: 14431: 14427: 14426: 14418: 14410: 14406: 14401: 14396: 14392: 14388: 14384: 14380: 14376: 14372: 14368: 14361: 14353: 14349: 14345: 14341: 14337: 14330: 14322: 14318: 14314: 14310: 14306: 14302: 14298: 14294: 14290: 14286: 14279: 14273:, p. 120 14272: 14267: 14259: 14255: 14251: 14247: 14243: 14239: 14235: 14231: 14230: 14225: 14221: 14215: 14213: 14204: 14200: 14195: 14190: 14185: 14180: 14176: 14172: 14168: 14164: 14160: 14153: 14151: 14149: 14140: 14136: 14132: 14128: 14124: 14120: 14116: 14112: 14105: 14103: 14094: 14090: 14085: 14080: 14075: 14070: 14066: 14062: 14058: 14054: 14050: 14043: 14035: 14031: 14027: 14023: 14019: 14015: 14011: 14007: 14003: 13996: 13988: 13984: 13979: 13974: 13970: 13966: 13961: 13956: 13952: 13948: 13944: 13940: 13936: 13932: 13925: 13917: 13913: 13909: 13905: 13901: 13897: 13893: 13889: 13888: 13880: 13872: 13868: 13864: 13860: 13856: 13852: 13848: 13844: 13840: 13836: 13835: 13827: 13819: 13815: 13811: 13807: 13803: 13799: 13795: 13791: 13787: 13783: 13776: 13766: 13762: 13757: 13752: 13748: 13744: 13740: 13736: 13732: 13728: 13724: 13720: 13716: 13715: 13712: 13708: 13704: 13700: 13696: 13692: 13688: 13684: 13677: 13659: 13655: 13650: 13644: 13640: 13636: 13632: 13628: 13624: 13620: 13616: 13612: 13608: 13603: 13602: 13599: 13595: 13591: 13587: 13583: 13579: 13575: 13571: 13567: 13563: 13556: 13548: 13544: 13540: 13536: 13532: 13528: 13524: 13520: 13516: 13510: 13502: 13498: 13494: 13490: 13485: 13480: 13476: 13472: 13471: 13466: 13459: 13451: 13447: 13443: 13439: 13434: 13429: 13425: 13421: 13417: 13413: 13409: 13402: 13394: 13390: 13386: 13382: 13378: 13374: 13370: 13366: 13362: 13358: 13351: 13341: 13337: 13333: 13329: 13325: 13321: 13317: 13312: 13311: 13308: 13304: 13300: 13296: 13292: 13288: 13284: 13283: 13278: 13271: 13263: 13259: 13255: 13251: 13247: 13243: 13239: 13235: 13231: 13224: 13216: 13212: 13208: 13204: 13200: 13196: 13192: 13188: 13184: 13177: 13170: 13165: 13157: 13153: 13148: 13143: 13138: 13133: 13129: 13125: 13121: 13117: 13113: 13106: 13087: 13083: 13079: 13075: 13071: 13067: 13063: 13059: 13055: 13051: 13047: 13040: 13038: 13029: 13022: 13017: 13015: 13007: 13002: 12995: 12990: 12983: 12978: 12971: 12966: 12959: 12954: 12946: 12942: 12938: 12934: 12930: 12926: 12922: 12921: 12916: 12909: 12890: 12886: 12882: 12878: 12874: 12870: 12866: 12862: 12858: 12854: 12850: 12843: 12836: 12828: 12824: 12820: 12816: 12812: 12808: 12804: 12800: 12796: 12792: 12791: 12786: 12779: 12771: 12767: 12763: 12759: 12754: 12749: 12745: 12741: 12734: 12726: 12722: 12718: 12714: 12710: 12706: 12702: 12698: 12691: 12683: 12679: 12675: 12671: 12670: 12662: 12660: 12658: 12649: 12645: 12641: 12637: 12633: 12629: 12625: 12621: 12617: 12613: 12609: 12605: 12601: 12595: 12587: 12583: 12579: 12575: 12571: 12567: 12563: 12559: 12555: 12551: 12547: 12540: 12532: 12528: 12524: 12520: 12516: 12512: 12505: 12503: 12494: 12490: 12486: 12482: 12478: 12474: 12470: 12466: 12462: 12458: 12454: 12447: 12439: 12435: 12431: 12427: 12423: 12419: 12415: 12411: 12407: 12400: 12398: 12389: 12385: 12381: 12377: 12373: 12369: 12365: 12361: 12357: 12350: 12342: 12338: 12333: 12328: 12324: 12320: 12316: 12312: 12308: 12304: 12300: 12298: 12294: 12285: 12277: 12273: 12269: 12265: 12261: 12257: 12253: 12249: 12245: 12241: 12240:Masel, Joanna 12235: 12228: 12223: 12215: 12211: 12207: 12203: 12199: 12195: 12191: 12187: 12183: 12179: 12178: 12169: 12161: 12157: 12153: 12149: 12145: 12141: 12137: 12133: 12132: 12124: 12116: 12112: 12107: 12102: 12098: 12094: 12089: 12084: 12080: 12076: 12072: 12068: 12064: 12060: 12054: 12046: 12042: 12038: 12034: 12030: 12026: 12022: 12018: 12014: 12010: 12006: 12002: 11995: 11987: 11983: 11978: 11973: 11969: 11965: 11960: 11955: 11951: 11947: 11943: 11939: 11935: 11933: 11924: 11916: 11912: 11908: 11904: 11900: 11896: 11891: 11886: 11882: 11878: 11874: 11872: 11863: 11855: 11851: 11847: 11843: 11839: 11835: 11831: 11827: 11823: 11821: 11817: 11808: 11801: 11796: 11789: 11784: 11776: 11772: 11768: 11764: 11760: 11756: 11752: 11748: 11744: 11740: 11733: 11726: 11722: 11716: 11709: 11704: 11696: 11692: 11688: 11684: 11680: 11676: 11672: 11668: 11664: 11660: 11656: 11649: 11641: 11637: 11633: 11629: 11625: 11621: 11617: 11613: 11609: 11605: 11601: 11597: 11593: 11586: 11578: 11574: 11570: 11566: 11562: 11558: 11554: 11550: 11546: 11542: 11538: 11534: 11533: 11528: 11521: 11513: 11509: 11504: 11499: 11495: 11491: 11487: 11483: 11482: 11477: 11473: 11466: 11464: 11455: 11451: 11446: 11441: 11437: 11433: 11428: 11423: 11419: 11415: 11411: 11407: 11403: 11396: 11388: 11384: 11380: 11376: 11372: 11368: 11364: 11360: 11356: 11352: 11348: 11344: 11338: 11331: 11326: 11310: 11306: 11305: 11300: 11293: 11277: 11273: 11269: 11265: 11261: 11254: 11246: 11242: 11238: 11234: 11230: 11226: 11225: 11220: 11214: 11206: 11202: 11197: 11192: 11187: 11182: 11178: 11174: 11170: 11166: 11162: 11155: 11153: 11145: 11140: 11132: 11128: 11124: 11120: 11116: 11112: 11108: 11104: 11099: 11094: 11090: 11086: 11082: 11076: 11068: 11064: 11060: 11056: 11052: 11048: 11044: 11040: 11036: 11029: 11021: 11017: 11012: 11007: 11002: 10997: 10993: 10989: 10985: 10981: 10977: 10973: 10969: 10963: 10961: 10959: 10950: 10946: 10941: 10936: 10932: 10928: 10924: 10920: 10916: 10912: 10908: 10904: 10900: 10893: 10885: 10881: 10877: 10873: 10869: 10865: 10861: 10857: 10853: 10849: 10845: 10841: 10834: 10815: 10811: 10807: 10803: 10799: 10792: 10785: 10777: 10773: 10768: 10763: 10759: 10755: 10751: 10747: 10743: 10739: 10738: 10733: 10729: 10723: 10712: 10708: 10704: 10700: 10696: 10692: 10688: 10683: 10678: 10674: 10670: 10663: 10656: 10648: 10644: 10640: 10636: 10632: 10625: 10617: 10613: 10608: 10603: 10599: 10595: 10591: 10587: 10583: 10579: 10575: 10571: 10565: 10557: 10553: 10548: 10543: 10539: 10535: 10531: 10527: 10523: 10519: 10518: 10513: 10506: 10498: 10494: 10490: 10486: 10482: 10478: 10474: 10470: 10466: 10462: 10455: 10447: 10443: 10438: 10433: 10429: 10425: 10421: 10417: 10413: 10406: 10398: 10394: 10389: 10384: 10379: 10374: 10370: 10366: 10362: 10360: 10351: 10343: 10339: 10334: 10329: 10325: 10321: 10317: 10313: 10309: 10302: 10294: 10287: 10279: 10275: 10270: 10265: 10260: 10255: 10251: 10247: 10246: 10245:PLOS Genetics 10241: 10237: 10230: 10222: 10218: 10214: 10210: 10206: 10202: 10198: 10194: 10187: 10179: 10175: 10171: 10167: 10163: 10159: 10155: 10151: 10147: 10143: 10139: 10137: 10128: 10120: 10116: 10112: 10108: 10104: 10100: 10096: 10092: 10088: 10084: 10080: 10076: 10075: 10067: 10059: 10055: 10050: 10045: 10041: 10037: 10033: 10029: 10022: 10014: 10010: 10005: 10000: 9996: 9992: 9988: 9984: 9983: 9978: 9974: 9968: 9960: 9956: 9951: 9946: 9941: 9936: 9932: 9928: 9924: 9920: 9916: 9909: 9901: 9897: 9892: 9887: 9882: 9877: 9873: 9869: 9865: 9861: 9857: 9853: 9846: 9838: 9834: 9830: 9826: 9823:(1): 82–101. 