View camera - Knowledge

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depth of field by drastically altering its shape, making it asymmetrical. Without tilt, the limits of near and far acceptable focus are parallel to the plane of sharp focus as well as parallel to the film. With forward tilt, the plane of sharp focus tilts even more and the near and far limits of acceptable focus form a wedge shape (viewed from the side). Thus, the lens still sees a cone shaped portion of whatever is in front of it while the wedge of acceptable focus is now more closely aligned with this cone. Therefore, depending on the shape of the subject, a wider aperture can be used, lessening concerns about camera stability due to slow shutter speed and diffraction due to too-small aperture.

433:, the “plane of sharp focus” can be changed so that any plane can be brought into sharp focus. When the film plane and lens plane are parallel as is the case for most 35 mm cameras, the plane of sharp focus is also parallel to these two planes. If, however, the lens plane is tilted with respect to the film plane, the plane of sharp focus is also tilted according to geometrical and optical properties. The three planes intersect in a line below the camera for downward lens tilt. The tilted plane of sharp focus is useful, in that this plane can be made to coincide with a near and far object. Thus, both near and far objects on the plane are in focus. 909:: This is most often to reduce or eliminate, or deliberately exaggerate, convergence of lines that are parallel in the subject. If a camera with parallel film and lens planes is pointed at an angle to a plane subject with parallel lines, the lines appear to converge in the image, becoming closer to each other the further away from the camera they are. With a view camera the rear standard can be swung toward the wall to reduce this convergence. If the standard is parallel to the wall, convergence is eliminated. Moving the rear standard this way skews the plane of focus, which can be corrected with a front swing in the same direction as the rear swing. 808: 915:: The larger a piece of film is, the less detail is lost at a given print size because the larger film requires less enlargement for the same size print. In other words, the same scene photographed on a large-format camera provides a better-quality image and allows greater enlargement than the same image in a smaller format. Additionally, the larger a piece of film is, the more subtle and varied the tonal palette and gradations are at a given print size. A large film size also allows same-size 964:: In addition to needing the knowledge required to operate a fully manual camera, view camera operators must understand a large number of technical matters that are not an issue to most small format photographers. They must understand, for example, view camera movements, bellows factors, and reciprocity. A great amount of time and study is needed to master those aspects of large format photography, so learning view camera operation requires a high degree of dedication. 206:

retracted, the flat bed folds up, reducing the camera to a relatively small, light, and portable box. The trade off for this portability is that the standards are not as mobile or as adjustable as on a monorail design. The rear standard in particular may be fixed and offer no movement. These large format but transportable cameras are popular with landscape photographers. Tachihara and Wisner are examples of modern field cameras at opposite ends of the price scale.

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standards neutral and relying on the aperture alone to achieve the desired depth of field. If the scene is sharp enough at f/32 with 2 degrees of tilt but would need f/64 with zero tilt, then tilt is the solution. If another scene would need f/45 with or without tilt, then nothing is gained. See Merklinger and Luong for extensive discussions on determining the optimal tilt (if any) in challenging situations.

1263: 645:—a flat board, typically square in shape and made of metal or wood, that locks securely into the front standard of a particular view camera, with a central hole of the right size to insert a lens and shutter assembly, usually secured and made light-tight by screwing a ring onto a thread on the rear of the lens assembly. Lensboards, complete with lenses, can be removed and fitted quickly. 890:: In a camera without movements the film plane is always parallel to the lens plane. A camera with tilts and swings lets the photographer skew the plane of focus away from the parallel in any direction, which in many cases can bring the image of a subject that is not parallel to the lens plane into near-to-far focus without stopping down the aperture excessively. Both standards can be 483:

When a lens is a certain distance (its focal length) away from the film, distant objects, such as faraway mountains, are in focus. Moving the lens farther from the film brings closer objects into focus. Tilting or swinging the film plane puts one side of the film farther from the lens than the center is and the opposite point of the film is therefore closer to the lens.

367: 355: 715:": the front or rear element only, or both elements, may be used, giving three different focal lengths, though the quality of the single elements is not as good at larger apertures as the combination. These are popular with field photographers who can save weight by carrying one convertible lens rather than two or three lenses of different focal lengths. 804:

focusing cloth or "dark cloth" over their heads and the rear of the camera. The dark cloth shrouds the viewing area and keeps environmental light from obscuring the image. In the dark space created by the dark cloth, the image appears as bright as it can, so the photographer can view, focus, and compose the image.

992:: there is limited demand for view cameras, so that there are no economies of scale and they are much more expensive than mass-produced cameras. Some are handmade. Even though the cost of sheet film and processing is much higher than rollfilm, fewer sheets of film are exposed, which partially offsets the cost. 457:(“PC”) lenses that provide limited movements for these cameras can be purchased from a number of lens makers. High-quality TS or PC lenses are expensive. The price of a new Canon TS-E or Nikon PC-E lens is comparable to that of a good used large-format camera, which offers a much greater range of adjustment. 829:

The ground glass and frame assembly, known as the spring back, is held in place by springs that pull and hold the ground glass firmly into the plane of focus during the focusing and composition process. Once focusing is complete, the same springs act as a flexible clamping mechanism to press the film

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With a forward tilt, the shape of the portion of a scene in acceptable focus is a wedge. Thus, the scene most likely to benefit from tilting is short in the front and expands to a greater height or thickness toward the horizon. A scene consisting of tall trees in the near, middle and far distance may

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In Figure a) below (images are upside down, as a photographer would see them on the ground glass of a view camera), the lens has been shifted down (fall). Notice that much of the unwanted foreground is included, but not the top of the tower. In Figure b), the lens has been shifted up (rise): the top

