Kingdom of Aksum - Knowledge

1982: 1825: 1631: 1030:, as one of the four great powers of the world alongside Rome, Persia, and China. As the political influence of Aksum expanded, so did the grandeur of its monuments. Excavations by archaeological expeditions revealed early use of stelae, evolving from plain and rough markers to some of the largest monuments in Africa. The granite stelae in the main cemetery, housing Aksumite royal tombs, transformed from plain to carefully dressed granite, eventually carved to resemble multi-storey towers in a distinctive architectural style. Aksumite architecture featured massive dressed granite blocks, smaller uncut stones for walling, mud mortar, bricks for vaulting and arches, and a visible wooden framework, known as "monkey-heads" or square corner extrusions. Walls inclined inwards and incorporated several recessed bays for added strength. Aksum and other cities, such as 1767: 858: 2208:

in Yemen to completely control the trading vessels that ran down the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. It is located in the maritime choke point between Yemen and Djibouti and Eritrea. Because of the ruler of Yemen's persecution of Christians in 523 AD, Kaleb I, the ruler of Aksum (a Christian region) at the time, responded to the persecutions by attacking the Himyarite king Yūsuf As'ar Yath'ar, known as Dhu Nuwas, a Jewish convert who was persecuting the Christian community of Najran,Yemen in 525 AD, with the help of the Byzantine empire, with whom had ties with his kingdom. Victoriously, the Aksum empire was able to claim the Yemen region, establishing a viceroy in the region and troops to defend it until 570 AD when the Sassanids invaded.

2375: 2077:. It is fine grained and has also been used in historic monuments like the Stelae. These monuments are used to celebrate key figures in Axum history, especially kings or priests. These Stelae's are also called "Obelisk's," they are located in the Mai Hejja stelae field, where complex sedimentology of the land can be observed. The foundations for the monuments are around 8.5 m below the surface of the Mai Hejja stelae field. Sediments in this area have undergone a lot of weathering over the years, so the surface of this area has undergone a lot of changes. This is part of the reason for the complex stratigraphic history in this site, some previous layers under the surface of the site. 114: 2435: 2507: 2447: 3016: 2241: 2200: 2459: 3548: 2423: 1332: 1200: 1617: 2086: 2495: 1958:(approximately 270 to 610), gold, silver and bronze coins were minted. Issuing coinage in ancient times was an act of great importance in itself, for it proclaimed that the Aksumite Empire considered itself equal to its neighbours. Many of the coins are used as signposts about what was happening when they were minted. An example being the addition of the cross to the coin after the conversion of the empire to Christianity. The presence of coins also simplified trade, and was at once a useful instrument of 2483: 1939: 2519: 1344: 905:. Excavations on Beta Giyorgis, a hill to the northwest of Aksum, validate the pre-Aksumite roots of a settlement in the vicinity of Aksum, dating back to approximately the 7th to 4th centuries BC. Further evidence from excavations in the Stele Park at the heart of Aksum corroborates continuous activity in the area from the outset of the common era. Two hills and two streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city of Aksum; perhaps providing the initial impetus for settling this area. 963:'s geographer referred to Aksum as a powerful kingdom. Both archaeological findings and textual evidence suggest that during this period, a centralized regional polity had emerged in the Aksumite area, characterized by defined social stratification. By the beginning of the 4th century AD, the Aksumite state had become well-established, featuring urban centers, an official currency with coinage struck in gold, silver, and copper, an intensive agricultural system, and a organized military. 2596: 2407: 2006:

capitals, doors, windows, paving, water spouts (often shaped like lion heads) and so on, as well as enormous flights of stairs that often flanked the walls of palace pavilions on several sides. Doors and windows were usually framed by stone or wooden cross-members, linked at the corners by square 'monkey heads', though simple lintels were also used. Many of these Aksumite features are seen carved into the famous stelae as well as in the later