9822: 9818: 9817: 9812: 9811:Freese, Ernst 9806: 9798: 9794: 9789: 9784: 9779: 9774: 9770: 9766: 9762: 9758: 9754: 9747: 9739: 9735: 9731: 9727: 9723: 9719: 9715: 9711: 9710: 9702: 9700: 9698: 9691: 9686: 9678: 9674: 9670: 9666: 9662: 9658: 9654: 9650: 9649: 9641: 9631: 9627: 9622: 9617: 9613: 9609: 9605: 9601: 9597: 9593: 9589: 9584: 9583: 9580: 9576: 9571: 9566: 9562: 9558: 9554: 9550: 9546: 9542: 9541: 9536: 9532: 9526: 9518: 9514: 9510: 9506: 9502: 9498: 9494: 9490: 9486: 9482: 9478: 9471: 9463: 9459: 9454: 9449: 9445: 9441: 9437: 9433: 9429: 9427: 9418: 9410: 9406: 9402: 9398: 9394: 9390: 9386: 9382: 9378: 9372: 9370: 9350: 9346: 9342: 9337: 9332: 9328: 9324: 9320: 9316: 9309: 9302: 9294: 9290: 9286: 9282: 9278: 9274: 9267: 9259: 9255: 9250: 9245: 9240: 9235: 9231: 9227: 9223: 9216: 9208: 9204: 9200: 9196: 9192: 9188: 9184: 9180: 9176: 9169: 9161: 9157: 9152: 9147: 9143: 9139: 9135: 9131: 9127: 9123: 9119: 9112: 9104: 9100: 9095: 9090: 9085: 9080: 9076: 9072: 9068: 9061: 9045: 9041: 9037: 9033: 9029: 9025: 9021: 9017: 9013: 9009: 9005: 9001: 8994: 8986: 8982: 8977: 8972: 8968: 8964: 8960: 8956: 8951: 8946: 8942: 8938: 8934: 8927: 8919: 8915: 8911: 8907: 8903: 8899: 8894: 8889: 8885: 8881: 8877: 8873: 8867: 8865: 8856: 8852: 8848: 8844: 8840: 8836: 8831: 8826: 8822: 8818: 8817: 8812: 8805: 8797: 8793: 8789: 8785: 8781: 8777: 8773: 8769: 8765: 8761: 8755: 8747: 8743: 8739: 8735: 8731: 8727: 8723: 8719: 8712: 8704: 8700: 8696: 8691: 8686: 8682: 8678: 8677: 8672: 8668: 8667:Kimura, Motoo 8662: 8654: 8650: 8646: 8642: 8638: 8634: 8630: 8626: 8625: 8620: 8613: 8605: 8601: 8597: 8593: 8589: 8585: 8580: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8563: 8559: 8555: 8548: 8546: 8538: 8533: 8525: 8521: 8516: 8511: 8507: 8503: 8498: 8493: 8489: 8485: 8481: 8477: 8473: 8469: 8462: 8454: 8450: 8446: 8442: 8438: 8434: 8430: 8426: 8422: 8418: 8417: 8409: 8402: 8397: 8389: 8385: 8380: 8375: 8371: 8367: 8362: 8357: 8353: 8349: 8345: 8341: 8337: 8333: 8327: 8319: 8315: 8310: 8305: 8301: 8297: 8293: 8289: 8285: 8281: 8277: 8273: 8267: 8265: 8258: 8253: 8246: 8241: 8233: 8229: 8224: 8219: 8215: 8211: 8207: 8203: 8199: 8195: 8189: 8181: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8157: 8153: 8149: 8145: 8141: 8137: 8130: 8122: 8118: 8114: 8110: 8106: 8102: 8098: 8094: 8093: 8088: 8081: 8073: 8069: 8065: 8061: 8057: 8053: 8049: 8045: 8044: 8036: 8028: 8024: 8020: 8016: 8012: 8008: 8004: 8000: 7996: 7992: 7985: 7977: 7973: 7969: 7965: 7961: 7957: 7953: 7949: 7945: 7941: 7937: 7933: 7929: 7923: 7915: 7911: 7907: 7903: 7899: 7895: 7891: 7887: 7883: 7879: 7875: 7871: 7865: 7857: 7853: 7848: 7843: 7839: 7835: 7831: 7827: 7823: 7819: 7815: 7811: 7810:Orr, H. Allen 7805: 7803: 7801: 7792: 7788: 7783: 7778: 7774: 7770: 7766: 7762: 7758: 7754: 7750: 7744: 7738: 7734: 7729: 7721: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7705: 7701: 7697: 7693: 7689: 7683: 7681: 7679: 7672: 7667: 7656: 7652: 7648: 7644: 7640: 7636: 7632: 7628: 7624: 7620: 7616: 7609: 7605: 7601: 7595: 7576: 7572: 7568: 7564: 7560: 7556: 7552: 7551: 7543: 7539: 7532: 7524: 7520: 7516: 7512: 7508: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7490: 7486: 7485: 7480: 7476: 7475:Sterelny, Kim 7469: 7461: 7457: 7453: 7449: 7445: 7441: 7437: 7433: 7429: 7425: 7421: 7417: 7416: 7408: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7377: 7373: 7369: 7365: 7361: 7357: 7353: 7349: 7342: 7340: 7334: 7327: 7308: 7304: 7300: 7296: 7292: 7288: 7284: 7280: 7276: 7271: 7266: 7262: 7258: 7251: 7244: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7220: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7184: 7177: 7169: 7165: 7160: 7155: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7130: 7125: 7118: 7102: 7098: 7094: 7090: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7058: 7054: 7053: 7048: 7044: 7037: 7029: 7025: 7021: 7017: 7013: 7009: 7005: 7001: 6994: 6986: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6968: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6938: 6934: 6932: 6923: 6915: 6911: 6907: 6903: 6899: 6895: 6891: 6887: 6886: 6878: 6870: 6866: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6850: 6846: 6842: 6841: 6833: 6825: 6821: 6816: 6811: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6795: 6791: 6787: 6783: 6779: 6778: 6773: 6770:(June 2004). 6769: 6762: 6755: 6751: 6745: 6738: 6734: 6728: 6721: 6716: 6708: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6690: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6672: 6668: 6664: 6660: 6656: 6652: 6648: 6642: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6611: 6607: 6600: 6596: 6590: 6584:, p. 314 6583: 6578: 6576: 6569: 6564: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6497: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6469: 6465: 6461: 6460: 6452: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6428: 6424: 6420: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6389: 6381: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6344: 6336: 6328: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6310: 6306: 6302: 6295: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6250: 6242: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6203: 6198: 6194: 6187: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6155: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6136: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6087: 6082: 6075: 6067: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6015: 6007: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5968:Cell Research 5965: 5958: 5950: 5946: 5941: 5936: 5932: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5909: 5904: 5897: 5881: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5838: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5819: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5762: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5730: 5726: 5725: 5720: 5713: 5707: 5702: 5694: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5641: 5633: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5592: 5585: 5580: 5572: 5568: 5563: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5533: 5528: 5521: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5499: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5477: 5476: 5473: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5424: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5373: 5371: 5362: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5313: 5307: 5302: 5300: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5262: 5254: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5195: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5130: 5128: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5090: 5082: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5044: 5040: 5034: 5028: 5024: 5021: 5017: 5012: 5005: 5000: 4993: 4988: 4980: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4933: 4928: 4926: 4920: 4916: 4910: 4908: 4891: 4887: 4886: 4881: 4874: 4872: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4842: 4837: 4830: 4828: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4790: 4782: 4780: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4742: 4737: 4731: 4729: 4720: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4679: 4674: 4667: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4607: 4599: 4595: 4589: 4587: 4580: 4576: 4571: 4564: 4559: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4507: 4499: 4495: 4489: 4487: 4480: 