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Rise and fall are the movements of either the front or rear standard vertically along a line in a plane parallel to the film (or sensor) plane. Rise is a very important movement especially in architectural photography. Generally, the lens is moved vertically—either up or down—along the lens plane to

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Almost any lens of the appropriate coverage area may be used with almost any view camera. All that is required is that the lens be mounted on a lensboard compatible with the camera. Not all lensboards work with all models of view camera, though different cameras may be designed to work with a common

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It is often incorrectly stated that rear movements can be used to change perspective. The only thing that truly controls perspective is the location of the camera in relation to the objects in the frame. Rear movements can let a photographer shoot a subject from a perspective that puts the camera at

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Assuming lens axis front tilt, here are the trade offs in choosing between a small degree of tilt (say less than 3) and a larger tilt: A small tilt causes a wider or fatter wedge but one that is far off axis from the cone of light seen by the lens. Conversely, a large tilt (say 10 degrees) makes the

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Angular movements of the rear standard change the angle between the lens plane and the film plane just as front standard angular movements do. Though rear standard tilt changes the plane of sharp focus in the same manner as front standard tilt, this is not usually the reason to use rear tilt/swing.

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Tilting achieves the desired depth of field using the aperture at which the lens performs best. Too small an aperture risks losses to diffraction and camera/subject motion what is gained from depth of field. Only testing a given scene, or experience, shows whether tilting is better than leaving the

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This effect is often incorrectly thought of as increasing the depth of field. Depth of field depends on the focal length, aperture, and subject distance. As long as the photographer wants sharpness in a plane that is parallel to the film, tilt is of no use. However, tilt has a strong effect on the

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is used for copying nearly flat artwork that is held to a copyboard located at the far end of the camera rails of horizontally mounted cameras, or at the base of vertical cameras. The work to be copied and the film are often held in place by vacuum and copying is usually at 1:1 magnification. They

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Field camera – These have the front and rear standard mounted on sliding rails fixed to a hinged flat bed that can be attached to a camera support, such as a tripod. These cameras are usually made of wood, or sometimes lightweight and strong composites such as carbon fiber. With the bellows fully

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With an inexpensive modification of the darkslide, and no modification to the camera, half a sheet of film can be exposed at a time. While this technique could be used for economy where a larger image is not required, it is almost always used with the intention of obtaining a panoramic format so

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Altering the angle of the lens standard in relation to the film plane by swiveling it from side to side is called swing. Swing is like tilt, but it changes the angle of the focal plane in the horizontal axis instead of the vertical axis. For example, swing can help achieve sharp focus along the

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through the vertical axes to change the plane of focus. Tilts and swings of the front standard alone do not alter or distort shapes or converging lines in the image; tilts and swings of the rear standard do affect these things, as well as the plane of focus: if the plane of focus must be skewed

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of the lens be larger than is required to cover the film without use of movements. If the lens can produce a circular image just large enough to cover the film, it can't cover the bottom of the film as it rises. Consequently, lens coverage must be larger to accommodate rise (and fall, tilt and

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plate on the rear standard. The rear standard holds the ground glass in the same plane that the film later occupies—so that an image focused on the ground glass is focused on the film. The ground glass image can be somewhat dim and difficult to view in bright light. Photographers often use a

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The main effect of rise is to eliminate converging parallels when photographing tall buildings. If a camera without movements is pointed at a tall building, the top is off. If the camera is tilted upwards to get it all in, the film plane is not parallel to the building, and the building seems

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Press cameras that have a ground glass integral to the film-holder mechanism allow critical focus and use of available movements. More expensive examples had a wide array of movements, as well as focusing and composing aids like rangefinders and viewfinders. They are most often made of metal,

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is the most common type of studio view camera, with front and rear standards mounted to a single rail that is fixed to a camera support. This design gives the greatest range of movements and flexibility, with both front and rear standards able to tilt, shift, rise, fall, and swing in similar

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style, for example), especially combined with camera movements. The high cost of film and processing encourages careful planning. Because view cameras are rather difficult to set up and focus, the photographer must seek the best camera position, perspective, etc. before exposing. Beginning

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designed to fold up quickly for portability, used by press photographers before and during the second world war. Some press cameras have more adjustment capabilities, including some ability to tilt the rear standard, and can be either hand-held or attached to a tripod for support.

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that, for example, a 4×5 camera can take two 2×5 photos, an 8×10 can take two 4×10s etc. This is popular for landscape photography, and in the past was common for group photographs (hence, half-frame panorama formats such as 4x10 are commonly referred to as "Banquet formats")

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Some of these disadvantages can be viewed as advantages. For example, slow setup and composure time allow the photographer to better visualize the image before making an exposure. The shallow depth of field can be used to emphasize certain details and deemphasize others (in

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wedge more aligned with the lens view, but with a narrower wedge. Thus, a modest tilt is often, or even usually, the best starting point. Small and medium format cameras have fixed bodies that do not allow for misalignment of the film and lens planes, intentionally or not.

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relative to each other, unlike most other camera types. Whereas most cameras control only the distance of the plane of focus from the camera, the view camera can also adjust the orientation of the plane of focus, and perspective control. The camera is normally used on a

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To avoid this apparent distortion, a wide-angle lens gets more of the building in, but includes more of the foreground and alters the perspective. A camera with rising front lets a normal lens be raised to include the top of the building without tilting the camera.

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produces monorail cameras for field use in addition to models for the more conventional studio applications. Many manufacturers also offer monorail extensions that move the front or rear standards farther away from each other to facilitate focusing on close objects

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and coverage in mind. A 300 mm lens may give a different angle of view (either over 31° or over 57°), depending on whether it was designed to cover a 4×5 or 8×10 image area. Most lenses are designed to cover more than just the image area to accommodate camera

286:. Image control is done by moving the front and/or rear standards. Movements are the ways the front and rear standards can move to alter perspective and focus. The term can also refer to the mechanisms on the standards that control their position. 258:

sizes is used in many countries; thus 9×12 cm is similar to, but not interchangeable with, 4×5 inches and 13×18 cm is similar to, but not interchangeable with, 5×7 inches. The most widely used format is 4×5, followed by 8×10.