3534: 2949: 94: 2555: 2543: 2471: 2387: 1108: 2363: 1096:. Yet they did not drive the Kushites away from their heartland, since the inscription states that the Aksumites fought them at the junction of the two rivers. Also mentioned in the inscription are the mysterious "red Noba" against whom an expedition was carried out. This people seems to be settled further north and may be identical with the "other Nobades" mentioned in the inscription of the Nubian king 1841:

a considerable impact." and that "their influence was diffused throughout Ethiopian culture in its formative period. By the time Christianity took hold in the fourth century, many of the originally Hebraic-Jewish elements had been adopted by much of the indigenous population and were no longer viewed as foreign characteristics. Nor were they perceived as in conflict with the acceptance of Christianity."

2050: 2531: 959:, itself five days distant from Aksum. This trade across the Red Sea, spanning from the Roman Empire in the north to India and Ceylon in the east, played a crucial role in Aksum's prosperity. The city thrived by exporting goods such as ivory, tortoiseshell, and rhinoceros horn. Pliny also mentioned additional items like hippopotamus hide, monkeys, and slaves. During the 2nd century AD, 2232:, the capital of Kush. During the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD the Kingdom of Aksum continued to expand their control of the southern Red Sea basin. A caravan route to Egypt was established which bypassed the Nile corridor entirely. Aksum succeeded in becoming the principal supplier of African goods to the Roman Empire, not least as a result of the transformed Indian Ocean trading system. 1129:, who was persecuting the Christian community in Yemen. Kaleb gained widespread acclaim in his era as the conqueror of Yemen. He expanded his royal title to include king of Hadramawt in southeastern Yemen, as well as the coastal plain and highland of Yemen, along with "all their Arabs", highlighting the extensive influence of Aksum across the Red Sea into Arabia. 1860:, and was appointed Bishop of Ethiopia around the year 330. The Church of Alexandria never closely managed the affairs of the churches in Aksum, allowing them to develop their own unique form of Christianity. However, the Church of Alexandria probably did retain some influence considering that the churches of Aksum followed the Church of Alexandria into 1608:, as well as gourds and cress. This diverse range of crops, combined with the herding of domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats, contributed to the creation of a highly productive indigenous agropastoral food-producing tradition. This tradition played an integral role in the development of the Aksumite economy and the consolidation of state power. 838:

suggested as the reason for its decline. Aksum's final three centuries are considered a dark age, and through uncertain circumstances, the kingdom collapsed around 960. Despite its position as one of the foremost empires of late antiquity, the Kingdom of Aksum fell into obscurity as Ethiopia remained isolated throughout the Late Middle Ages.

2270:, and reached crisis levels after 700. Additional socioeconomic contingencies presumably compounded the problem: these are traditionally reflected in a decline in maintenance, the deterioration and partial abandonment of marginal crop lands, shifts toward more destructive exploitation of pasture land—and ultimately wholesale, irreversible 1422:, but remained unanswered. She was said to have been succeeded by Dagna-Jan, whose throne name was Anbasa Wudem. Her reign was marked by the displacement of the Aksumite population into the south. According to one Ethiopian traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her dynasty was eventually overthrown by 940:. The area is described as a primarily producing ivory, as well as tortoise shells. King Zoskales had a Greek education, indicating that Greco-Roman influence was already present at this time. It is evident from the Periplus that, even at this early stage of its history, Axum played a role in the transcontinental 2161:, sheep, and camels. Wild animals were also hunted for things such as ivory and rhinoceros horns. They traded with Roman traders as well as with Egyptian and Persian merchants. The empire was also rich with gold and iron deposits. These metals were valuable to trade, but another mineral was also widely traded: 2215:

soon became the main port for the export of African goods, such as ivory, incense, gold, slaves, and exotic animals. In order to supply such goods the kings of Aksum worked to develop and expand an inland trading network. A rival, and much older trading network that tapped the same interior region of

