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red fields of clay that stuck to their feet, earning them the new name of
Betanimena ("Many of Red Earth"). Ratsimilaho was elected king of all the Betsimisaraka and given a new name, Ramaromanompo ("Lord Served by Many") at his capital at Foulpointe. He gave his northern compatriots the name Betsimisaraka to reaffirm their unity in the face of their enemies. He then negotiated peace with the Betanimena by offering their king control over the port of Tamatave, but this settlement fell apart after six months, leading Ratsimilaho to recapture Tamatave and force the Betanimena king to flee south. He established alliances with the southern Betsimisaraka and the neighboring
30:
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from a marauding enemy group. Their enemies followed them into the forest, tracking the
Betsimisaraka by what they believed to be the sound of their voices. Upon reaching the source of the sound they discovered a group of ghostly-looking lemurs and, believing the Betsimisaraka had been transformed into animals by magic, fled the area in terror. The spirits of Betsimisaraka ancestors are believed to reside inside the bodies of lemurs. Consequently, in general it is forbidden for the Betsimisaraka to kill or eat lemurs, and it is obligatory to free a trapped lemur and to bury a dead lemur with the same rites as a person.
466:, lifted these restrictions and gradually European presence re-emerged in Betsimisaraka territory as French entrepreneurs established plantations for growing export crops like vanilla, coffee, tea and coconuts. The growing number of Merina colonists from the turn of the 19th century and Europeans from the 1860s onward created competition for use of the ports traditionally under Betsimisaraka control, to such an extent that the local population was prohibited from trading to maximize profits for the Merina and Europeans. This severe economic constraint, coupled with the heavy Merina imposition of
470:(unpaid labor in lieu of taxes), severely undermined the prosperity of the local population, who resisted by refusing to grow surplus crops that would only further enrich the outside traders. Others fled the settled life of their ancestral villages to take refuge in the forest in order to live outside Merina authority. Some of these formed into groups of bandits who plundered Merina trading parties along the east coast and mounted occasional raids further into Merina territory; these groups also periodically attacked Merina settlers, European missionaries, government outposts and churches.
415:
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Benyowsky, but were ultimately unsuccessful in the latter goal. Zakavolo, Iavy's son, succeeded his father upon his death in 1791. European accounts disparage
Zakavolo for insisting that they provide him with gifts, and for insulting them when the Europeans refused to meet his demands. His subjects deposed him in 1803 with the assistance of then Governor General Magallon, who administered the French island territories; Zakavolo was eventually assassinated by his ex-subjects. Throughout the decades following Ratsimilaho's death, the French established control over
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garrisons established at ports and across the
Betsimisaraka interior. The Betsimisaraka resented Merina domination and, not receiving assistance from the French as they had hoped, mounted an unsuccessful rebellion in 1825. As Merina presence and authority in the former Betsimisaraka kingdom grew, many local farmers migrated to areas outside Merina control or sought employment with European settlers on plantations where they might be afforded some protection. Any remnants of the ruling line in Betsimisaraka were eliminated under Merina queen
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commonly worn or thrown into the water in areas where the animals congregate. It is commonly believed that witches and sorcerers are closely linked with crocodiles, being capable of ordering them to kill others and of walking among them without being attacked. The
Betsimisaraka believe witches and sorcerers appease crocodiles by feeding them rice at night, and some are accused of walking crocodiles through Betsimisaraka villages at midnight or even being married to the crocodiles, which they then enslave to do their bidding.
249:
385:, extending his authority over these areas by allowing local chiefs to maintain their power while offering tribute of rice, cattle and slaves; by 1730 he was one of the most powerful kings of Madagascar. By the time of his death in 1754, his moderate and stabilizing rule had provided nearly forty years of unity among the diverse clans within the Betsimisaraka political union. He also allied the Betsimisaraka with the other most powerful kingdom of the time, the
364:, was elected in 1710 as the leader of the Tsikoa ("those who are steadfast") and initiated invasions of the northern ports. According to oral histories, Ramanano established an armed militia at Vohimasina which he sent on incursions to burn neighboring villages, desecrate local tombs, and enslave the women and children, contributing to his reputation as a cruel and unpopular leader. A northern Betsimisaraka
349:
643:. The leaves she eats from and the waste produced by the newborn are kept in a special receptacle for seven days, at which point they are burned. The ash produced is rubbed on the forehead and cheeks of the mother and baby and must be worn for seven days. On the fifteenth day both are bathed in water in which lime or lemon leaves have been soaked. This ritual is called
203:, a focused effort was made to increase access to education and paid employment working on French plantations. Production of former plantation crops like vanilla, ylang-ylang, coconut oil, and coffee remain the principal economic activity of the region beyond subsistence farming and fishing, although mining is also a source of income.