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set. The photographer removes the darkslide that covers the sheet of film in the film holder, and triggers the shutter to make the exposure. Finally, the photographer replaces the darkslide and removes the film holder with the exposed film.

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One reason to swing or tilt the rear standard is to keep the film plane parallel to the face of the subject. Another reason to swing or tilt the rear standard is to control apparent convergence of lines when shooting subjects at an angle.

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have an attachment that inserts into the film holder slot on the camera back so the photographer can measure light that falls at a specific point on the film plane. The entire film holder/back assembly is often an industry standard

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Focusing involves moving the entire front standard with the lens assembly closer to or further away from the rear standard, unlike many lenses on smaller cameras in which one group of lens elements is fixed and another moves.

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size or special disks that fit into the lens to modify the aperture shape. Some antique lenses, and some modern SLR soft focus lenses, provide a lever that controls the softening effect by altering the optical formula.

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This movement is similar to rise and fall, but moves the image horizontally rather than vertically. One use for shift is to remove the image of the camera from the final image when photographing a reflective surface.

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Not all cameras have all movements available to both front and rear standards, and some cameras have more movements available than others. Some cameras have mechanisms that facilitate intricate movement combinations.

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are not used in view camera photography, as there is no need for rapid and continuous change of focal length with static subjects, and the price, size, weight, and complexity would be excessive. Some lenses are

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an angle to the subject, yet still achieves parallel lines. Thus, rear movements allow a change of perspective by allowing a different camera location, yet no view camera movement actually alters perspective.

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The lens is designed to split into two pieces, the front and rear elements screwed, usually by a trained technician, into the front and back of the shutter assembly, and the whole fitted in a lensboard.

925:: view cameras require longer focal length lenses than smaller format cameras, especially for the larger sizes, with shallower depth of field, letting the photographer focus solely on the subject. 788:

The camera must be set up in a suitable position. In some cases the subject can also be manipulated, as in a studio. In others the camera must be positioned to photograph subjects such as

700:, a simple light-tight flexible bag. Recessed lensboards are also sometimes used to get the rear element of a wide angle lens close enough to the film plane; they may also be of use with 692:

may require that the camera be fitted with special extra-long rails and bellows. Very short focal length wide-angle lenses may require that the standards be closer together than a normal

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is an advantage for buyers, but not for sellers. A top-of-the-line 8×10 camera that cost $ 8,000 new can often be bought in excellent condition, with additional accessories, for $ 1,500.

410: 80:(1840s–1850s) and is still in use, some using drive mechanisms for movement (rather than loosen-move-tighten), more scale markings, and/or more spirit levels. It comprises a flexible 750:(generally 120/220 size) by using special roll film holders. Popular "normal" image formats for the 4×5 camera are 6×6, 6×7, and 6×9 cm. 6×12 and 6×17 cm are suited to 417:

The axis of the lens is normally perpendicular to the film (or sensor). Changing the angle between axis and film by tilting the lens standard backwards or forwards is called

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can considerably brighten the ground glass image (with a slight loss of focusing accuracy). The taking lens may be stopped down to help gauge depth of field effects and

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is a frame that holds a ground glass plate, used for focusing and composing the image before exposure—and is replaced by a holder containing the light-sensitive film,

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The bellows is a flexible, accordion-pleated box. It encloses the space between the lens and film, and flexes to accommodate the movements of the standards. The

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To take the photograph, the photographer pulls back the ground glass and slides the film holder into its place. The shutter is then closed and cocked, the

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effect considered pleasing, and flattering to subjects with less than perfect complexions. The degree of soft-focus effect is determined by either

970:: monorail view cameras are unsuitable for handheld photography and are in most cases difficult to transport. A folding bed field camera like a 445:

not lend itself to tilting unless the photographer is willing to sacrifice either the top of the near trees and/or the bottom of the far trees.

980:: view cameras require longer focal length lenses than smaller format cameras, especially for the larger sizes, with shallower depth of field. 182: 954:: most view cameras are fully manual, requiring time, and allowing even experienced photographers to make mistakes. Some cameras, such as 2840: 2792: 178: 143:

Several types of view cameras are used for different purposes, and provide different degrees of movement and portability. They include:

2577: 246:—one sheet per photograph. Standard sizes in inches are: 4×5, 5×7, 4×10, 5×12, 8×10, 11×14, 7×17, 8×20, 12×20, 20×24, and larger for 92:, and the other a ground glass or a photographic film holder or a digital back. There are three general types: the rail camera, the 1069: 209:

Extremely large field cameras use 11×14 film and larger, or panoramic film sizes such as 4×10 or 8×20. These are sometimes called

1442: 301:. Also, as use of view cameras declines in favor of digital photography, these movements are simulated using computer software. 1548: 1295: 704:, since these compressed long-focus lenses may also have very small spacing between the back of the lens and the film plane. 2845: 986:: it is not feasible to make long focal length lenses with the wide maximum apertures available with shorter focal lengths. 569: 213:, and once were commonly used to photograph large, posed groups of people to mark occasions, such as banquets or weddings. 657:

lensboard type. Lensboards usually come with a hole sized according to the shutter size, often called the Copal Number.

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proportion. These are generally made of metal with leather or synthetic bellows, and are difficult to pack for travel.

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Other view cameras – Many unique view cameras have been built and used for special purposes or for general purpose.