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Before converting to Christianity, King Ezana II's coins and inscriptions show that he might have worshiped the gods Astar, Beher, Meder/Medr, and Mahrem. Another of Ezana's inscriptions is clearly Christian and refers to "the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit". Around 324 AD the King Ezana II was

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argues that with Aksumite culture came a major change in religion, with only Astar remaining of the old gods, the others being replaced by what he calls a "triad of indigenous divinities, Mahrem, Beher and Medr." He also suggests that Aksum culture was significantly influenced by Judaism, saying that

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for protection, abandoning Aksum as the capital. Arab writers of the time continued to describe Ethiopia (no longer referred to as Aksum) as an extensive and powerful state, though they had lost control of most of the coast and their tributaries. While land was lost in the north, it was gained in the

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described his visit to Aksum, mentioning the four-towered palace of the Aksumite king, adorned with bronze statues of unicorns. Aksum also featured rows of monumental granite thrones, likely bearing metal statues dedicated to pre-Christian deities. These thrones incorporated large panels at the sides

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According to Munro-Hay, "The arrival of Sabaean influences does not represent the beginning of Ethiopian civilisation.... Semiticized Agaw peoples are thought to have migrated from south-eastern Eritrea possibly as early as 2000 BC, bringing their 'proto-Ethiopic' language, ancestor of Geʽez and the

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As international profits from the exchange network declined, Aksum lost control over its raw material sources, and that network collapsed. The persistent environmental pressure on a large population needing to maintain a high level of regional food production intensified, which resulted in a wave of

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In 525 AD, the Aksumites attempted to take over the Yemen region to gain control over The Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb; one of the most significant trading routes in the medieval world, connecting the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Rulers were inclined to establish a spot of imperialism across the Red Sea

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Some clay models of houses survive to give us an idea of what smaller dwellings were like. One depicts a round hut with a conical roof thatched in layers, while another depicts a rectangular house with rectangular doors and windows, a roof supported by beams that end in 'monkey heads', and a parapet

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BC and conversion to Christianity of King Ezana in the fourth century AD." He believes that although Ethiopian tradition suggests that these were present in large numbers, that "A relatively small number of texts and individuals dwelling in the cultural, economic, and political center could have had

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A complex agricultural system in the Aksumite area, which involved irrigation, dam construction, terracing, and plough-farming, played a crucial role in sustaining both urban and rural populations. Aksumite farmers cultivated a variety of cereal crops with origins from both Africa and the Near East.

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became the first Christian ruler of Aksum in the 4th century. Ezana's coins and inscriptions make the change from pre-Christian imagery to Christian symbolism around 340 AD. The conversion to Christianity was one of the most revolutionary events in the history of Ethiopia as it gave Aksum a cultural

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concludes that; "Quite probably, the kingdom was a confederacy, one which was led by a district-level king who commanded the allegiance of other petty kings within the Axumite realm. The ruler of the Axumite kingdom was thus 'King-of-Kings' — a title often found in inscriptions of this period. There

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The kingdom's slow decline had begun by the 7th century, at which point currency ceased to be minted. The Persian (and later Muslim) presence in the Red Sea caused Aksum to suffer economically, and the population of the city of Axum shrank. Alongside environmental and internal factors, this has been

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The stelae are perhaps the most identifiable part of the Aksumite architectural legacy. These stone towers served to mark graves and represent a magnificent multi-storied palace. They are decorated with false doors and windows in typical Aksumite design. The largest of these towering obelisks would

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built of loose stones held together with mud-mortar, with carefully cut granite corner blocks which rebated back a few centimeters at regular intervals as the wall got higher, so the walls narrowed as they rose higher. These podia are often all that survive of Aksumite ruins. Above the podia, walls

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from modern-day Yemen; scholarly consensus had previously been that Sabaeans had been the founders of Semitic civilization in Ethiopia, though this has now been refuted, and their influence is considered to have been minor. The Sabaean presence likely lasted only for a matter of decades, but their