568:
began in the early 19th century but were largely unsuccessful at first. During the colonial period the influence of
Christianity among the local population grew, but where it is practiced is often blended syncretically with traditional ancestor worship. Syncretism of Christian and indigenous beliefs
406:
and had established trading ports throughout
Betsimisaraka territory. By 1810 a French envoy named Sylvain Roux effectively had economic control over the port city, although it was nominally governed by Zakavolo's uncle Tsihala. A dispute among Tsihala's male relatives over control of the city led to
802:
The
Betsimisaraka economy remains largely agricultural, with many cultivating vanilla and rice. Manioc, sweet potatoes, beans, taro, peanuts and a variety of greens are also commonly cultivated; other staple crops include sugar cane, coffee, bananas, pineapples, avocado, breadfruit, mangoes, oranges
612:
The
Betsimisaraka hold lemurs in high regard and tell several legends in which lemurs come to the aid of prominent Betsimisaraka figures. According to one story, a lemur saved the life of a Betsimisaraka ancestor from a grave peril. In another tale, a group of Betsimisaraka sought refuge in a forest
477:
in 1896, initial
Betsimisaraka satisfaction with the fall of the Merina government rapidly evolved into displeasure with French control. This led to an uprising the same year among Betsimisaraka, particularly including the bandits and other outlaws who had long been living according to their own law
396:
Ratsimilaho's son Zanahary succeeded him in 1755. A despotic leader, Zanahary launched a series of attacks against villages under his authority and was assassinated by his own subjects in 1767. Zanahary was succeeded by his son Iavy, who was detested for continuing his father's practice of attacking
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and a British pirate named Thomas Tew around 1694 and had briefly traveled with his father to England and India, led a resistance to these invasions and successfully united his compatriots around this cause despite his young age. He captured Fenerive in 1712, causing the Tsikoa to flee across soggy
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against speaking the name of a chief after his death or any word that formed part of the name. The deceased leader was given a new name after death that all were required to use, and specific synonyms were selected to replace the words composing his name for use in regular conversation; anyone who
482:
to French rule in 1895. These efforts were eventually subdued. After regaining control, the French colonial authority took steps to address the repercussions of historical subjugation of the Betsimisaraka by the Merina kingdom, providing increased access to basic education as well as opportunities
270:
African and Asian Austronesian descent. However, the Betsimisaraka are one of the Malagasy tribes to have predominant East African Bantu ancestry, with the average member being around 70% East African. The Betsimisaraka occupy a long, narrow band of territory that stretches along the east coast of
182:
emerged to unite these clans under his rule in 1710. His reign lasted 50 years and established a sense of common identity and stability throughout the kingdom. But his successors gradually weakened this union, leaving it vulnerable to the growing influence and presence of European and particularly
616:
Crocodiles are also viewed with reverence and fear. At river banks where they are known to gather, it is not uncommon for Betsimisaraka villagers to throw them zebu hindquarters (the most favored cut), whole geese and other offerings on a daily basis. Amulets for protection against crocodiles are
450:
were not expelled; rather, Radama developed a cooperation with them to develop diplomatic and economic relations with the French as he had already done over the past decade with British missionaries in the Merina homeland of the central highlands. The area was effectively colonized, with Merina
539:
and to eat the food on their plates, whereas women are required to use two separate spoons to fill their plates and to eat. Men are generally responsible for tilling the rice fields, obtaining food, gathering firewood and building the family home and furniture, and they engage in discussion and
534:
There are clear gender divisions among the Betsimisaraka. When traveling by foot in a mixed gender group, it is forbidden for women to walk before men. Women are traditionally the ones to act as porters, carrying light items on the head and heavy items on the back; if a woman is present, it is
494:
territory neighboring the Betsimisaraka. During the conflict, Betsimisaraka nationalists fought French and Senegalese soldiers in an unsuccessful attempt to regain control of the port at Tamatave, the island's most important trading port. Betsimisaraka fighters and civilians suffered very heavy
401:
established a settlement in Betsimisaraka country and proclaimed himself king of Madagascar, persuading several local chieftains to no longer pay tribute to Iboina. This action provoked Sakalava ire, and in 1776 Sakalava soldiers invaded the area to punish the Betsimisaraka inhabitants and kill
600:
was the base fiber for the clothing traditionally worn by the Betsimisaraka. Leaves of the raffia were combed to separate the fibers, which were knotted end to end to form strands that could then be woven together to form cloth. Among the various peoples who united under the Betsimisaraka
327:. The eastern ports' strategic position for regional trade attracted the heaviest settlement of Europeans to this portion of the island, particularly including British and American pirates whose numbers dramatically increased from the 1680s to the 1720s along the coast from modern day
322:
favored the economic and political development of the Antavaratra Betsimisaraka; the southern portion of this coastline, by contrast, lacked any areas suitable for ports. Villagers in the areas surrounding the ports exported rice, cattle, slaves and other goods to the nearby
811:). The production of spices for culinary use and for distillation into perfumes remains a major economic activity, with a perfume distillery located in Fenoarivo Atsinanana. Gold, garnet and other precious stones are also mined and exported from the Betsimisaraka region.
683:
reburial ceremony, although in a simpler form than that practiced in the Highlands. Coffins are placed in tombs only in southern Betsimisaraka; in the north, they are placed under outdoor shelters. While in mourning, women will unbraid their hair and stop wearing their
631:
for a brother to shake hands with his sister, or for young men to wear shoes during their father's lifetime. Among many Betsimisaraka, the eel is considered sacred. It is forbidden to touch, fish or eat eel. Although many coastal Malagasy communities have a
803:
and lychees. Cattle are not widely raised; more commonly, the Betsimisaraka may catch and sell river crabs, shrimp and fish, small hedgehogs, various local insects or wild boar and birds in the forest. They also produce and sell homemade sugarcane beer (
461:
trial by ordeal. Throughout her reign, cultural practices associated with Europeans were forbidden, including Christianity and Western musical instruments; eventually all Europeans were expelled from the island for the duration of her reign. Her son,
589:(the birth of a tenth child), ritual sacrifice of zebu for the ancestors, and celebrating the inauguration of a newly constructed house. Marriage, death, birth, the New Year and Independence Day are also communally celebrated. The practice of
530:
Social life revolves around the agricultural year, with preparation of fields beginning in October, the harvest of rice in May, and the winter months from June to September set aside for ancestor worship and other major rituals and customs.
728:, which has been popularized across the island, is performed using a modern drum kit and electric guitar and bass with keyboard or accordion accompaniment, and the associated dance style has been influenced by dances performed to
309:
in the north held a comparatively more official position, with regalia of leadership attested since at least 1500. The presence of natural bays along the northern coastline that became the port towns of Antongil, Titingue,
144:
in the north. The Betsimisaraka have a long history of extensive interaction with European seafarers, pirates and bourgeois traders, which produced a significant subset with mixed European-Malagasy origins, termed the
540:
debate about public affairs. Women's tasks include growing crops, weeding the rice fields and harvesting and processing the rice, fetching water, lighting the hearth fire and preparing daily meals, and weaving.
262:, has partly European origins resulting from generations of intermarriage between the local Malagasy population and European pirates, sailors and traders who docked or settled along the eastern coast. Like the
240:(circumcision) and believe in sorcery and a wide range of supernatural forces. Many taboos and folktales revolve around lemurs and crocodiles, both of which are common throughout Betsimisaraka territory.
291:. They are often subdivided into northern Betsimisaraka (Antavaratra) and southern Betsimisaraka (Antatsimo), separated by the Betanimena Betsimisaraka sub-clan (called the Tsikoa before around 1710).