4475: 4468: 4463: 4456: 4451: 4444: 4439: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4400: 4395: 4391: 4384: 4382: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4359: 4353: 4349: 4344: 4340: 4330: 4329:Chronospecies 4327: 4324: 4321: 4320: 4314: 4311: 4309: 4308: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4282: 4278: 4277:Earth science 4274: 4270: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4256: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4230: 4228: 4223: 4215: 4211: 4206: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4171: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4140: 4138: 4134: 4131:penned that " 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4101:Francis Crick 4098: 4094: 4089: 4087: 4077: 4075: 4070: 4064: 4054: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4043:Sewall Wright 4040: 4039:Ronald Fisher 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4015:Hugo de Vries 4012: 4011:somatic cells 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3983:Gregor Mendel 3980: 3970: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3919: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3896: 3894: 3893: 3888: 3887:William Paley 3884: 3880: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3850: 3848: 3847:Carl Linnaeus 3844: 3839: 3834: 3833:physical laws 3830: 3829:"New Science" 3823:Pre-Darwinian 3820: 3818: 3817: 3812: 3807: 3804: 3800: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3772:materialistic 3763: 3745: 3744: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3714: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3697: 3693: 3687: 3683: 3677: 3673: 3668: 3662: 3652: 3649: 3648:modern humans 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3627: 3624: 3620: 3615: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3584: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3573:endosymbiosis 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3522: 3518: 3508: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3492: 3488: 3486: 3485:Coral of life 3477: 3473: 3468: 3464: 3462: 3458: 3452: 3448: 3438: 3436: 3430: 3426: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3363: 3357: 3345: 3344: 3336: 3329: 3319: 3314: 3309: 3308: 3299: 3295: 3294:Earliest apes 3290: 3285: 3284: 3274: 3273:Karoo ice age 3269: 3264: 3263: 3254: 3249: 3244: 3243: 3233: 3228: 3223: 3222: 3213: 3208: 3203: 3202: 3193: 3188: 3183: 3182: 3172: 3167: 3162: 3161: 3152: 3147: 3142: 3141: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3121: 3112: 3107: 3102: 3101: 3092: 3087: 3082: 3081: 3072: 3067: 3062: 3061: 3051: 3046: 3041: 3040: 3031: 3026: 3021: 3020: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2999: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2979: 2970: 2965: 2960: 2959: 2950: 2945: 2940: 2939: 2930: 2925: 2920: 2919: 2910: 2905: 2900: 2899: 2890: 2885: 2880: 2879: 2856: 2825: 2787: 2759: 2737: 2728: 2719: 2703: 2694: 2685: 2682: 2666: 2638: 2622: 2606: 2590: 2574: 2373: 2367: 2362: 2360: 2355: 2353: 2348: 2347: 2341: 2337: 2335:Life timeline 2330: 2321: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2286: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2270: 2267: 2263: 2262:Mexican tetra 2259: 2254: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2235:domestication 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2209: 2207: 2201: 2198: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2159: 2154: 2149: 2139: 2136: 2132: 2127: 2125: 2121: 2120: 2115: 2114: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2096:crossbreeding 2092: 2090: 2085: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2059: 2055: 2054:reinforcement 2051: 2050: 2045: 2040: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2025: 2022: 2018: 2013: 2008: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1985: 1981: 1979: 1974: 1968: 1963: 1958: 1953: 1949: 1943: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1922:kin selection 1918: 1916: 1915:causes cancer 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1890: 1888: 1887:immune system 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1866: 1856: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1826: 1823: 1819: 1814: 1809: 1799: 1797: 1792: 1787: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1752: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1720: 1718: 1717:deep homology 1714: 1710: 1706: 1701: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1667: 1663: 1661: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1649: 1644: 1643: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1629: 1619: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1602: 1601: 1598: 1594: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1568: 1558: 1556: 1552: 1547: 1543: 1538: 1534: 1529: 1527: 1523: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1498: 1494: 1491:evolution by 1490: 1466: 1464: 1454: 1449: 1444: 1434: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1390: 1388: 1382: 1378: 1376: 1370: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1355: 1353: 1349: 1348:Mutation bias 1343:Mutation bias 1340: 1338: 1332: 1328: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1305: 1301: 1296: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1264: 1263:Genetic drift 1257:Genetic drift 1254: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1239: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1212: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1186: 1182: 1177: 1173: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1155: 1150: 1146: 1144: 1138: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1122: 1119: 1114: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1087: 1084: 1081: 1080: 1079: 1075: 1069: 1059: 1056: 1055:neo-Darwinian 1048: 1044: 1035: 1033: 1032:symbiogenesis 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 982: 972: 970: 966: 962: 958: 953: 951: 947: 943: 942: 937: 936: 931: 927: 923: 918: 916: 909: 899: 896: 892: 888: 887:invertebrates 884: 876: 873: 869: 865: 860: 856: 854: 850: 846: 840: 836: 832: 822: 820: 816: 815: 810: 805: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 782: 780: 778: 772: 767: 765: 761: 760:colour vision 757: 753: 752:gene families 749: 745: 740: 736: 734: 727: 722: 717: 707: 705: 699: 697: 693: 689: 679: 672: 662: 661:peppered moth 655: 645: 641: 635: 625: 623: 619: 615: 611: 606: 602: 598: 593: 591: 587: 582: 578: 577: 571: 569: 568: 563: 558: 550: 546: 542: 538: 533: 529: 525: 515: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 487: 483: 479: 475: 474:Morphological 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 450:microbial mat 447: 444: 440: 439:fossil record 436: 432: 427: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 392: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 365: 360: 356: 352: 347: 345: 341: 337: 336:genetic drift 333: 329: 326: 322: 311: 306: 304: 299: 297: 292: 291: 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The 3585: 3569: 3493: 3489: 3481: 3454: 3431: 3427: 3388: 3341: 2889:Earth formed 2287: 2271: 2255: 2232: 2229: 2212:Applications 2202: 2176: 2156: 2128: 2123: 2117: 2111: 2093: 2082:Finally, in 2081: 2047: 2041: 2026: 2009: 1982: 1969: 1966: 1929: 1925: 1919: 1891: 1868: 1841:tetrodotoxin 1830: 1825:tetrodotoxin 1788: 1759: 1753: 1733:wisdom teeth 1721: 1696: 1686: 1678: 1674: 1671:baleen whale 1646: 1640: 1626: 1623: 1617: 1610: 1604: 1596: 1592: 1589: 1533:orthogenesis 1530: 1501: 1497:trimethoprim 1492: 1463:hard-to-fake 1459: 1418:expectations 1410: 1383: 1379: 1371: 1362: 1359:Ernst Freese 1356: 1346: 1333: 1329: 1297: 1288: 1282: 1240: 1213: 1190: 1180: 1171: 1169:is favoured. 