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The Encyclopædia Britannica: The New Volumes, Constituting, in Combination with the Twenty-nine Volumes of the Eleventh Edition, the Twelfth Edition of that Work, and Also Supplying a New, Distinctive, and Independent Library of Reference Dealing with Events and Developments of the Period 1910 to

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Askum was also located on a plateau 2,000 m (6,600 ft) feet above sea level, making its soil fertile and the land good for agriculture. This appears to explain how one of the marginal agricultural environments of Ethiopia was able to support the demographic base that made this far flung

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Both the podia and the walls above exhibited no long straight stretches but were indented at regular intervals so that any long walls consisted of a series of recesses and salients. This helped to strengthen the walls. Worked granite was used for architectural features including columns, bases,

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and trade isolation have also been claimed as large reasons for the decline of the culture. The local subsistence base was substantially augmented by a climatic shift during the 1st century AD that reinforced the spring rains, extended the rainy season from 3 1/2 to six or seven months, vastly

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and made Geʽez an official state language alongside Greek; by the 6th century literary translations into Geʿez were common. After the 7th century's Muslim conquests in the Middle East and North Africa, which effectively isolated Axum from the Greco-Roman world, Geʿez replaced Greek entirely.

1604:, emmer wheat, bread wheat, hulled barley, and oats. In addition to cereal crops, Aksumite farmers also grew linseed, cotton, grapes, and legumes of Near Eastern origin such as lentils, fava beans, chickpeas, common peas, and grass peas. Other important crops included the African oil crop, 908:

Archeological evidence suggests that the Aksumite polity arose between 150 BC and 150 AD. Small scale district "kingdoms" denoted by very large nucleated communities with one or more elite residences appears to have existed in the early period of the kingdom of Aksum, and here

1853:. Frumentius taught the emperor while he was young, and it is believed that at some point staged the conversion of the empire. We know that the Aksumites converted to Christianity because in their coins they replaced the disc and crescent with the cross. 1246:. Trade with the Roman/Byzantine world came to a halt as the Arabs seized the eastern Roman provinces. Consequently, Aksum experienced a decline in prosperity due to increased isolation and eventually ceased production of coins in the early 8th century. 2070:

measure 33 meters high had it not fractured. The stelae have most of their mass out of the ground, but are stabilized by massive underground counter-weights. The stone was often engraved with a pattern or emblem denoting the king's or the noble's rank.

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is no evidence that a single royal lineage has yet emerged, and it is quite possible that at the death of a King-of-Kings, a new one would be selected from among all the kings in the confederacy, rather than through some principle of primogeniture."

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improved the surface and subsurface water supply, doubled the length of the growing season, and created an environment comparable to that of modern central Ethiopia (where two crops can be grown per annum without the aid of irrigation).

2274:. This decline was possibly accelerated by an apparent decline in the reliability of rainfall beginning between 730 and 760, presumably with the result that an abbreviated modern growing season was reestablished during the 9th century. 2188:. By about 100 AD, the volume of traffic being shipped on this route had eclipsed older routes. Roman demand for goods from southern India increased dramatically, resulting in greater number of large ships sailing down the Red Sea from 978:

dispatched military expeditions to the region. Inscriptions from local Arabian dynasties refer to these rulers with the title "nagasi of Aksum and Habashat," and a metal object discovered in eastern Tigray also mentions a certain "GDR

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documents the conversion of King Ezana to Christianity and two of his military expeditions against neighboring areas, one inscribed in Greek and the other in Geez. The two expeditions refers to two distinct campaigns, one against the

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Although excavations have been limited, fourteen Roman coins dating to the 2nd and 3rd centuries have been discovered at Aksumite sites like Matara. This suggests that trade with the Roman Empire existed at least since this period.

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The main exports of Aksum were, as would be expected of a state during this time, agricultural products. The land was much more fertile during the time of the Aksumites than now, and their principal crops were grains such as wheat,

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commercial empire possible. It may also explain why no Aksumite rural settlement expansion into the moister, more fertile, and naturally productive lands of Begemder or Lasta can be verified during the heyday of Aksumite power.