722:
shakers to accentuate the rhythm; lyrics are always sung in local Betsimisaraka dialect. The accompanying dance is performed with arms to the sides of the body and heavy foot movements. Contemporary
407:
further fracturing of Betsimisaraka political unity, weakening the ability of the Betsimisaraka to unite against increasing foreign encroachment. He lost power the following year to another
266:
to the west, the Betsimisaraka are composed of numerous ethnic sub-groups that formed a confederation in the early 18th century. Like all Malagasy people, the Betsimisaraka are of mixed
581:
Although there are differences between the northern and southern Betsimisaraka, many major aspects of their culture are similar. Major customs among the Betsimisaraka include
446:
to successfully capture Toamasina. Although Jean Rene was not complicit and had been given no forewarning of the military campaign, when Radama arrived the Europeans and
299:
Until the beginning of the 18th century, the peoples who would constitute the core of the Betsimisaraka were organized into numerous clans under the authority of chiefs (
397:
villages under his control, and for enriching himself by cooperating with French slave traders. During the reign of Iavy, an eastern European adventurer named
690:, while men no longer wear a hat; the mourning period typically lasts two to four months depending on how closely related the individual was to the deceased.
1733:
256:
The Betsimisaraka constitute approximately 15 percent of the population of Madagascar and numbered over 1,500,000 in 2011. A sub-set of the population, the
483:
for paid labor at plantations, but often on former Betsimisaraka land that the French authorities had forced local inhabitants to relinquish to colonists.
172:
Through the late 17th century, the various clans of the eastern coastal region were governed by chieftains who typically ruled over one or two villages. A
639:
Complex taboos and rites are associated with a woman's first childbirth. When about to give birth she is secluded in a special birthing house called a
758:, Malagasy interpretations of traditional European seafarers' waltzes performed on accordion; this genre is never performed during tromba ceremonies.
206:
Culturally, the Betsimisaraka can be divided into northern and southern sub-groups. Many elements of culture are common across both groups, including
790:
522:, is likewise a significant political figure, having run for president and serving as mayor of Toamasina, the country's main commercial port.
1726:
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to the east. Intermarriage between these European pirates and the daughters of local chiefs produced a large mixed population termed
1904:
593:(ritual spirit possession) is widespread among the Betsimisaraka. Both men and women act as mediums and spectators in these events.
754:, but among Betsimisaraka the style is performed significantly more slowly. Another major musical style specific to the region is
183:
French settlers, (slave traders), missionaries and merchants. The fractured Betsimisaraka kingdom was easily colonised in 1817 by
636:
against the consumption of pork, this is not universal or common among the Betsimisaraka, who often keep pigs in their villages.
647:(bath of the leaves). The community gathers to drink rum and celebrate with wrestling matches, but the mother must stay in the
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1639:
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subset of the Betsimisaraka traced their heritage back to intermarriage between European pirates and Betsimisaraka women.
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considered ridiculous for a man to carry something. When eating, men use a single spoon to fill their plates from the
1702:
1681:
1660:
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506:, a Betsimisaraka. He was democratically elected president and again led the country from 1995 to 2001 during the
1742:
196:
199:. The subjugation of the Betsimisaraka in the 19th century left the population relatively impoverished; under
1939:
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losses and some of the worst human rights abuses, including execution by being thrown alive from airplanes.
1894:
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officiant. Betsimisaraka communities widely believe in various supernatural creatures, including ghosts (
218:, and a patriarchal social structure. The groups are distinguished by linguistic sub-dialects and various
1899:
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greens and a chicken specially prepared for her. After this celebration she is required to leave the
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in the island's center had been rapidly unifying and expanding since the late 18th century. In 1817,
1610:
Recollecting from the Past: Musical Practice and Spirit Possession on the East Coast of Madagascar
826:
518:. He remains an influential and controversial political figure in Madagascar. Ratsiraka's nephew,
609:), while men wore smocks. Traditional raffia clothing is still worn by some Betsimisaraka today.
360:
Around 1700 the Tsikoa began uniting around a series of powerful leaders. Ramanano, the chief of
272:
137:
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in the eastern rainforests; the movement extended to the broader Betsimisaraka population, who
1652:
Ritual Imagination: A Study of Tromba Possession Among the Betsimisaraka in Eastern Madagascar
1889:
226:(taboos), as well as certain funeral practices and other customs. The Betsimisaraka practice
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spoke the forbidden words would be harshly punished or in some instances executed.
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Some Betsimisaraka, principally those living around Maroantsetra, practice the
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Among the Betsimisaraka, like several other Malagasy ethnic groups, there is a
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305:) who each typically ruled over no more than one or two villages. Those around
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led to the motif that the sun (or the moon) was the original location for the
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1145:"FAST Update Madagascar: Trends in conflict and cooperation Apr - May 2007"
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Ratsimilaho ruled the united Betsimisaraka from his capital at modern day
169:(spirit possession) ceremonies feature strongly in Betsimisaraka culture.