1158: 1139: 1134: 1126: 1123: 1115: 1091: 1077: 1052: 1023:canalisation 1003:conformation 984: 965:mitochondria 961:chloroplasts 954: 939: 933: 919: 911: 898:beneficial. 880: 871: 867: 863: 848: 842: 818: 812: 806: 783: 776: 768: 764:night vision 762:and one for 746:(usually by 741: 737: 730: 700: 685: 618:quantitative 594: 574: 572: 565: 554: 549:double helix 490: 428: 393: 385:heritability 362: 348: 340:biodiversity 320: 319: 161:Introduction 94: 63: 62: 53:Part of the 47: 26355:Systematics 26226:Mutationism 26044:Catagenesis 25972:Snake venom 25905:Eusociality 25883:in primates 25873:Cooperation 25801:In animals 25621:butterflies 25594:Cephalopods 25584:Brachiopods 25516:Development 25490:Mate choice 25243:Convergence 25226:Coevolution 25184:Abiogenesis 24936:Experiments 24816:In Our Time 24811:"Evolution" 23727:agr11000774 23677:McGraw-Hill 23381:22 November 23294:27 December 23258:Brooks/Cole 23098:Mayr, Ernst 22949:25 November 22715:Raven, John 22496:Gray, Peter 22023:27 November 21919:John Murray 21356:in China". 21111:Bowler 2003 20905:Bowler 2003 20848:Browne 2003 20765:29 December 20614:Hennig 1999 20497:Bowler 1989 20414:Wright 1984 20157:Bowler 2003 20078:backwards?" 19800:11 February 19773:Bowler 2003 19758:11 February 19659:: 309–337. 19591:(1): 1–18. 19562:25 November 19490:Darwin 1909 19199:30 December 19095:30 December 19056:Development 18957:: 103–123. 18804:: 351–397. 18315:Varki, Ajit 18134:Darwin 1837 17995:Darwin 1859 17769:11 November 17455:30 December 16780:(1): 5–18. 16441:: 153–173. 16343:: 183–217. 16153:25 December 15515:Arabidopsis 14946:29 December 14646:26 December 13664:26 December 13095:25 December 12970:Darwin 1872 12676:: 249–268. 11315:19 December 10823:15 December 10804:: 917–937. 9690:Fisher 1930 9594:(Erratum). 9358:18 December 8332:Mayr, Ernst 8257:Okasha 2006 8247:, p. 8 7737:Chapter XIV 7733:Darwin 1859 6847:: 283–328. 6631:24 December 6582:Ridley 2004 6350:: 405–437. 6249:ChemBioChem 6097:: 867–900. 5915:(7): e206. 5886:11 December 5071:24 November 4896:15 December 4577:, pp. 4479:Darwin 1859 4350:, pp. 4210:caricatures 4156:epigenetics 4148:development 4137:explanatory 4121:systematics 3981:. In 1865, 3854:naturalists 3811:Ibn Khaldun 3803:Middle Ages 3766:Middle Ages 3730:Anaximander 3604:brown algae 3588:unicellular 3496:amino acids 3411:biotic life 3373:Abiogenesis 2345:This box: 2001:new species 1894:eusociality 1871:mycorrhizal 1859:Cooperation 1808:Coevolution 1802:Coevolution 1784:crystallins 1756:exaptations 1745:goose bumps 1725:pseudogenes 1648:Sphingobium 1633:citric acid 1611:Adaptedness 1542:prokaryotes 1509:cooperating 1321:spliceosome 1247:transposons 1228:Eugene Odum 1222:as well as 987:nucleotides 981:Epigenetics 975:Epigenetics 895:coevolution 802:antibiotics 543:structure. 478:biochemical 369:traits vary 264:Systematics 195:Controversy 26403:Categories 26216:Lamarckism 26194:Philosophy 26117:David Hume 26079:Peripatric 26074:Parapatric 26059:Ecological 26039:Anagenesis 26034:Allopatric 26026:Speciation 25990:Gradualism 25915:Metabolism 25775:chromosome 25765:Eukaryotes 25543:Modularity 25460:Population 25386:Population 25347:Speciation 25325:Panspermia 25278:Extinction 25273:Exaptation 25248:Divergence 25221:Cladistics 25209:Reciprocal 25189:Adaptation 24794:Audio help 24785:2005-04-18 24724:2008028825 24682:2001036562 24560:2002192201 24523:2011036572 24485:2004009505 24467:Speciation 24446:2007010767 24393:2009288090 24315:2005027781 24230:2002391059 24149:2003272247 24103:2004029388 23931:2016002847 23857:. London: 23695:2001030052 23645:2001027561 23595:2009024587 23495:2003025841 23456:2006039679 23368:2007015904 23276:2011934330 23196:2001036562 23043:Chichester 22893:1138095098 22885:2019013762 22695:2013034917 22566:2007008981 22524:2006921149 22501:Psychology 22480:2001043556 22435:2017000562 22400:2004029808 22358:2003058012 22296:. Oxford: 22274:2003065728 21861:2003464816 21807:2008033973 21769:6 November 21714:2003027991 21584:2002007569 21308:BioScience 21301:Kitzmiller 20596:4 December 20311:2 December 19969:1 December 19868:23 January 19694:Mason 1962 18136:, p. 17997:, p. 17687:6 November 17635:, p. 17561:, p. 16113:, p. 13021:Gould 2002 12994:Coyne 2009 12958:Coyne 2009 11725:adaptation 11144:Gould 2002 10136:Drosophila 9179:IUBMB Life 7671:Ewens 2004 7584:9 December 5004:Panno 2005 4888:. London. 4335:References 4037:, such as 4009:) and the 3995:germ cells 3979:pangenesis 3921:(1798) by 3879:Lamarckism 3816:Muqaddimah 3734:Empedocles 3632:Amphibians 3564:eukaryotes 3562:green and 3381:Panspermia 3360:See also: 2681:Arthropods 2621:Eukaryotes 2247:antibodies 2171:Cretaceous 2148:Extinction 2142:Extinction 2108:polyploids 2037:inbreeding 1973:Ernst Mayr 1962:speciation 1942:Speciation 1936:Speciation 1875:reciprocal 1776:glycolysis 1713:vertebrate 1689:indicates 1605:Adaptation 1593:adaptation 1576:Homologous 1567:Adaptation 1561:Adaptation 1453:moor frogs 1313:stochastic 1236:food chain 1224:biological 1103:functional 1072:See also: 800:that make 796:are large 779:gene birth 771:redundancy 744:duplicated 726:chromosome 610:chromosome 605:biopolymer 557:eye colour 496:hypotheses 472:on Earth. 466:extinction 462:anagenesis 458:speciation 433:—shares a 377:physiology 373:morphology 224:Cladistics 191:Objections 145:Speciation 90:Adaptation 26409:Evolution 26350:Protocell 26201:Darwinism 26089:Sympatric 25838:processes 25726:Tetrapods 25675:Kangaroos 25601:Dinosaurs 25538:Inversion 25507:Variation 25428:Gene flow 25421:Inclusive 25231:Mutualism 25176:Evolution 25011:0027-8424 24732:233030259 24610:895048122 24531:729341924 24505:Evolution 24428:Evolution 24401:233547316 24212:Doubleday 24074:610057960 24007:Evolution 23981:246124737 23939:939245154 23843:803522914 23786:Evolution 23711:Ray, John 23603:804875316 23376:123539346 23284:741539226 23204:248107061 22988:568032626 22913:Lucretius 22703:855585457 22620:722701473 22584:(1999) . 