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migrants were rebels who had invented a new religion, the likes of which neither the Meccans nor the Aksumites had heard of. The king granted them an audience, but ultimately refused to hand over the migrants. A

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for an example). The largest of these structures now known is the Ta'akha Maryam, which measured 120 × 80m, though as its pavilion was smaller than others discovered it is likely that others were even larger.

1183:, capital of Aksumite Yemen. After its fall in 570, and Masruq's death, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne. In 575, the war resumed again, after Saif was killed by Aksumites. The Persian general 5515: 1657:. Furthermore, in the early times of the empire, around 1700 years ago, giant obelisks to mark emperors' (and nobles') tombs (underground grave chambers) were constructed, the most famous of which is the 1359:" defeated the empire and burned its churches and literature. While there is evidence of churches being burned and an invasion around this time, her existence has been questioned by some western authors. 1406:. Her notorious deeds are still recounted by peasants inhabiting northern Ethiopia. Large ruins, standing stones and stelae are found in the area. Gudit also killed the last emperor of Aksum, possibly 2002:) and horizontal wooden beams, with smaller round wooden beams set in the stonework often projecting out of the walls (these are called 'monkey heads') on the exterior and sometimes the interior. 4644:

Evetts, B.: "History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria", by Sawirus ibn al-Mukaffa', bishop of al-Ashmunien, Vol I, IV, Menas I to Joseph, PO X fasc. 5. pp 375-551, Paris, 1904

1568:, were situated in the Eritrean highlands. The concertation of these Aksumite ancient settlements suggests high population density in the highlands of Tigray and central Eritrea. According to 2172:. This change took place around the start of the 1st century. The older trading system involved coastal sailing and many intermediary ports. The Red Sea was of secondary importance to the 3736:

Turchin, Peter and Jonathan M. Adams and Thomas D. Hall: "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States", p. 222. Journal of World-Systems Research, Vol. XII, No. II, 2006

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Aksumite trade in the Red Sea likely suffered due to the Persian conquests in Egypt and Syria, followed by the defeats in Yemen. However, a more enduring impact occurred with the rise of

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with the protection of the vital long-distance caravan routes from the south, suggesting that they lived within the southern frontier of the Aksumite kingdom. Aksum also had a sizeable

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other Ethiopian Semitic languages, with them; and these and other groups had already developed specific cultural and linguistic identities by the time any Sabaean influences arrived."

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continued the Aksumite vice-royalty in Yemen, resuming payment of tribute to Aksum. However, his half-brother Ma'd-Karib revolted. Ma'd-Karib first sought help from the Roman Emperor

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Late Antique Arabia Ẓafār, Capital of Ḥimyar, Rehabilitation of a 'Decadent' Society, Excavations of the Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg 1998–2010 in the Highlands of the Yemen

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The initial centuries of Aksum's development, transitioning from a modest regional center to a significant power, remain largely obscure. Stone Age artifacts have been unearthed at

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nomads. Due to the poverty of their country, many of them began to migrate into the northern Ethiopian plateau. At the end of the 7th century AD, a strong Beja tribe known as the

1745:, was spoken alongside Greek in the court of Aksum. Although during the early kingdom, Geʿez was a spoken language, it has attestations written in the Old South Arabian language 970:

and engaged in conflicts with Saba and Himyar at various points, forming different alliances with chief kingdoms and tribes. During the early part of the 3rd century, the kings

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religion related to the religion practiced in southern Arabia. This included the use of the crescent-and-disc symbol used in southern Arabia and the northern horn. In the

1449:. It should be mentioned that the end of the Aksumite Empire didn't mean the end of Aksumite culture and traditions; for example, the architecture of the Zagwe dynasty at 4016:

Derat, Marie-Laure (2020). "Before the Solomonids: Crisis, Renaissance and the Emergence of the Zagwe Dynasty (Seventh–Thirteenth Centuries)". In Kelly, Samantha (ed.).