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A Betsimisarakian hen house and a rice barn in 1911, Fenerive. Photo by
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of the west coast, through marriage with Matave, the only daughter of
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Encyclopedia of National Dress: Traditional Clothing Around the World
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The country gained independence in 1960. It was led throughout the
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against French colonial rule was initiated in Moramanga, a town in
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The ceremonial dance music style most closely associated with the
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Religious rites and customs are traditionally presided over by a
457:
411:, Jean Rene, who maintained close cooperation with the French.
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musical genres, which are typically performed on the accordion.
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https://www.groene.nl/artikel/avant-gardisten-van-de-beschaving
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132:. They occupy a large stretch of the eastern coastal region of
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Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia
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1215:
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1126:. Institute for Security Studies. April 2003. Archived from
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1550:(9th ed.). Guilford, CT: The Globe Pequot Press Inc.
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by followers of Merina businessman and opposition leader
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Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century
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510:before being forced from power following contested
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651:She is not allowed to consume anything other than
279:in the north, including the island's main port at
1259:"ASK BALLADEER: IS THERE A MALAGASY SOLAR DEITY?"
128:and make up approximately fifteen percent of the
120:("the many inseparables") are the second largest
1931:
766:The Betsimisaraka speak several dialects of the
455:, who ordered many nobles to undergo the deadly
1741:
710:and is performed on accordion. The traditional
1727:
1613:. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.
1592:. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
151:. European influence is evident in the local
1121:"Madagascar: Stumbling at the first hurdle?"
1543:
1516:
1441:
1221:
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601:confederation, women wore a short wrapper (
1734:
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625:Among some Betsimisaraka it is considered
374:, who was born to the daughter of a local
28:
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1504:
1492:
1294:
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789:
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1932:
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1544:Bradt, Hilary; Austin, Daniel (2007).
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1381:
1369:
1357:
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1333:
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252:Distribution of Malagasy ethnic groups
201:colonisation by the French (1896-1960)
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996:
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969:
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716:performed for tromba ceremonies uses
71:(Northern Betsimisaraka dialect) and
1669:
957:
901:
860:
442:led an army of 25,000 soldiers from
50:Regions with significant populations
1634:(in French). Paris: Ernest Leroux.
13:
1655:. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
704:among the Betsimisaraka is called
693:
243:
14:
1956:
605:), typically with a bandeau top (
566:Christianize the local population
772:Malayo-Polynesian language group
670:
659:and can return to routine life.
1631:Tabou Et Totémisme à Madagascar
1537:
1251:
1137:
1113:
820:
191:who ruled from its capital at
1:
1589:The Rising of the Red Shawls
7:
1945:Ethnic groups in Madagascar
1743:Ethnic groups of Madagascar
770:, which is a branch of the
761:
746:
724:
718:
712:
706:
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480:mounted a strong resistance
475:French colonized Madagascar
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236:
228:
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147:
10:
1961:
1670:Ogot, Bethwell A. (1992).
785:
576:
525:
512:2001 presidential election
294:
214:, the ritual sacrifice of
122:ethnic group in Madagascar
16:Ethnic group in Madagascar
1913:
1882:
1749:
1571:. Los Angeles: ABC Clio.
750:is also performed by the
99:
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90:with traditional religion
83:
78:
67:
62:
54:
49:
44:
39:
27:
1649:Nielssen, Hilde (2011).
814:
1586:Ellis, Stephen (2014).
1517:Bradt & Austin 2007
1442:Bradt & Austin 2007
1222:Bradt & Austin 2007
873:Bradt & Austin 2007
620:
502:(1975-1992) by Admiral
283:and the major towns of
1697:. New York: ABC-CLIO.
1149:Swiss Peace Foundation
799:
427:
357:
253:
1628:Gennep, A.V. (1904).
1565:Condra, Jill (2013).
793:
778:, spoken in southern
544:Religious affiliation
488:a nationwide uprising
418:A pirate cemetery at
417:
351:
251:
208:respect for ancestors
95:Related ethnic groups
45:over 1,500,000 (2011)
1940:Betsimisaraka people
1691:Shoup, John (2001).