22443:969439375 22417:Evolution 22377:Evolution 21935:741260650 21877:130092094 21815:233549529 21759:780539206 21680:185662993 21508:751583918 21500:0071-3260 21449:0302-9743 21417:CiteSeerX 21331:0006-3568 21265:0028-0836 21160:152990938 21144:0036-8075 21091:206515329 21075:0036-8075 21010:1089-9995 20988:CiteSeerX 20937:0378-1119 20896:1 January 20808:1471-0056 20734:0027-8424 20676:207358177 20646:CiteSeerX 20567:0028-0836 20348:1234-1983 20262:1096-3642 20196:0003-0147 20145:Mayr 2002 20114:0027-8424 20014:0250-5991 19914:0140-525X 19790:Evolution 19744:Evolution 19719:Mayr 1982 19681:170328394 19649:Cambridge 19621:170831302 19605:0033-5770 19549:1477-3643 19514:Lucretius 19477:205066360 19461:0028-0836 19407:0028-0836 19360:1096-3642 19298:1464-7931 19248:1055-7903 19181:0214-6282 19140:0022-2844 19077:0950-1991 19027:7 January 19017:0362-4331 18971:0066-4197 18923:1063-5157 18901:CiteSeerX 18818:0066-4197 18683:0265-9247 18663:BioEssays 18485:0962-8436 18417:0036-8075 18395:CiteSeerX 18349:1088-9051 18327:CiteSeerX 18293:0168-9525 18234:0028-0836 18171:0036-8075 18103:1088-9051 18046:0027-8424 17974:0966-842X 17921:0028-0836 17866:1574-6976 17723:1139-6709 17677:2405-884X 17602:1545-7885 17534:0362-4331 17490:0882-7729 17424:0027-8424 17366:8 October 17312:0012-821X 17166:Koza 1992 17115:0028-0836 16996:1553-7390 16947:1438-4221 16910:0043-1737 16849:1553-7390 16796:1198-743X 16747:0304-4165 16693:1474-175X 16634:1553-7390 16569:0960-9822 16504:0028-0836 16455:1936-122X 16402:0092-8674 16357:1545-2069 16244:1432-1904 16143:0362-4331 16077:0962-8436 16022:0036-8075 16000:CiteSeerX 15948:0027-8424 15874:0027-8424 15636:0036-8075 15363:0960-9822 15296:0027-8424 15239:0022-5193 15166:0028-0836 15109:0028-0836 15043:0016-6707 14988:0018-067X 14817:0028-0836 14748:0027-8424 14681:0014-3820 14661:Evolution 14615:0169-5347 14562:0014-3820 14542:Evolution 14511:0960-9822 14446:0066-4197 14432:: 31–52. 14391:0022-1503 14271:Mayr 1942 14258:224829314 14139:198158082 14111:Evolution 13969:0027-8424 13810:1369-5266 13611:Evolution 13377:0362-2525 13295:0214-6282 13246:0016-6707 13207:0968-0004 13066:1740-1526 12982:Gray 2007 12869:1464-7931 12811:0362-2525 12748:CiteSeerX 12717:0959-437X 12648:205216390 12570:1464-7931 12493:198156135 12477:0014-3820 12457:Evolution 12360:Evolution 12323:0016-6731 12248:Evolution 12198:0923-9820 12152:0968-0004 12097:0027-8424 12029:0028-0836 11968:0027-8424 11899:1348-0421 11846:0014-3820 11826:Evolution 11759:1471-0056 11708:Mayr 1982 11679:1471-0056 11640:205216404 11624:0028-0836 11561:0169-6149 11436:0027-8424 11330:Lane 1996 11272:0036-8733 11115:1520-541X 11093:CiteSeerX 11051:0016-6707 10931:0036-8075 10868:0028-0836 10810:1522-0613 10758:0962-8452 10699:0169-5347 10677:CiteSeerX 10598:0962-8436 10538:0002-9297 10497:125066709 10162:0016-6707 10103:0036-8075 9612:0737-4038 9561:0737-4038 9501:1471-0056 9409:205484393 9232:(1): 30. 9077:(1): 35. 8950:1108.1635 8918:221735887 8902:0014-3820 8880:Evolution 8839:1010-061X 8788:0265-9247 8768:BioEssays 8738:0831-2796 8645:0831-2796 8588:0960-9822 8506:0027-8424 8437:0016-6707 8370:0027-8424 8300:0962-8436 8245:Odum 1971 8011:0014-3820 7991:Evolution 7952:0014-3820 7932:Evolution 7838:1471-0056 7635:0033-5770 7563:1139-6709 7507:0014-3820 7484:Evolution 7444:0077-8923 7376:0269-7653 7287:0033-5770 7265:CiteSeerX 7219:0028-0836 7150:0022-538X 7081:0036-8075 7020:0959-437X 6967:0027-8424 6931:Wolbachia 6906:1369-5274 6861:0066-4197 6806:0962-1083 6689:0027-8424 6618:0093-4755 6539:0028-0836 6480:0265-9247 6459:BioEssays 6427:0960-9822 6405:CiteSeerX 6364:0066-4197 6327:2296-701X 6286:205552778 6270:1439-4227 6225:1357-4310 6202:Structure 6162:1471-0056 6111:0066-4154 6048:1088-9051 5988:1001-0602 5931:1545-7885 5860:1088-9051 5794:0950-222X 5745:0022-2836 5675:1471-0056 5553:0962-8436 5507:0962-8436 5454:0962-8436 5399:1471-0056 5343:1471-0056 5282:1357-4310 5229:1471-0056 5170:0028-0836 5110:0168-9525 4961:1531-1074 4818:1752-0894 4770:0301-9268 4701:1745-6150 4635:0036-8733 4527:0066-4162 4420:0014-3820 4399:Evolution 4273:cosmology 4117:phenotype 4023:cytoplasm 4007:egg cells 4001:(such as 3889:into the 3738:Lucretius 3705:In 1842, 3676:Lucretius 3644:Homininae 3592:Ediacaran 3472:hominoids 3457:gene pool 3421:from the 3395:Eoarchean 2702:Dinosaurs 2282:herbicide 1997:infertile 1705:arthropod 1691:vestigial 1657:pesticide 1580:tetrapods 1513:symbiosis 1505:predators 1426:haplotype 1216:ecosystem 1167:phenotype 1131:fecundity 1095:teleonomy 1009:(such as 995:chromatin 908:Gene flow 902:Gene flow 809:wild boar 756:human eye 692:gene flow 622:epistatic 581:suntanned 576:phenotype 424:gene flow 389:offspring 325:heritable 321:Evolution 105:Gene flow 95:Evolution 64:Evolution 57:series on 26378:Category 26253:Vitalism 26248:Theistic 26241:Spandrel 25925:Morality 25920:Monogamy 25795:plastids 25760:Flagella 25716:Reptiles 25697:sea cows 25680:primates 25589:Molluscs 25567:Bacteria 25455:Mutation 25388:genetics 25364:Taxonomy 25310:Mismatch 25290:Homology 25204:Cheating 25199:Altruism 25089:Archived 25029:24979793 24796: · 24700:(2009). 24690:47443814 24651:30894392 24643:94026965 24621:(1995). 24602:91011148 24578:(1993). 24568:50761342 24493:55078441 24465:(2004). 24454:86090399 24360:27676642 24352:93020358 24323:61748307 24281:42690131 24273:99053246 24238:41420544 24204:(1999). 24194:18983518 24186:88037469 24157:51668497 24125:(2003). 24111:57316841 24066:80066893 23973:67025533 23949:(1984). 23903:(2016). 23885:10458367 23877:84672250 23853:(1982). 23835:98034087 23807:(1999). 23769:74320689 23745:(1973). 23713:(1686). 23703:45806501 23667:(2002). 23653:46660910 23617:(1971). 23607:Archived 23551:30030941 23543:94010167 23503:53901436 23464:70985413 23421:76081826 23403:Saunders 23393:(1971). 23346:(2008). 23331:22597587 23323:90020439 23288:Archived 23243:36442106 23235:96071014 23157:81013204 23135:John Ray 23112:43001098 23100:(1942). 23081:38311600 23073:98002779 23022:77085689 22998:(1978). 22980:62003378 22943:Archived 22939:33233743 22897:Archived 22852:34710780 22844:96008777 22793:(1809). 22783:26263956 22775:92025785 22755:(1992). 22737:82023505 22656:74078988 22630:(1975). 22612:78031969 22574:85814089 22532:76872504 22498:(2007). 22488:47869352 22408:57311264 22366:61342697 22324:18500548 22316:30029177 22292:(1930). 22282:53231891 22246:(2004). 22236:11443805 22228:84023632 22187:72078387 22145:72127363 22121:(1970). 22111:24875357 22069:31867409 22061:94049158 22035:(1995). 22014:Archived 22002:61057537 21969:04002793 21957:(1872). 21944:Archived 21927:06017473 21911:(1859). 21898:Archived 21887:(1837). 21869:48570033 21781:(2009). 21763:Archived 21722:53972564 21672:84045347 21634:52327000 21626:94006598 21602:(2003). 21592:49824702 21556:(2003). 21546:19322402 21538:89030914 21518:(1989). 21465:32049812 21457:95005970 21386:58605626 21378:30587253 21339:86665329 21273:11196637 21218:10794058 21152:16902112 21083:19074331 21031:28 April 21022:Archived 21018:14208021 20945:17011142 20923:: 2–18. 20890:Archived 20874:(1999). 20816:21681209 20756:Archived 20752:20460311 20587:Archived 20575:13054692 20481:20200394 20473:10439561 20364:19919317 20356:19638672 20305:Archived 20266:Archived 20212:83528114 20132:19528655 20048:Archived 20030:12289290 20022:19550032 19963:Archived 19930:15879804 19922:18081952 19858:23228649 19794:Archived 19752:Archived 19725:Ray 1686 19528:(2003). 