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To operate the view camera, the photographer opens the shutter on the lens to focus and compose the image on a

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Special film holders and accessories can fit in place of standard film holders for specific purposes. A

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of the tower is now inside the area captured on film, at the sacrifice of unwanted green foreground.

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narrower at the top than the bottom: lines that are parallel in the object converge in the image.

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are generally interchangeable between various brands and models of view cameras, adhering to

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cameras have movements that make them as versatile as a sheet film view camera. Rollfilm and

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change the portion of the image captured on the film. In the 35 mm format, special

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explains the relationship between lens tilts and swings, and the plane of sharp focus.

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backs are available to use in place of a sheetfilm holder on a single-film camera.

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without altering shapes in the image, front movements alone must be used. The

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use various sizes of film depending upon what is needed for the specific job.

77: 2134: 818:, to critically focus the image. An addition over the ground glass called a 726: 2862: 2756: 2751: 2746: 2701: 2587: 2582: 2236: 1956: 1926: 1708: 1703: 1686: 1531: 1353: 1343: 1333: 1059: 1034: 1019: 870: 819: 800: 673: 662: 629:) can be uncovered for the duration of the exposure by removing a lens cap. 392:

Moving the front standard left or right from its normal position is called

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entire length of a picket fence that is not parallel to the film plane.

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with a lens-coupled range finder system even allows action photography.

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The ability to distort the shape of the image by skewing the film plane

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Often, a photographer uses a magnifying lens, usually a high quality

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holder into the same plane of focus that the ground glass occupied.

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are similar to field cameras, but do not fold up for portability.

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is used—a camera with a long bellows extension may require two.

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specifically because it slows down the picture-taking process.

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and the large stable immovable multi-rail camera known as the

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instead of using film. Prices are high compared to smaller

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are popular manufacturers of monorail view camera systems.

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back, removable so accessories like roll-film holders and

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Some limited view camera–type movements are possible with

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with limited movements were often used. An example is the

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Tilt–shift photography § Perspective control lenses

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This type of camera was developed during the era of the

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Rail camera – There are the smaller more maneuverable

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that forms a light-tight seal between two adjustable