1607:Emoff, Ron (2002).
1420:, pp. 110–112.
1360:, pp. 220–221.
1348:, pp. 217–218.
1203:, pp. 155–156.
560:) and the imp-like
34:Betsimisaraka women
24:
800:
432:Kingdom of Imerina
428:
393:king Andrianbaba.
358:
254:
22:
1925:
1924:
1905:Vazaha (European)
1900:Vazaha (European)
1676:. Paris: UNESCO.
1641:978-5-87839-721-6
1578:978-0-313-37637-5
1557:978-1-84162-197-5
1026:, pp. 31–32.
948:, pp. 29–30.
774:derived from the
768:Malagasy language
558:zazavavy an-drano
516:Marc Ravalomanana
399:Maurice Benyowsky
325:Mascarene Islands
212:spirit possession
197:Central Highlands
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1263:Balladeer's Blog
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920:
914:
905:
899:
888:
882:
876:
870:
864:
858:
841:
835:
829:
824:
776:Barito languages
749:
727:
721:
715:
709:
703:
689:
682:
585:(circumcision),
520:Roland Ratsiraka
504:Didier Ratsiraka
404:Ile Sainte Marie
379:
369:
344:
331:in the north to
304:
275:in the south to
271:Madagascar from
261:
239:
233:
225:
177:
168:
162:
156:
150:
140:in the south to
40:Total population
32:
25:
21:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1951:
1950:
1949:
1930:
1929:
1926:
1921:
1909:
1895:Sinoa (Chinese)
1890:Karana (Indian)
1878:
1745:
1740:
1705:
1684:
1663:
1642:
1621:
1600:
1579:
1558:
1540:
1535:
1527:
1523:
1515:
1511:
1503:
1499:
1491:
1484:
1476:
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1424:
1416:
1412:
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1392:
1388:
1380:
1376:
1368:
1364:
1356:
1352:
1344:
1340:
1332:
1328:
1320:
1316:
1308:
1301:
1293:
1289:
1281:
1277:
1268:
1266:
1257:
1256:
1252:
1244:
1240:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1207:
1199:
1195:
1187:
1183:
1175:
1171:
1163:
1156:
1143:
1142:
1138:
1130:
1123:
1119:
1118:
1114:
1106:
1102:
1094:
1090:
1082:
1078:
1070:
1066:
1058:
1054:
1046:
1042:
1034:
1030:
1022:
1018:
1010:
1003:
995:
991:
983:
976:
968:
964:
956:
952:
944:
940:
932:
923:
915:
908:
900:
891:
883:
879:
871:
867:
859:
844:
836:
832:
825:
821:
817:
788:
764:
696:
694:Dance and music
673:
623:
596:The indigenous
579:
546:
528:
500:Second Republic
297:
246:
244:Ethnic identity
234:(reburial) and
130:Malagasy people
35:
20:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1958:
1948:
1947:
1942:
1923:
1922:
1914:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1886:
1884:
1880:
1879:
1877:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1755:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1739:
1738:
1731:
1724:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1703:
1688:
1682:
1667:
1661:
1646:
1640:
1625:
1619:
1604:
1598:
1583:
1577:
1562:
1556:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1533:
1521:
1519:, p. 319.
1509:
1497:
1482:
1470:
1458:
1446:
1444:, p. 307.
1434:
1432:, p. 340.
1422:
1410:
1408:, p. 167.
1398:
1396:, p. 225.
1386:
1384:, p. 290.
1374:
1372:, p. 280.
1362:
1350:
1338:
1336:, p. 456.
1326:
1324:, p. 455.
1314:
1299:
1287:
1275:
1250:
1238:
1226:
1205:
1193:
1191:, p. 157.
1181:
1179:, p. 156.
1169:
1154:
1151:. 31 May 2007.
1136:
1133:on 2012-02-05.
1112:
1100:
1088:
1076:
1064:
1062:, p. 143.
1052:
1050:, p. 134.
1040:
1028:
1016:
1001:
989:
974:
962:
960:, p. 871.
950:
938:
921:
906:
904:, p. 883.
889:
877:
865:
863:, p. 882.
842:
840:, p. 181.