19469:21796198 19415:17581585 19306:17624962 19256:14615186 19193:Archived 19189:14756327 19156:21879320 19089:Archived 19021:Archived 18987:18276422 18979:11700279 18931:12116647 18863:10607659 18826:10690412 18781:16109488 18746:19424594 18738:15073369 18691:17187354 18587:14596897 18552:16754604 18503:16754610 18437:Archived 18425:16513982 18357:16339373 18301:12175808 18187:43388925 18179:10381868 18121:15965028 18064:17261804 17982:15936656 17929:20463738 17874:11742692 17817:12110897 17763:Archived 17758:BBC News 17731:15906258 17681:Archived 17620:21886479 17538:Archived 17494:Archived 17446:Archived 17442:26483481 17239:Archived 17217:34259612 17209:12952685 17123:13504138 17065:19355786 17014:22761587 16955:23517688 16867:18020711 16804:17184282 16755:22698669 16701:17109012 16652:19119422 16585:16967690 16577:18177707 16520:41648315 16512:19360058 16463:18573077 16410:17190597 16319:11344284 16260:10731711 16252:15241603 16179:Archived 16147:Archived 16095:16553315 16038:36156087 16030:15459379 15966:16829570 15892:11344295 15761:18695213 15698:23012011 15690:11542058 15574:18006297 15539:18006296 15493:29281998 15485:14635917 15432:Archived 15428:16549398 15371:18492478 15314:19667210 15247:16242727 15186:Archived 15174:16467837 15117:16467788 15059:10808041 15051:16900317 15023:Genetica 15004:12291411 14996:16639420 14967:Heredity 14940:Archived 14906:Genetics 14872:16251964 14785:lizards" 14766:18344323 14697:28564398 14640:Archived 14623:16701238 14586:42100751 14578:28568007 14527:11657663 14519:16581499 14462:26683922 14454:11700276 14409:15618301 14321:15763831 14313:19197054 14203:15851674 14131:14628909 14093:16157878 13987:17517608 13916:24155688 13908:11173079 13871:20082902 13863:15871030 13818:16713732 13765:17158317 13703:16910971 13658:Archived 13631:12449493 13590:12193784 13547:36705246 13539:17279094 13493:18614008 13450:15733491 13442:16488870 13393:25886311 13340:82307503 13307:Archived 13303:14756346 13254:11838782 13230:Genetica 13156:19717453 13082:24057949 13074:16953248 12941:12733778 12898:5 August 12889:Archived 12885:33644494 12877:24443922 12827:12494187 12819:17390336 12770:15653557 12725:15261647 12640:19212399 12586:22142786 12578:14558591 12531:10607605 12485:16526515 12430:12492145 12388:11560256 12380:18031304 12341:19917766 12303:Genetics 12276:30954684 12268:12940355 12206:17123025 12160:10838562 11986:18524956 11915:22593331 11907:12153116 11775:17772950 11767:15716908 11687:12776215 11632:19212400 11577:12289639 11569:11536899 11512:15590780 11379:11234024 11309:Archived 11276:Archived 11245:53451360 11131:17289010 11123:11258392 11067:24485535 11059:11838760 11035:Genetica 11020:17494747 10949:27609891 10876:15616562 10814:Archived 10776:12079655 10711:Archived 10707:16769428 10616:11127900 10556:10677316 10489:31003616 10446:31154983 10397:31083647 10342:28645195 10278:20838599 10213:19630562 10170:12188050 10142:Genetica 10119:12021662 10111:10669421 10058:10958853 9982:Genetics 9959:21646514 9797:13918161 9738:26956345 9730:11341676 9677:86716613 9630:16120807 9579:16120807 9517:14914998 9509:17943192 9462:20508143 9401:19204717 9349:Archived 9315:Genetics 9293:90290787 9279:(1): 2. 9258:29191215 9199:21698757 9160:33604782 9103:23062217 9044:Archived 9032:10441669 8985:21625002 8937:Genetics 8910:11794777 8847:17956380 8703:Archived 8669:(1991). 8604:17619958 8596:22032182 8524:10518549 8416:Genetica 8232:17248980 8202:Genetics 8180:11470913 8121:40851098 8113:21857125 8072:18814933 8027:30703407 8019:18764918 7976:36544045 7968:28556011 7906:13644170 7856:19546856 7791:18660541 7761:Genetics 7712:19119264 7651:37774648 7643:18217526 7571:10943381 7523:22997236 7515:17089961 7460:12561900 7452:12547675 7388:Archived 7384:15763479 7307:Archived 7295:19606595 7227:15356622 7168:10438861 7101:Archived 7097:11862013 7089:18511688 6985:12386340 6914:16942901 6869:14616063 6824:15140081 6612:: 1–30. 6597:(1973). 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528:Genetics 518:Heredity 500:evidence 446:graphite 443:biogenic 431:humanity 420:mutation 166:Evidence 125:Mutation 26269:Related 26099:History 25960:Meiosis 25895:Empathy 25890:Emotion 25790:nucleus 25731:Viruses 25721:Spiders 25633:Mammals 25616:Insects 25416:Fitness 25352:Species 25151:Outline 25095:14 July 25062:15 July 25020:4115542 24989:Bibcode 24956:31 July 24930:YouTube 24903:14 July 24819:at the 24783: ( 24754:minutes 24293:Biology 23777:9020616 23735:2126030 23671:Biology 23559:8032155 23165:7875904 23089:9653725 23030:3413793 22903:30 July 22805:2210044 22745:9081712 22664:1531617 22010:1184581 21977:1102785 21831:Bibcode 21608:Pimlico 21281:4319774 21245:Bibcode 21198:Bibcode 21124:Science 21055:Science 20980:Bibcode 20824:8837202 20743:3024015 20668:4444260 20583:4253007 20547:Bibcode 20401:1887835 20204:2459191 20123:2702806 20092:Bibcode 20054:30 July 19673:4024958 19613:2808399 19423:4334424 19387:Bibcode 19314:9356614 19228:Bibcode 19148:9071008 19120:Bibcode 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14726:Bibcode 14689:2409766 14570:2410209 14489:Bibcode 14400:2517139 14352:1107543 14344:1639439 14293:Bibcode 14285:Science 14194:1131873 14171:Bibcode 14084:1224642 14061:Bibcode 14034:7466396 14014:Bibcode 14006:Science 13978:1887545 13947:Bibcode 13843:Bibcode 13790:Bibcode 13756:3279745 13735:Bibcode 13727:Science 13711:4828678 13639:8251443 13598:8816337 13570:Bibcode 13562:Science 13501:2513041 13420:Bibcode 13385:1202224 13262:1651351 13215:8236445 13147:2747197 13124:Bibcode 13048:(PDF). 12620:Bibcode 12438:8448387 12332:2828720 12214:8174462 12115:6585807 12075:Bibcode 12045:4364682 12037:6646204 12009:Bibcode 11977:2430337 11946:Bibcode 11854:2406099 11604:Bibcode 11541:Bibcode 11454:9618454 11414:Bibcode 11387:4319886 11359:Bibcode 11205:8041695 11173:Bibcode 11011:1876445 10988:Bibcode 10940:5534434 10911:Bibcode 10903:Science 10884:4417867 10848:Bibcode 10767:1691039 10607:1692896 10547:1288109 10469:Bibcode 10437:6560279 10388:6532934 10333:5850294 10269:2936535 10221:9126286 10178:5314242 10083:Bibcode 10074:Science 10013:1752426 10004:1204756 9950:3121864 9927:Bibcode 9900:4866980 9868:Bibcode 9825:Bibcode 9765:Bibcode 9657:Bibcode 9621:1513187 9570:1513187 9453:2909573 9345:9178020 9336:1208011 9249:5709842 9207:7306575 9151:7982386 9130:Bibcode 9094:3534586 9050:30 July 9040:1743092 9012:Bibcode 8976:3176096 8955:Bibcode 8855:2081042 8796:8760341 8746:2687096 8699:1954033 8653:2687093 8566:Bibcode 8484:Bibcode 8453:6583945 8445:1334911 8388:9122151 8348:Bibcode 8318:9533127 8309:1692213 8223:1214112 8148:Bibcode 8052:Bibcode 7960:2408842 7914:4185793 7886:Bibcode 7847:2753274 7782:2516082 7720:1670587 7424:Bibcode 7397:30 July 7356:Bibcode 7316:30 July 7303:7233550 7235:4349149 7199:Bibcode 7107:30 July 7061:Bibcode 7052:Science 7028:1822285 6945:Bibcode 6815:2600545 6786:Bibcode 6707:2185476 6667:Bibcode 6555:4397491 6519:Bibcode 6397:Bibcode 6372:6297377 6127:7483470 6057:2765273 5997:2712117 5802:9775215 5684:2864001 5623:3276617 5571:9533122 5562:1692205 5472:9533123 5463:1692210 5352:2689140 5290:8796918 5186:4420674 5148:Bibcode 4970:3870916 4941:Bibcode 4798:Bibcode 4750:Bibcode 4710:2478661 4656:5 April 4615:Bibcode 4579:127–129 4535:2096764 4429:4261998 4227:theists 3999:gametes 3774:views, 3751: 3640:mammals 3600:sponges 3560:archaea 3556:domains 3311:← 3287:← 3266:← 3246:← 3225:← 3205:← 3185:← 3164:← 3144:← 3124:← 3104:← 3084:← 3064:← 3043:← 3023:← 3002:← 2982:← 2962:← 2942:← 2922:← 2902:← 2882:← 2718:Mammals 2693:Flowers 2552:– 2547:— 2542:– 2532:– 2527:— 2522:– 2512:– 2507:— 2502:– 2492:– 2487:— 2482:– 2472:– 2467:— 2462:– 2452:– 2447:— 2442:– 2432:– 2427:— 2422:– 2412:– 2407:— 2402:– 2392:– 2387:— 2382:– 2241:, with 2173:period. 