696:-folded bellows allows. Such a situation requires a 529:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 250:. (It is usual to list the short side first in the 1089: 1006:photographers are even sometimes advised to use a 913:Improved image quality for a print of a given size 877:Pros and cons compared to medium and 35mm formats 2910: 150:A Sanderson 'Hand' camera dating from circa 1899 888:The ability to skew the plane of critical focus 126:for exposure. The front and rear standards can 1289: 725:deliberately into the optical formula for an 2841:Conservation and restoration of photographs 935:becomes significant for a given print size. 73:exactly the same image seen on the screen. 2578:Comparison of digital and film photography 1296: 1282: 1124:, 5th ed., p. 212. 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Boston: Little, Brown and Company. 114:At the other end of the bellows, the 1173:Picture of C.P.Goerz Taro-Tenax 9x12 1143: 873:can be used without altering focus. 527:adding citations to reliable sources 498: 2793:Museums devoted to one photographer 24: 2340:Timeline of photography technology 477: 107:, to which the lens (perhaps with 25: 2930: 1255: 2891: 2881: 2880: 1261: 1198:"IPEVO Point 2 View User Manual" 945: 784:Viewing through a Sinar F camera 503: 365: 353: 341: 304: 2892: 1303: 514:needs additional citations for 469:Front standard swing (top view) 1239: 1214: 1190: 1177: 1166: 1092:A World History of Photography 678: 242:View cameras use large format 127: 13: 1: 2390:Painted photography backdrops 2322:Golden triangle (composition) 1597:35 mm equivalent focal length 1075: 929:Smaller apertures can be used 881: 661:is the most popular maker of 613:— sometimes referred to as a 425:Tilt is especially useful in 284:convergence of parallel lines 34:Basic view camera terminology 1247:How to Focus the View Camera 775: 273: 7: 2100:Intentional camera movement 1013: 10: 2935: 2788:Most expensive photographs 2145:Multi-exposure HDR capture 1220:Merklinger, H. M. (1996). 1096:(3rd ed.). New York: 894:through the horizontal or 103:is a frame that holds the 2876: 2833: 2780: 2685: 2628: 2534: 2418: 2330: 2282: 2022: 1789: 1589: 1311: 1120:Stroebel, L. D. (1986). 1088:Rosenblum, Naomi (1997). 494: 2722:Digital image processing 1222:Focusing the View Camera 665:for view camera lenses. 605:typically consists of: 460: 379: 217:Studio and salon cameras 138: 2395:Photography and the law 1203:. ipevo.com. 2012-02-20 737: 404: 325:This requires that the 88:, one of which holds a 61:screen directly at the 2742:Gelatin silver process 1766:Science of photography 1751:Photographic processes 1729:Perspective distortion 1234:Available for download 1140:Stroebel (1986). p. 2. 984:Small maximum aperture 978:Shallow depth of field 923:Shallow depth of field 811: 785: 470: 414: 389: 151: 35: 2200:Schlieren photography 1739:Photographic printing 1662:Exposure compensation 1245:Luong, Q. T. (2000). 1122:View Camera Technique 968:Large size and weight 901:Scheimpflug principle 810: 783: 752:panoramic photography 468: 431:Scheimpflug principle 427:landscape photography 412: 387: 223:Folding plate cameras 149: 33: 1984:Straight photography 1622:Chromatic aberration 1270:at Wikimedia Commons 962:Steep learning curve 762:Digital camera backs 723:spherical aberration 523:improve this article 388:Front standard shift 2851:photographic plates 2536:Digital photography 1714:Hyperfocal distance 1627:Circle of confusion 1055:Perspective control 455:perspective control 413:Front standard tilt 348:Front standard rise 27:Large-format camera 2355:Autochrome Lumière 2350:Analog photography 2175:Pigeon photography 1964:Social documentary 1443:discontinued films 1152:Adams, A. (1980). 952:Lack of automation 851:de facto standards 812: 786: 611:front lens element 471: 415: 390: 229:Taro-Tenax 9x12cm. 152: 36: 2906: 2905: 2707:Collodion process 2643:Chromogenic print 2630:Color photography 2140:Multiple exposure 2115:Lo-fi photography 1642:Color temperature 1266:Media related to 1040:Large format lens 742:View cameras use 721:lenses introduce 690:long focus lenses 650:rear lens element 599: 598: 591: 573: 299:tilt/shift lenses 16:(Redirected from 2926: 2895: 2894: 2884: 2883: 2762:Print permanence 2712:Cross processing 2670:CMYK color model 2655:Color management 2608:Foveon X3 sensor 2603:Three-CCD camera 2247:Miniature faking 2205:Sabattier effect 1817:Astrophotography 1672:Zebra patterning 1298: 1291: 1284: 1275: 1274: 1265: 1250: 1243: 1237: 1218: 1212: 1211: 1209: 1208: 1202: 1194: 1188: 1181: 1175: 1170: 1164: 1150: 1141: 1138: 1132: 1118: 1112: 1111: 1095: 1085: 939:Low resale value 917:contact printing 702:telephoto lenses 594: 587: 583: 580: 574: 572: 531: 507: 499: 369: 357: 345: 188:macrophotography 21: 2934: 2933: 2929: 2928: 2927: 2925: 2924: 2923: 2919:Cameras by type 2909: 2908: 2907: 2902: 2872: 2829: 2776: 2767:Push processing 2688: 2681: 2675:RGB color model 2624: 2530: 2414: 2326: 2292:Diagonal method 2278: 2018: 1922:Photojournalism 1785: 1617:Black-and-white 1585: 1564:Slide projector 1559:Movie projector 1438:available films 1307: 1302: 1258: 1253: 1244: 1240: 1219: 1215: 1206: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1195: 1191: 1182: 1178: 1171: 1167: 1151: 1144: 1139: 1135: 1119: 1115: 1108: 1100:. p. 654. 