830:
818:
816:
813:
796:Walter Kaudern
787:
784:
763:
760:
742:Reunion Island
695:
692:
672:
669:
645:ranom-boahangy
622:
619:
578:
575:
571:Garden of Eden
545:
542:
527:
524:
508:Third Republic
296:
293:
245:
242:
112:
111:
97:
96:
92:
91:
81:
80:
76:
75:
65:
64:
60:
59:
55:East coast of
52:
51:
47:
46:
42:
41:
37:
36:
33:
18:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1957:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1937:
1935:
1928:
1920:
1917:
1912:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
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1870:
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1857:
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1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1809:Betsimisaraka
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
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1706:
1704:9781598843620
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1696:
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1683:9789231017117
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1662:9789004215245
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1620:9780819565006
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1599:9781107634893
1595:
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1584:
1580:
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1570:
1569:
1563:
1559:
1553:
1549:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1531:, p. 26.
1530:
1529:Nielssen 2011
1525:
1518:
1513:
1507:, p. 25.
1506:
1505:Nielssen 2011
1501:
1495:, p. 24.
1494:
1493:Nielssen 2011
1489:
1487:
1480:, p. 19.
1479:
1474:
1468:, p. 69.
1467:
1462:
1456:, p. 63.
1455:
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1431:
1426:
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1407:
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1390:
1383:
1378:
1371:
1366:
1359:
1354:
1347:
1342:
1335:
1330:
1323:
1318:
1312:, p. xi.
1311:
1306:
1304:
1296:
1295:Nielssen 2011
1291:
1285:, p. 13.
1284:
1279:
1264:
1260:
1254:
1248:, p. 20.
1247:
1242:
1236:, p. 41.
1235:
1230:
1224:, p. 26.
1223:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1202:
1197:
1190:
1185:
1178:
1173:
1167:, p. 22.
1166:
1165:Nielssen 2011
1161:
1159:
1150:
1146:
1140:
1129:
1122:
1116:
1110:, p. 35.
1109:
1104:
1098:, p. 34.
1097:
1092:
1086:, p. 21.
1085:
1080:
1074:, p. 33.
1073:
1068:
1061:
1056:
1049:
1044:
1038:, p. 58.
1037:
1032:
1025:
1020:
1014:, p. 42.
1013:
1008:
1006:
999:, p. 31.
998:
993:
987:, p. 28.
986:
981:
979:
972:, p. 40.
971:
966:
959:
954:
947:
942:
936:, p. 30.
935:
930:
928:
926:
919:, p. 29.
918:
913:
911:
903:
898:
896:
894:
887:, p. 25.
886:
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874:
869:
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857:
855:
853:
851:
849:
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839:
834:
828:
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797:
792:
783:
781:
777:
773:
769:
759:
757:
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748:
743:
739:
738:
737:kwassa kwassa
733:
732:
726:
720:
714:
708:
702:
691:
688:
681:
680:
671:Funeral rites
668:
665:
660:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
637:
635:
630:
629:
618:
614:
610:
608:
604:
599:
594:
592:
588:
584:
574:
572:
567:
564:. Efforts to
563:
559:
556:), mermaids (
555:
551:
541:
538:
537:communal bowl
532:
523:
521:
517:
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178:pirate named
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155:
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143:
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135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
118:Betsimisaraka
110:
109:Austronesians
106:
105:Bantu peoples
102:
98:
93:
89:
86:
82:
77:
74:
70:
66:
61:
58:
53:
48:
43:
38:
31:
26:
23:Betsimisaraka
1927:
1915:
1808:
1774:Antambahoaka
1693:
1672:
1651:
1630:
1609:
1588:
1567:
1546:
1538:Bibliography
1524:
1512:
1500:
1473:
1461:
1449:
1437:
1425:
1413:
1401:
1389:
1377:
1365:
1353:
1341:
1329:
1317:
1297:, p. 2.