2100:meiosis 2074:on the 2072:finches 1926:helping 1883:signals 1843:in the 1700:primate 1683:flipper 1584:adapted 1546:biomass 1493:E. coli 1414:linkage 1363:E. coli 1135:against 1053:From a 969:archaea 845:asexual 798:enzymes 790:domains 777:de novo 590:sunburn 508:biology 400:refuted 381:fitness 176:History 55:Biology 26388:Portal 26064:Hybrid 25900:Ethics 25742:organs 25704:Plants 25690:lemurs 25685:humans 25670:horses 25660:hyenas 25648:wolves 25643:canids 25577:origin 25027: 25017: 25009: 24879:30 May 24855:30 May 24836:30 May 24730: 24722: 24712: 24688: 24680: 24670: 24649: 24641: 24631: 24608: 24600: 24590: 24566: 24558: 24548: 24529: 24521: 24511: 24491: 24483: 24473: 24452: 24444: 24434: 24399: 24391: 24381: 24358: 24350: 24340: 24321: 24313: 24303: 24279: 24271: 24261: 24236: 24228: 24218: 24192: 24184: 24174: 24155: 24147: 24137: 24109: 24101: 24091: 24072: 24064: 24054: 24004:about 23979: 23971: 23961: 23937: 23929: 23919: 23883: 23875: 23865: 23841: 23833: 23823: 23792: 23775: 23767: 23757: 23733: 23725: 23701: 23693: 23683: 23651: 23643: 23633: 23601: 23593: 23583: 23557: 23549: 23541: 23531: 23501: 23493: 23483: 23462: 23454: 23444: 23429:154846 23427: 23419: 23409: 23374: 23366: 23356: 23329: 23321: 23311: 23282: 23274: 23264: 23241: 23233: 23223: 23202: 23194: 23184: 23163: 23155: 23145: 23120:766053 23118: 23110: 23087: 23079: 23071: 23061: 23028: 23020: 23010: 22986: 22978: 22937: 22891: 22883: 22873: 22850: 22842: 22832: 22803: 22781: 22773: 22763: 22743: 22735: 22725: 22701: 22693: 22683: 22662: 22654: 22644: 22618: 22610: 22600: 22572: 22564: 22554: 22530: 22522: 22512: 22486: 22478: 22468: 22441: 22433: 22423: 22406: 22398: 22388: 22364: 22356: 22346: 22322: 22314: 22304: 22280: 22272: 22262: 22234: 22226: 22216: 22195:572084 22193: 22185: 22175: 22151: 22143: 22133: 22109: 22099: 22067: 22059: 22049: 22008: 22000: 21975: 21967: 21933: 21925: 21875: 21867: 21859: 21849: 21813: 21805: 21795: 21789:Viking 21757: 21747: 21720: 21712: 21702: 21678: 21670: 21660: 21632: 21624: 21614: 21590: 21582: 21572: 21544: 21536: 21526: 21506: 21498: 21488: 21463: 21455: 21447: 21437: 21419: 21384: 21376: 21337: 21329: 21279: 21271: 21263: 21237:Nature 21216: 21158: 21150: 21142: 21089: 21081: 21073: 21016: 21008: 20990: 20943: 20935: 20822: 20814: 20806: 20750: 20740: 20732: 20674: 20666: 20648: 20581: 20573: 20565: 20538:Nature 20479: 20471: 20465:237050 20463: 20399: 20362: 20354: 20346: 20272:13 May 20260: 20210: 20202: 20194: 20130: 20120: 20112: 20076:Origin 20028: 20020: 20012: 19928: 19920: 19912: 19856: 19679: 19671: 19619: 19611: 19603: 19547: 19475: 19467: 19459: 19441:Nature 19421: 19413: 19405: 19379:Nature 19358: 19312: 19304: 19296: 19254: 19246: 19187: 19179: 19154: 19146: 19138: 19083: 19075: 19015: 18985: 18977: 18969: 18929: 18921: 18903: 18861: 18824: 18816: 18779: 18744: 18736: 18689: 18681: 18646: 18636: 18585: 18550: 18540: 18501: 18491: 18483: 18431: 18423: 18415: 18397: 18355: 18347: 18329: 18299: 18291: 18250:103653 18248: 18240: 18232: 18206:Nature 18185: 18177: 18169: 18119: 18109: 18101: 18062: 18052: 18044: 17980: 17972: 17935: 17927: 17919: 17893:Nature 17872: 17864: 17823: 17815: 17789:Nature 17729: 17721: 17675: 17618: 17608: 17600: 17532: 17488: 17440: 17430: 17422: 17347:Excite 17310: 17245:31 May 17215: 17207: 17129: 17121: 17113: 17087:Nature 17063: 17053: 17012: 17002: 16994: 16953: 16945: 16908: 16865: 16855: 16847: 16802: 16794: 16753: 16745: 16707: 16699: 16691: 16650: 16640: 16632: 16583: 16575: 16567: 16518: 16510: 16502: 16482:Nature 16461: 16453: 16418:278993 16416: 16408: 16400: 16355: 16317: 16307: 16258: 16250: 16242: 16141: 16093: 16083: 16075: 16036: 16028: 16020: 16002: 15964: 15954: 15946: 15890: 15880: 15872: 15823: 15813: 15759: 15749: 15696: 15688: 15642: 15634: 15572: 15537: 15491: 15483: 15426: 15377: 15369: 15361: 15312: 15302: 15294: 15245: 15237: 15180: 15172: 15164: 15138:Nature 15125:867216 15123: 15115: 15107: 15081:Nature 15057: 15049: 15041: 15002: 14994: 14986: 14934: 14924: 14878: 14870: 14844:Nature 14823: 14815: 14789:Nature 14783:Anolis 14764: 14754: 14746: 14695: 14687: 14679: 14621: 14613: 14584: 14576: 14568: 14560: 14525: 14517: 14509: 14460: 14452: 14444: 14407: 14397: 14389: 14350: 14342: 14319: 14311: 14256: 14250:188136 14248: 14201: 14191: 14137: 14129: 14091: 14081: 14032: 13985: 13975: 13967: 13914: 13906: 13869: 13861: 13834:Planta 13816: 13808: 13763: 13753: 13709: 13701: 13637: 13629: 13596: 13588: 13545: 13537: 13499: 13491: 13448: 13440: 13391: 13383: 13375: 13338: 13301: 13293: 13260: 13252: 13244: 13213: 13205: 13154: 13144: 13080: 13072: 13064: 13035:"From 12939: 12883: 12875: 12867: 12825: 12817: 12809: 12768: 12750: 12723: 12715: 12646: 12638: 12612:Nature 12584: 12576: 12568: 12529: 12491: 12483: 12475: 12436: 12428: 12386: 12378: 12339: 12329: 12321: 12274: 12266: 12212: 12204: 12196: 12158: 12150: 12113: 12106:345072 12103: 12095: 12043: 12035: 12027: 12001:Nature 11984: 11974: 11966: 11913: 11905: 11897: 11852: 11844: 11773: 11765: 11757: 11695:209727 11693: 11685: 11677: 11638: 11630: 11622: 11596:Nature 11575: 11567: 11559: 11510: 11503:539005 11500: 11452: 11442: 11434: 11385: 11377: 11351:Nature 11270: 11243: 11203: 11193: 11129: 11121: 11113: 11095: 11065: 11057: 11049: 11018: 11008: 10947: 10937: 10929: 10882: 10874: 10866: 10840:Nature 10808: 10774: 10764: 10756: 10705: 10697: 10679: 10614: 10604: 10596: 10554: 10544: 10536: 10495: 10487: 10444: 10434: 10395: 10385: 10340: 10330: 10276: 10266: 10219: 10211: 10176: 10168: 10160: 10117: 10109: 10101: 10056: 10011: 10001: 9957: 9947: 9898: 9891:223881 9888: 9795: 9788:220819 9785: 9736: 9728: 9675: 9628: 9618: 9610: 9577: 9567: 9559: 9515: 9507: 9499: 9460: 9450: 9407: 9399: 9343: 9333: 9291: 9256: 9246: 9205: 9197: 9158: 9148: 9101: 9091: 9038: 9030: 8983: 8973: 8916: 8908: 8900: 8853: 8845: 8837: 8794: 8786: 8744: 8736: 8718:Genome 8697: 8651: 8643: 8624:Genome 8602: 8594: 8586: 8522: 8512: 8504: 8451: 8443: 8435: 8386: 8376: 8368: 8316: 8306: 8298: 8230: 8220: 8178: 8168: 8119: 8111: 8070: 8025: 8017: 8009: 7974: 7966: 7958: 7950: 7912: 7904: 7878:Nature 7854: 7844: 7836: 7789: 7779: 7718: 7710: 7649: 7641: 7633: 7569: 7561: 7521: 7513: 7505: 7458: 7450: 7442: 7382: 7374: 7301: 7293: 7285: 7267: 7233: 7225: 7217: 7191:Nature 7166: 7159:104298 7156: 7148: 7095: 7087: 7079: 7026: 7018: 6983: 6976:137875 6973: 6965: 6912: 6904: 6867: 6859: 6822: 6812: 6804: 6705: 6695: 6687: 6616: 6553: 6545: 6537: 6511:Nature 6486: 6478: 6441: 6433: 6425: 6407: 6370: 6362: 6325: 6284: 6276: 6268: 6231: 6223: 6176: 6168: 6160: 6125: 6117: 6109: 6064: 6054: 6046: 6004: 5994: 5986: 5947: 5940:449868 5937: 5929: 5874: 5866: 5858: 5808: 5800: 5792: 5751: 5743: 5691: 5681: 5673: 5630: 5620: 5569: 5559: 5551: 5505: 5470: 5460: 5452: 5413: 5405: 5397: 5359: 5349: 5341: 5288: 5280: 5245:690431 5243: 5235: 5227: 5184: 5176: 5168: 5140:Nature 5116: 5108: 5056: 4977: 4967: 4959: 4860:31 May 4841:Excite 4816: 4768: 4717: 4707: 4699: 4685:: 29. 