1098:Abbeville Press 1086: 1082: 1078: 1016: 972:Linhof Technika 948: 884: 879: 871:digital imagers 778: 770:digital cameras 740: 595: 584: 578: 575: 532: 530: 520: 508: 497: 480: 478:Back tilt/swing 463: 429:. By using the 407: 382: 377: 376: 375: 374: 373: 370: 362: 361: 358: 350: 349: 346: 307: 276: 248:process cameras 211:banquet cameras 193:The stationary 169:monorail camera 157:monorail camera 141: 111:) is attached. 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 2932: 2922: 2921: 2904: 2903: 2901: 2900: 2889: 2877: 2874: 2873: 2871: 2870: 2865: 2860: 2855: 2854: 2853: 2848: 2837: 2835: 2831: 2830: 2828: 2827: 2826: 2825: 2820: 2815: 2810: 2800: 2795: 2790: 2784: 2782: 2778: 2777: 2775: 2774: 2769: 2764: 2759: 2754: 2749: 2744: 2739: 2734: 2729: 2724: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2704: 2699: 2693: 2691: 2683: 2682: 2680: 2679: 2678: 2677: 2672: 2667: 2662: 2652: 2647: 2646: 2645: 2634: 2632: 2626: 2625: 2623: 2622: 2617: 2612: 2611: 2610: 2605: 2600: 2595: 2585: 2580: 2575: 2570: 2569: 2568: 2563: 2558: 2557: 2556: 2544:Digital camera 2540: 2538: 2532: 2531: 2529: 2528: 2523: 2518: 2513: 2508: 2503: 2498: 2493: 2488: 2483: 2478: 2473: 2468: 2463: 2458: 2453: 2448: 2443: 2438: 2433: 2428: 2422: 2420: 2416: 2415: 2413: 2412: 2407: 2402: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2377: 2372: 2370:Camera obscura 2367: 2362: 2357: 2352: 2347: 2342: 2336: 2334: 2328: 2327: 2325: 2324: 2319: 2314: 2312:Rule of thirds 2309: 2304: 2299: 2294: 2288: 2286: 2280: 2279: 2277: 2276: 2271: 2266: 2261: 2256: 2251: 2250: 2249: 2239: 2234: 2233: 2232: 2222: 2217: 2212: 2207: 2202: 2197: 2192: 2187: 2182: 2177: 2172: 2167: 2162: 2157: 2152: 2147: 2142: 2137: 2132: 2127: 2122: 2117: 2112: 2107: 2102: 2097: 2092: 2087: 2082: 2080:Harris shutter 2077: 2075:Hand-colouring 2072: 2067: 2062: 2057: 2052: 2047: 2042: 2037: 2032: 2026: 2024: 2020: 2019: 2017: 2016: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1991: 1986: 1981: 1976: 1971: 1966: 1961: 1960: 1959: 1949: 1944: 1939: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1919: 1914: 1909: 1904: 1899: 1894: 1889: 1884: 1879: 1874: 1869: 1864: 1859: 1854: 1849: 1844: 1839: 1834: 1829: 1824: 1819: 1814: 1809: 1804: 1799: 1793: 1791: 1787: 1786: 1784: 1783: 1778: 1773: 1768: 1763: 1761:Red-eye effect 1758: 1753: 1748: 1747: 1746: 1736: 1731: 1726: 1721: 1716: 1711: 1706: 1701: 1696: 1695: 1694: 1689: 1679: 1674: 1669: 1667:Exposure value 1664: 1659: 1654: 1652:Depth of focus 1649: 1647:Depth of field 1644: 1639: 1634: 1629: 1624: 1619: 1614: 1609: 1604: 1599: 1593: 1591: 1587: 1586: 1584: 1583: 1578: 1577: 1576: 1566: 1561: 1556: 1551: 1546: 1545: 1544: 1539: 1534: 1529: 1524: 1519: 1514: 1504: 1503: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1487: 1482: 1477: 1472: 1467: 1462: 1452: 1447: 1446: 1445: 1440: 1435: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1410: 1405: 1404: 1403: 1398: 1388: 1387: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1371: 1366: 1361: 1356: 1351: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1326: 1315: 1313: 1309: 1308: 1301: 1300: 1293: 1286: 1278: 1272: 1271: 1257: 1256:External links 1254: 1252: 1251: 1238: 1213: 1189: 1176: 1165: 1142: 1133: 1113: 1106: 1079: 1077: 1074: 1073: 1072: 1067: 1062: 1057: 1052: 1047: 1042: 1037: 1032: 1027: 1022: 1015: 1012: 994: 993: 987: 981: 975: 965: 959: 947: 944: 943: 942: 936: 926: 920: 910: 904: 883: 880: 878: 875: 777: 774: 766:digital images 739: 736: 654: 653: 646: 637: 630: 617: 601:A view camera 597: 596: 511: 509: 502: 496: 493: 479: 476: 462: 459: 406: 403: 381: 378: 372:Figure b) Rise 371: 364: 363: 360:Figure a) Fall 359: 352: 351: 347: 340: 339: 338: 337: 336: 306: 303: 297:using various 275: 272: 240: 239: 236: 235: 234: 230: 220: 214: 203: 202: 201: 196:process camera 191: 161:process camera 140: 137: 101:front standard 55:inverted image 26: 18:Bellows camera 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2931: 2920: 2917: 2916: 2914: 2899: 2890: 2888: 2879: 2878: 2875: 2869: 2866: 2864: 2861: 2859: 2856: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2844: 2843: 2842: 2839: 2838: 2836: 2832: 2824: 2821: 2819: 2816: 2814: 2811: 2809: 2806: 2805: 2804: 2803:Photographers 2801: 2799: 2796: 2794: 2791: 2789: 2786: 2785: 2783: 2779: 2773: 2770: 2768: 2765: 2763: 2760: 2758: 2755: 2753: 2750: 2748: 2745: 2743: 2740: 2738: 2735: 2733: 2730: 2728: 2725: 2723: 2720: 2718: 2715: 2713: 2710: 2708: 2705: 2703: 2700: 2698: 2697:Bleach bypass 2695: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2684: 2676: 2673: 2671: 2668: 2666: 2665:primary color 2663: 2661: 2658: 2657: 2656: 2653: 2651: 2650:Reversal film 2648: 2644: 2641: 2640: 2639: 2636: 2635: 2633: 2631: 2627: 2621: 2618: 2616: 2615:Image sharing 2613: 2609: 2606: 2604: 2601: 2599: 2596: 2594: 2591: 2590: 2589: 2586: 2584: 2581: 2579: 2576: 2574: 2571: 2567: 2564: 2562: 2559: 2555: 2552: 2551: 2550: 2547: 2546: 2545: 2542: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2533: 2527: 2524: 2522: 2519: 2517: 2516:United States 2514: 2512: 2509: 2507: 2504: 2502: 2499: 2497: 2494: 2492: 2489: 2487: 2484: 2482: 2479: 2477: 2474: 2472: 2469: 2467: 2464: 2462: 2459: 2457: 2454: 2452: 2449: 2447: 2444: 2442: 2439: 2437: 2434: 2432: 2429: 2427: 2424: 2423: 2421: 2417: 2411: 2408: 2406: 2403: 2401: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2381: 