1290:
1278:
1267:. Retrieved
1265:. 2018-06-03
1262:
1253:
1241:
1229:
1196:
1184:
1172:
1139:
1128:the original
1115:
1103:
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533:
529:
497:
485:
472:
467:
456:
453:Ranavalona I
447:
444:Antananarivo
429:
423:
408:
395:
359:
307:Antongil Bay
298:
285:Fénérive Est
255:
205:
193:Antananarivo
171:
157:(waltz) and
117:
115:
85:Christianity
19:Ethnic group
1784:Antankarana
1454:Gennep 1904
1430:Gennep 1904
1418:Gennep 1904
1406:Gennep 1904
1394:Gennep 1904
1382:Gennep 1904
1370:Gennep 1904
1358:Gennep 1904
1346:Gennep 1904
1334:Condra 2013
1322:Condra 2013
1201:Gennep 1904
1189:Gennep 1904
1177:Gennep 1904
807:) and rum (
740:music from
598:raffia palm
550:tangalamena
448:zana-malata
424:zana-malata
420:Nosy Boraha
409:zana-malata
372:Ratsimilaho
367:zana-malata
342:zana-malata
333:Nosy Boraha
329:Antsiranana
289:Maroansetra
259:zana-malata
180:Ratsimilaho
175:zana-malata
148:zana-malata
1934:Categories
1869:Zafimaniry
1814:Bezanozano
1751:Indigenous
1547:Madagascar
1478:Emoff 2002
1466:Emoff 2002
1310:Emoff 2002
1283:Emoff 2002
1269:2018-06-14
1246:Emoff 2002
1234:Ellis 2014
1108:Emoff 2002
1096:Emoff 2002
1084:Emoff 2002
1072:Emoff 2002
1060:Ellis 2014
1048:Ellis 2014
1036:Ellis 2014
1024:Emoff 2002
1012:Ellis 2014
997:Emoff 2002
985:Ellis 2014
970:Ellis 2014
946:Emoff 2002
934:Emoff 2002
917:Emoff 2002
885:Emoff 2002
838:Shoup 2001
679:famadihana
492:Bezanozano
468:fanampoana
383:Bezanozano
362:Vatomandry
354:Foulpointe
337:Foulpointe
312:Foulpointe
230:famadihana
187:, king of
134:Madagascar
124:after the
57:Madagascar
1916:See also:
1883:Immigrant
1859:Tsimihety
1779:Antandroy
1769:Antaisaka
1759:Antaifasy
958:Ogot 1992
902:Ogot 1992
861:Ogot 1992
752:Antandroy
486:In 1947,
473:When the
464:Radama II
281:Toamasina
273:Mananjary
138:Mananjary
101:Tsimihety
88:syncretic
63:Languages
1874:Zafisoro
1849:Sihanaka
1844:Sakalava
1829:Masikoro
1819:Mahafaly
1804:Betsileo
1789:Antanosy
1764:Antemoro
762:Language
587:folanaka
583:sambatra
562:kalamoro
440:Radama I
387:Sakalava
377:filohany
320:Tamatave
316:Fenerive
302:filohany
277:Antalaha
264:Sakalava
237:sambatra
185:Radama I
142:Antalaha
79:Religion
69:Malagasy
1919:Vazimba
786:Economy
719:kaiamba
577:Culture
554:angatra
526:Society
458:tangena
295:History
195:in the
189:Imerina
136:, from
1854:Tanala
1834:Merina
1701:
1680:
1659:
1638:
1617:
1596:
1575:
1554:
780:Borneo
747:Basesa
725:basesa
713:basesa
707:basesa
701:tromba
687:akanjo
653:saonjo
649:komby.
607:akanjo
591:tromba
436:Merina
422:. The
391:Iboina
370:named
166:Tromba
160:basesa
126:Merina
73:French
1839:Mikea
1824:Makoa
1799:Beosi
1131:(PDF)
1124:(PDF)
815:Notes
809:toaka
805:betsa
756:valse
657:komby
641:komby
603:simbo
438:king
268:Bantu
154:valse
1864:Vezo
1794:Bara
1699:ISBN
1678:ISBN
1657:ISBN
1636:ISBN
1615:ISBN
1594:ISBN
1573:ISBN
1552:ISBN
734:and
731:sega
664:fady
634:fady
628:fady
621:Fady
430:The
335:and
318:and
287:and
222:fady
216:zebu
116:The
345:.
1936::
1485:^
1302:^
1261:.
1208:^
1157:^
1147:.
1004:^
977:^
924:^
909:^
892:^
845:^
782:.
744:.
573:.
314:,
210:,
107:,
103:,
1735:e
1728:t
1721:v
1707:.
1686:.
1665:.
1644:.
1623:.
1602:.
1581:.
1560:.
1272:.
875:.
798:.
356:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