4641: 4633: 4541: 4533: 4525: 4436: 4426: 4418: 4232:While 4198:, and 4166:, and 3852:Other 3799:cosmic 3796:divine 3792:nature 3403:Hadean 3383:, and 3298:humans 2871: 2864: 2710: 2673: 2645: 2629: 2613: 2597: 2581: 2565: 2266:albino 2264:is an 2224:, and 2182:. The 2161:. Non- 1910:colony 1835:and a 1739:, the 1737:coccyx 1735:, the 1681:label 1405:, and 1011:prions 922:hybrid 915:pollen 849:linked 837:, and 659:White 562:genome 530:, and 422:, and 216:fields 25851:Death 25846:Aging 25825:brain 25611:Fungi 25572:Birds 25485:Fungi 25283:Event 25166:Index 24918:Salon 23717:[ 22153:97663 22017:(PDF) 21994:(PDF) 21873:S2CID 21382:S2CID 21335:S2CID 21277:S2CID 21214:S2CID 21188:arXiv 21156:S2CID 21098:(PDF) 21087:S2CID 21051:(PDF) 21025:(PDF) 21014:S2CID 20968:(PDF) 20820:S2CID 20759:(PDF) 20708:(PDF) 20683:(PDF) 20672:S2CID 20664:JSTOR 20634:(PDF) 20590:(PDF) 20579:S2CID 20533:(PDF) 20477:S2CID 20461:JSTOR 20360:S2CID 20208:S2CID 20200:JSTOR 20026:S2CID 19926:S2CID 19677:S2CID 19669:JSTOR 19647:(4). 19617:S2CID 19609:JSTOR 19556:(PDF) 19543:(4). 19533:(PDF) 19473:S2CID 19419:S2CID 19310:S2CID 19152:S2CID 18983:S2CID 18742:S2CID 18639:44277 18440:(PDF) 18429:S2CID 18375:(PDF) 18246:S2CID 18183:S2CID 17933:S2CID 17821:S2CID 17738:(PDF) 17707:(PDF) 17449:(PDF) 17390:(PDF) 17213:S2CID 17127:S2CID 16705:S2CID 16581:S2CID 16516:S2CID 16414:S2CID 16310:33224 16256:S2CID 16185:6 May 16034:S2CID 15883:33235 15816:44280 15694:S2CID 15489:S2CID 15375:S2CID 15178:S2CID 15121:S2CID 15055:S2CID 15000:S2CID 14876:S2CID 14821:S2CID 14685:JSTOR 14582:S2CID 14566:JSTOR 14523:S2CID 14458:S2CID 14317:S2CID 14254:S2CID 14246:JSTOR 14135:S2CID 13912:S2CID 13867:S2CID 13707:S2CID 13635:S2CID 13594:S2CID 13543:S2CID 13497:S2CID 13446:S2CID 13389:S2CID 13336:S2CID 13258:S2CID 13089:(PDF) 13078:S2CID 13042:(PDF) 12892:(PDF) 12881:S2CID 12845:(PDF) 12823:S2CID 12644:S2CID 12582:S2CID 12489:S2CID 12434:S2CID 12384:S2CID 12272:S2CID 12210:S2CID 12041:S2CID 11911:S2CID 11850:JSTOR 11771:S2CID 11691:S2CID 11636:S2CID 11573:S2CID 11445:33863 11383:S2CID 11241:S2CID 11196:44281 11127:S2CID 11063:S2CID 10880:S2CID 10817:(PDF) 10794:(PDF) 10714:(PDF) 10665:(PDF) 10493:S2CID 10217:S2CID 10174:S2CID 10115:S2CID 9734:S2CID 9673:S2CID 9513:S2CID 9405:S2CID 9352:(PDF) 9311:(PDF) 9289:S2CID 9203:S2CID 9036:S2CID 8945:arXiv 8914:S2CID 8851:S2CID 8600:S2CID 8515:18385 8449:S2CID 8379:33654 8171:55389 8117:S2CID 8023:S2CID 7972:S2CID 7956:JSTOR 7910:S2CID 7716:S2CID 7658:(PDF) 7647:S2CID 7611:(PDF) 7578:(PDF) 7545:(PDF) 7519:S2CID 7456:S2CID 7391:(PDF) 7380:S2CID 7344:(PDF) 7310:(PDF) 7299:S2CID 7253:(PDF) 7231:S2CID 7093:S2CID 6698:53943 6625:(PDF) 6602:(PDF) 6551:S2CID 6439:S2CID 6282:S2CID 6174:S2CID 6123:S2CID 5872:S2CID 5806:S2CID 5411:S2CID 5241:S2CID 5182:S2CID 5065:(PDF) 5046:(PDF) 5020:p. 17 4650:(PDF) 4601:(PDF) 4550:(PDF) 4539:S2CID 4531:JSTOR 4501:(PDF) 4225:some 4003:sperm 3784:forms 3623:types 3419:genes 3399:crust 2727:Birds 2573:Water 2163:avian 1993:mules 1709:squid 1451:Male 1289:drift 1232:niche 614:locus 545:Bases 398:were 26338:Tree 25810:hair 25750:Cell 25653:dogs 25638:cats 25628:Life 25606:Fish 25559:taxa 25097:2018 25064:2018 25025:PMID 25007:ISSN 24980:PNAS 24958:2013 24905:2018 24881:2011 24857:2011 24838:2011 24728:OCLC 24720:LCCN 24710:ISBN 24686:OCLC 24678:LCCN 24668:ISBN 24647:OCLC 24639:LCCN 24629:ISBN 24606:OCLC 24598:LCCN 24588:ISBN 24564:OCLC 24556:LCCN 24546:ISBN 24527:OCLC 24519:LCCN 24509:ISBN 24489:OCLC 24481:LCCN 24471:ISBN 24450:OCLC 24442:LCCN 24432:ISBN 24397:OCLC 24389:LCCN 24379:ISBN 24356:OCLC 24348:LCCN 24338:ISBN 24319:OCLC 24311:LCCN 24301:ISBN 24277:OCLC 24269:LCCN 24259:ISBN 24234:OCLC 24226:LCCN 24216:ISBN 24190:OCLC 24182:LCCN 24172:ISBN 24153:OCLC 24145:LCCN 24135:ISBN 24107:OCLC 24099:LCCN 24089:ISBN 24070:OCLC 24062:LCCN 24052:ISBN 23977:OCLC 23969:LCCN 23959:ISBN 23935:OCLC 23927:LCCN 23917:ISBN 23881:OCLC 23873:LCCN 23863:ISBN 23839:OCLC 23831:LCCN 23821:ISBN 23790:ISBN 23773:OCLC 23765:LCCN 23755:ISBN 23731:OCLC 23723:LCCN 23699:OCLC 23691:LCCN 23681:ISBN 23649:OCLC 23641:LCCN 23631:ISBN 23599:OCLC 23591:LCCN 23581:ISBN 23555:PMID 23547:OCLC 23539:LCCN 23529:ISBN 23499:OCLC 23491:LCCN 23481:ISBN 23460:OCLC 23452:LCCN 23442:ISBN 23425:OCLC 23417:LCCN 23407:ISBN 23383:2014 23372:OCLC 23364:LCCN 23354:ISBN 23327:OCLC 23319:LCCN 23309:ISBN 23296:2014 23280:OCLC 23272:LCCN 23262:ISBN 23239:OCLC 23231:LCCN 23221:ISBN 23200:OCLC 23192:LCCN 23182:ISBN 23161:OCLC 23153:LCCN 23143:ISBN 23116:OCLC 23108:LCCN 23085:PMID 23077:OCLC 23069:LCCN 23059:ISBN 23026:OCLC 23018:LCCN 23008:ISBN 22984:OCLC 22976:LCCN 22951:2014 22935:OCLC 22905:2022 22889:OCLC 22881:LCCN 22871:ISBN 22848:OCLC 22840:LCCN 22830:ISBN 22801:OCLC 22779:OCLC 22771:LCCN 22761:ISBN 22741:OCLC 22733:LCCN 22723:ISBN 22699:OCLC 22691:LCCN 22681:ISBN 22660:OCLC 22652:LCCN 22642:ISBN 22616:OCLC 22608:LCCN 22598:ISBN 22570:OCLC 22562:LCCN 22552:ISBN 22528:OCLC 22520:LCCN 22510:ISBN 22484:OCLC 22476:LCCN 22466:ISBN 22439:OCLC 22431:LCCN 22421:ISBN 22404:OCLC 22396:LCCN 22386:ISBN 22362:OCLC 22354:LCCN 22344:ISBN 22320:OCLC 22312:LCCN 22302:ISBN 22278:OCLC 22270:LCCN 22260:ISBN 22232:OCLC 22224:LCCN 22214:ISBN 22191:OCLC 22183:LCCN 22173:ISBN 22149:OCLC 22141:LCCN 22131:ISBN 22107:OCLC 22097:ISBN 22065:OCLC 22057:LCCN 22047:ISBN 22025:2014 22006:OCLC 21998:LCCN 21973:OCLC 21965:LCCN 21931:OCLC 21923:LCCN 21865:OCLC 21857:LCCN 21847:ISBN 21811:OCLC 21803:LCCN 21793:ISBN 21771:2016 21755:OCLC 21745:ISBN 21718:OCLC 21710:LCCN 21700:ISBN 21676:OCLC 21668:LCCN 21658:ISBN 21630:OCLC 21622:LCCN 21612:ISBN 21588:OCLC 21580:LCCN 21570:ISBN 21542:OCLC 21534:LCCN 21524:ISBN 21504:OCLC 21496:ISSN 21486:ISBN 21461:OCLC 21453:LCCN 21445:ISSN 21435:ISBN 21374:PMID 21327:ISSN 21269:PMID 21261:ISSN 21148:PMID 21140:ISSN 21079:PMID 21071:ISSN 21033:2008 21006:ISSN 20941:PMID 20933:ISSN 20916:Gene 20898:2015 20812:PMID 20804:ISSN 20767:2014 20748:PMID 20730:ISSN 20712:PNAS 20598:2014 20571:PMID 20563:ISSN 20469:PMID 20444:Isis 20397:PMID 20352:PMID 20344:ISSN 20313:2014 20274:2007 20258:ISSN 20192:ISSN 20128:PMID 20110:ISSN 20083:PNAS 20056:2022 20018:PMID 20010:ISSN 19971:2014 19918:PMID 19910:ISSN 19870:2008 19854:OCLC 19802:2012 19760:2012 19601:ISSN 19564:2014 19545:ISSN 19465:PMID 19457:ISSN 19411:PMID 19403:ISSN 19356:ISSN 19302:PMID 19294:ISSN 19252:PMID 19244:ISSN 19201:2014 19185:PMID 19177:ISSN 19144:PMID 19136:ISSN 19097:2014 19081:PMID 19073:ISSN 19029:2016 19013:ISSN 18975:PMID 18967:ISSN 18927:PMID 18919:ISSN 18859:PMID 18822:PMID 18814:ISSN 18777:PMID 18734:PMID 18687:PMID 18679:ISSN 18644:PMID 18608:PNAS 18583:PMID 18548:PMID 18499:PMID 18481:ISSN 18421:PMID 18413:ISSN 18353:PMID 18345:ISSN 18297:PMID 18289:ISSN 18238:PMID 18230:ISSN 18175:PMID 18167:ISSN 18117:PMID 18099:ISSN 18060:PMID 18042:ISSN 18016:PNAS 17978:PMID 17970:ISSN 17925:PMID 17917:ISSN 17870:PMID 17862:ISSN 17813:PMID 17771:2020 17727:PMID 17719:ISSN 17689:2016 17673:ISSN 17616:PMID 17598:ISSN 17546:2016 17530:ISSN 17502:2018 17486:ISSN 17457:2015 17438:PMID 17420:ISSN 17394:PNAS 17368:2018 17308:ISSN 17247:2015 17205:PMID 17119:PMID 17111:ISSN 17061:PMID 17010:PMID 16992:ISSN 16951:PMID 16943:ISSN 16906:ISSN 16863:PMID 16845:ISSN 16800:PMID 16792:ISSN 16751:PMID 16743:ISSN 16731:1820 16697:PMID 16689:ISSN 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