2378: 2376: 2375:Daguerreotype 2373: 2371: 2368: 2366: 2363: 2361: 2358: 2356: 2353: 2351: 2348: 2346: 2343: 2341: 2338: 2337: 2335: 2333: 2329: 2323: 2320: 2318: 2315: 2313: 2310: 2308: 2305: 2303: 2300: 2298: 2295: 2293: 2290: 2289: 2287: 2285: 2281: 2275: 2272: 2270: 2267: 2265: 2262: 2260: 2257: 2255: 2252: 2248: 2245: 2244: 2243: 2240: 2238: 2235: 2231: 2228: 2227: 2226: 2223: 2221: 2220:Stopping down 2218: 2216: 2213: 2211: 2208: 2206: 2203: 2201: 2198: 2196: 2193: 2191: 2188: 2186: 2185:Rephotography 2183: 2181: 2178: 2176: 2173: 2171: 2168: 2166: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2143: 2141: 2138: 2136: 2133: 2131: 2128: 2126: 2123: 2121: 2120:Long-exposure 2118: 2116: 2113: 2111: 2108: 2106: 2103: 2101: 2098: 2096: 2093: 2091: 2088: 2086: 2083: 2081: 2078: 2076: 2073: 2071: 2068: 2066: 2063: 2061: 2058: 2056: 2053: 2051: 2048: 2046: 2043: 2041: 2038: 2036: 2033: 2031: 2028: 2027: 2025: 2021: 2015: 2012: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2002: 2000: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1990: 1987: 1985: 1982: 1980: 1977: 1975: 1972: 1970: 1967: 1965: 1962: 1958: 1955: 1954: 1953: 1950: 1948: 1945: 1943: 1940: 1938: 1935: 1933: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1923: 1920: 1918: 1915: 1913: 1910: 1908: 1905: 1903: 1900: 1898: 1895: 1893: 1890: 1888: 1885: 1883: 1880: 1878: 1875: 1873: 1870: 1868: 1865: 1863: 1860: 1858: 1855: 1853: 1850: 1848: 1845: 1843: 1840: 1838: 1835: 1833: 1830: 1828: 1825: 1823: 1820: 1818: 1815: 1813: 1812:Architectural 1810: 1808: 1805: 1803: 1800: 1798: 1795: 1794: 1792: 1788: 1782: 1779: 1777: 1774: 1772: 1771:Shutter speed 1769: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1759: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1749: 1745: 1742: 1741: 1740: 1737: 1735: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1725: 1724:Metering mode 1722: 1720: 1717: 1715: 1712: 1710: 1707: 1705: 1702: 1700: 1697: 1693: 1690: 1688: 1685: 1684: 1683: 1680: 1678: 1675: 1673: 1670: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1658: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1648: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1637:Color balance 1635: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1618: 1615: 1613: 1610: 1608: 1605: 1603: 1602:Angle of view 1600: 1598: 1595: 1594: 1592: 1588: 1582: 1579: 1575: 1572: 1571: 1570: 1567: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1555: 1552: 1550: 1549:Manufacturers 1547: 1543: 1540: 1538: 1535: 1533: 1530: 1528: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1518: 1515: 1513: 1510: 1509: 1508: 1505: 1501: 1498: 1496: 1493: 1491: 1488: 1486: 1483: 1481: 1478: 1476: 1473: 1471: 1468: 1466: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1457: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1448: 1444: 1441: 1439: 1436: 1434: 1431: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1415: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1402: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1393: 1392: 1389: 1385: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1375: 1372: 1370: 1367: 1365: 1362: 1360: 1357: 1355: 1352: 1350: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1325: 1322: 1321: 1320: 1317: 1316: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1299: 1294: 1292: 1287: 1285: 1280: 1279: 1276: 1269: 1264: 1260: 1259: 1248: 1242: 1235: 1231: 1230:0-9695025-2-4 1227: 1223: 1217: 1199: 1193: 1187: 1186: 1180: 1174: 1169: 1163: 1162:0-8212-1092-0 1159: 1155: 1149: 1147: 1137: 1131: 1130:0-240-51711-3 1127: 1123: 1117: 1109: 1107:0-7892-0028-7 1103: 1099: 1094: 1093: 1084: 1080: 1071: 1068: 1066: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1056: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1046: 1043: 1041: 1038: 1036: 1033: 1031: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1017: 1011: 1009: 1005: 1000: 991: 988: 985: 982: 979: 976: 973: 969: 966: 963: 960: 957: 953: 950: 949: 946:Disadvantages 940: 937: 934: 930: 927: 924: 921: 918: 914: 911: 908: 905: 902: 897: 893: 889: 886: 885: 874: 872: 868: 863: 859: 854: 852: 848: 843: 840: 836: 835:shutter speed 831: 827: 825: 821: 817: 809: 805: 802: 797: 795: 791: 782: 773: 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 753: 749: 745: 735: 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 714: 709: 705: 703: 699: 695: 691: 686: 682: 680: 675: 670: 666: 664: 663:leaf shutters 660: 651: 647: 644: 643: 638: 635: 631: 628: 624: 623: 618: 616: 612: 608: 607: 606: 604: 593: 590: 582: 571: 568: 564: 561: 557: 554: 550: 547: 543: 540: – 539: 538:"View camera" 535: 534:Find sources: 528: 524: 518: 517: 512:This article 510: 506: 501: 500: 492: 488: 484: 475: 467: 458: 456: 452: 446: 442: 438: 434: 432: 428: 424: 420: 411: 402: 399: 395: 386: 368: 356: 344: 335: 331: 328: 323: 319: 315: 313: 305:Rise and fall 302: 300: 296: 291: 287: 285: 281: 271: 269: 265: 260: 257: 253: 249: 245: 237: 231: 228: 224: 221: 218: 215: 212: 208: 207: 204: 198: 197: 192: 189: 184: 180: 176: 171: 170: 165: 164: 162: 158: 154: 153: 148: 144: 136: 134: 129: 125: 121: 117: 116:rear standard 112: 110: 106: 102: 97: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 78:daguerreotype 74: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 52: 49:in which the 48: 45: 41: 32: 19: 2863:Polaroid art 2757:K-14 process 2752:Instant film 2747:Gum printing 2702:C-41 process 2687:Photographic 2588:Image sensor 2583:Film scanner 2237:Sun printing 2170:Print toning 1957:space selfie 1927:Pictorialism 1857:Ethnographic 1837:Conservation 1709:Guide number 1704:Focal length 1383: 1268:View cameras 1241: 1221: 1216: 1205:. Retrieved 1192: 1184: 1179: 1168: 1153: 1136: 1121: 1116: 1091: 1083: 1060:Press camera 1035:Large format 1020:Cambo camera 995: 989: 983: 977: 967: 961: 951: 938: 928: 922: 912: 906: 895: 891: 887: 862:light meters 855: 847:film holders 844: 832: 828: 820:Fresnel lens 813: 801:ground glass 798: 787: 760: 756: 746:but can use 741: 717: 706: 697: 687: 683: 674:focal length 671: 667: 655: 649: 640: 626: 620: 614: 610: 600: 585: 579:January 2008 576: 566: 559: 552: 545: 533: 521:Please help 516:verification 513: 489: 485: 481: 472: 447: 443: 439: 435: 422: 418: 416: 397: 393: 391: 332: 327:image circle 324: 320: 316: 312:shift lenses 308: 292: 288: 277: 268:instant film 261: 247: 241: 222: 216: 210: 194: 167: 160: 156: 142: 124:image sensor 115: 113: 100: 98: 94:field camera 85: 75: 59:ground-glass 44:large-format 39: 37: 2868:Stereoscopy 2732:E-6 process 2727:Dye coupler 2660:color space 2573:Digiscoping 2566:camera back 2481:Philippines 2410:Visual arts 2400:Glass plate 2385:Heliography 2284:Composition 2259:Ultraviolet 2215:Stereoscopy 2210:Slow motion 2195:Scanography 2110:Kite aerial 2050:Contre-jour 1942:Post-mortem 1932:Pornography 1912:Neues Sehen 1847:Documentary 1781:Zone System 1756:Reciprocity 1682:Film format 1612:Backscatter 1590:Terminology 1460:beauty dish 1359:rangefinder 1324:light-field 1305:Photography 1185:hcimage.com 933:diffraction 713:convertible 708:Zoom lenses 698:bag bellows 627:barrel lens 394:lens shift, 295:SLR cameras 40:view camera 2858:Lomography 2689:processing 2638:Print film 2554:comparison 2521:Uzbekistan 2471:Luxembourg 2431:Bangladesh 2380:Dufaycolor 2360:Box camera 2317:Simplicity 2274:Zoom burst 2269:Xerography 2264:Vignetting 2254:Time-lapse 2242:Tilt–shift 2135:Mordançage 2125:Luminogram 2090:Holography 2085:High-speed 2065:Fill flash 2045:Burst mode 2023:Techniques 2004:Vernacular 1999:Underwater 1994:Toy camera 1974:Still life 1902:Monochrome 1892:High-speed 1842:Cloudscape 1832:Conceptual 1734:Photograph 1719:Lens flare 1699:Film speed 1581:Zone plate 1527:wide-angle 1512:long-focus 1207:2017-03-04 1154:The Camera 1076:References 1004:35 mm 882:Advantages 824:vignetting 790:landscapes 744:sheet film 719:Soft focus 694:concertina 652:(or cell). 549:newspapers 453:(“TS”) or 451:Tilt/shift 419:lens tilt, 396:or simply 244:sheet film 183:ARCA-Swiss 63:film plane 2808:Norwegian 2772:Stop bath 2717:Developer 2345:Ambrotype 2307:Lead room 2230:Slit-scan 2165:Photogram 2160:Panoramic 2070:Fireworks 2055:Cyanotype 1897:Landscape 1542:telephoto 1490:reflector 1485:monolight 1480:lens hood 1465:cucoloris 1401:safelight 1312:Equipment 1025:Deardorff 990:High cost 858:Grafmatic 776:Operation 748:roll film 679:movements 642:lensboard 636:diaphragm 274:Movements 135:support. 105:lensboard 86:standards 53:forms an 2913:Category 2887:Category 2593:CMOS APS 2491:Slovenia 2419:Regional 2365:Calotype 2302:Headroom 2180:Redscale 2095:Infrared 2040:Brenizer 2014:Wildlife 1937:Portrait 1882:Forensic 1872:Fine-art 1807:Aircraft 1797:Abstract 1677:F-number 1657:Exposure 1632:Clipping 1607:Aperture 1475:hot shoe 1396:enlarger 1391:Darkroom 1045:Lensbaby 1014:See also 839:aperture 731:aperture 727:ethereal 634:aperture 421:or just 330:shift). 264:rollfilm 252:Americas 2898:Outline 2834:Related 2526:Vietnam 2511:Ukraine 2446:Denmark 2426:Albania 2405:Tintype 2332:History 2297:Framing 2190:Rollout 2155:Panning 2105:Kirlian 2009:Wedding 1887:Glamour 1867:Fashion 1852:Eclipse 1822:Banquet 1744:Albumen 1554:Monopod 1532:fisheye 1500:softbox 1349:pinhole 1339:instant 1329:digital 1030:Graflex 867:Graflex 622:shutter 563:scholar 109:shutter 82:bellows 2896: 2885: 2818:street 2813:Polish 2506:Turkey 2501:Taiwan 2486:Serbia 2476:Norway 2451:Greece 2436:Canada 2030:Afocal 1989:Street 1969:Sports 1952:Selfie 1907:Nature 1862:Erotic 1827:Candid 1802:Aerial 1790:Genres 1692:medium 1569:Tripod 1537:swivel 1450:Filter 1428:holder 1423:format 1319:Camera 1228: 1160: 1128: 1104: 1050:Linhof 1008:tripod 956:Sinars 892:tilted 845:Sheet 794:tripod 565: 558: 551: 544: 536: 495:Lenses 398:shift. 262:A few 256:metric 133:tripod 71:expose 47:camera 2823:women 2781:Lists 2737:Fixer 2620:Pixel 2549:D-SLR 2496:Sudan 2466:Korea 2461:Japan 2456:India 2441:China 2225:Strip 2150:Night 2130:Macro 2035:Bokeh 1979:Stock 1947:Ruins 1687:large 1517:prime 1495:snoot 1455:Flash 1433:stock 1408:Drone 1369:still 1354:press 1344:phone 1334:field 1201:(PDF) 1065:Sinar 999:bokeh 896:swung 816:loupe 688:Very 659:Copal 615:cell. 570:JSTOR 556:books 461:Swing 423:tilt. 380:Shift 280:focus 227:Goerz 175:Sinar 139:Types 122:, or 120:plate 57:on a 42:is a 2846:film 2561:MILC 2060:ETTR 1917:Nude 1877:Fire 1776:Sync 1574:head 1522:zoom 1507:Lens 1470:gobo 1418:base 1413:Film 1384:view 1226:ISBN 1158:ISBN 1126:ISBN 1102:ISBN 837:and 738:Film 632:The 603:lens 542:news 405:Tilt 282:and 179:Toyo 177:and 166:The 128:move 90:lens 69:to 67:film 51:lens 2598:CCD 1379:toy 1374:TLR 1364:SLR 525:by 2915:: 1232:. 1145:^ 772:. 754:. 681:. 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