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to orchestrate the pillage against Aksum and its countryside. She was determined to destroy all members of the Aksumite dynasty, palaces, churches and monuments in

2374: 826:. With the annexation of Himyar, the Kingdom of Aksum was at its largest territorial extent, being around 2,500,000 km. However, the territory was lost in the 1528:

Aksumite settlements were distributed across a significant portion of the highlands in the northern Horn of Africa, with the majority located in northeastern

1824: 1191:, these wars may have been Aksum's swan-song as a great power, with an overall weakening of Aksumite authority and over-expenditure in money and manpower. 1005:, in around the mid to late 3rd century (possibly c. 240–c. 260), the Aksumites led by an anonymous king achieved significant territorial expansion in the 252: 1281:

south; and, though Ethiopia was no longer an economic power, it still attracted Arab merchants. The capital was then moved south to a new location called

2434: 2321: 1981: 5438: 1092:. According to the inscription, the Noba were settled somewhere around the Nile and Atbara confluence, where they seemed to have taken over much of the 113: 5602: 4951: 4148: 1157: 4918: 3681: 6184: 5786: 3517: 3341: 1735:

times. Greek was used in the state's administration, international diplomacy, and trade; it can be widely seen in coinage and inscriptions.

4186: 2977: 2180:. Starting around 1st century, a route from Egypt to India was established, making use of the Red Sea and using monsoon winds to cross the 756:

until a joint Himyarite-Sabean alliance pushed them out. Aksum-Himyar conflicts persisted throughout the 3rd century. During the reign of

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explicitly describes how ivory collected in Kushite territory was being exported through the port of Adulis instead of being taken to

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and spices. Aksum's access to both the Red Sea and the Upper Nile enabled its strong navy to profit in trade between various African (

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The Islamic conquests were not solely responsible for the decline of Aksum. Another reason for the decline was the expansions of the

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Fritsch, Emmanuel; Kidane, Habtemichael (2020). "The Medieval Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Its Liturgy". In Kelly, Samantha (ed.).

3370: 724:(c. 200–230), who was the first king to be involved In South Arabian affairs. His reign resulted in the control of much of western 5416: 2093:) until circa the later part of the 1st millennium when it succumbed to a long decline against pressures from the various Islamic 206: 5479: 3454: 2808: 992: 3360: 2458: 2422: 1766: 955:

and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea make reference to this port, situated three days away from the initial ivory market at

7340: 7330: 7137: 6519: 5765: 5746: 5727: 5693: 5337: 4758: 4731: 4704: 4677: 4249: 4103: 4025: 3891: 3857: 3178: 2406: 1548:. In addition to the highlands, sites from the Aksumite period were discovered along the Red Sea coast of Eritrea, near the 93: 7335: 7325: 5031: 3803: 3273: 2792: 7043: 5106: 2494: 1243: 857: 7189: 6189: 5310: 5283: 5258: 5233: 3293: 3233: 2835: 1868:. Aksum is also the alleged home of the holy relic the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark is said to have been placed in the 1681: 199: 7320: 5833: 5356: 4853: 4843: 4826: 4382: 4343: 3758: 3510: 3471: 3283: 3015: 1269:

highlands as the Aksum could no longer maintain its sovereignty over the frontier. As a result the connection to the

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Around 200 AD, Aksumite ambitions had expanded to Southern Arabia, where Aksum appears to have established itself in

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ethnicity or was from a southern region. According to one traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her

6815: 1986: 1869: 5977: 1309:(830–849) of Alexandria attribute Ethiopia's condition to war, plague, and inadequate rains. Under the reign of 5191: 4322: 4225: 4075: 4050: 3959: 3828: 3253: 2251: 2090: 924: 4723:

Keeper of the Ark (a Moses Trilogy): For the Love of Moses, for the Children of Moses, for the Children of God

7253: 5449: 4816: 3664:"The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century" 3223: 2518: 1917: 1715:

became the official and literary language of the Axumite state, coming from the influence of the significant

1688:(granted autonomy from the Ethiopian Orthodox church in 1993). Since the schism with Orthodoxy following the 1552:. Numerous Aksumite settlements were strategically positioned along an axis that traversed from Aksum to the 1141:

after five years. Kaleb sent two expeditions against Abraha, but both were decisively defeated. According to

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led another army of 8000, ending Axum rule in Yemen and becoming hereditary governor of Yemen. According to

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is the ruler in the first book; he passes his sovereignty onto his son Gebre Meskal, who rules during the

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corridor. By the 1st century AD, however, Aksum had gained control over territory previously Kushite. The

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Before the establishment of Axum, the Tigray plateau of northern Ethiopia was home to a kingdom known as

662: 383: 3350: 3146: 2910: 2595: 2169: 1832: 1038:, boasted substantial "palace" buildings employing this architectural style. In the early 6th century, 941: 772: 4157: 1313:, during the 9th century, the empire kept expanding south, undertaking missionary activities south of 7315: 7216: 6364: 5928: 4929: 3852:, The Cambridge World History, vol. 4, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 631–661, 2386: 1884: 1850: 1805: 1556:, forming a route connecting the Aksumite capital in the highlands to the principal Aksumite port of 1419: 1172: 1137:("Sumuafa Ashawa"), but his rule was short-lived as he was ousted in a coup led by an Aksumite named 827: 819: 5620: 1502: 1437:

in the 11th or 12th century (most likely around 1137), although limited in size and scope. However,

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Maṭarā. — Deuxième, troisième et quatrième campagnes de fouilles. In: Annales d'Ethiopie. Volume 6

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Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa (1981).

3390: 3203: 2287: 2110: 2041:. Another depicts a square house with what appear to be layers of pitched thatch forming the roof. 1999: 1521:

note the "Barya", an animist tribe who lived in the western part of the empire, believed to be the

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believed that the word Aksum is of Semitic root and means a green and dense garden, full of grass.

784: 215: 2612: 995:) are also mentioned fighting in Arabia. According to a Greek inscription in Eritrea known as the 803:

under Ezana in 330 for a short period of time and inheriting from it the Greek exonym "Ethiopia".

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sacked Aksum by destroying churches and buildings, persecuted Christians and committed Christian

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was the first to describe the new Aksumite capital. The capital was probably located in southern

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Butzer, Karl W. (1981). "Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation".

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The Cambridge World History: Volume 4: A World with States, Empires and Networks 1200 BCE–900 CE

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regions of Eritrea. Despite the concentration in these areas, some Aksumite settlements such as

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surrounded by subsidiary structures pierced by doors and gates that provided some privacy (see

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American University (Washington, D.C.). Foreign Areas Studies Division; Irving Kaplan (1964).

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Werner J. Lange, "History of the Southern Gonga (southwestern Ethiopia)", Steiner, 1982, p. 18

2554: 2542: 1218:. Axum initially had good relations with its Islamic neighbours. In 615 AD for example, early 7194: 7154: 6967: 6842: 5906: 5896: 5855: 5826: 5384: 5300: 4667: 3576: 2901: 2054: 2007: 1924:

dated to the mid 9th century AD. confirm the existence of an early Muslim presence in Aksum.

1639: 1494: 1415: 1039: 1002: 997: 7082: 2362: 928:, a trading guide which likely dates to the mid-1st century AD. Axum is mentioned alongside 7287: 7117: 7087: 6962: 6893: 6864: 6783: 6117: 5955: 5945: 4406: 3032: 2283: 1865: 1857: 1689: 1645:

The Empire of Aksum is notable for a number of achievements, such as its own alphabet, the

396: 7067: 3750: 8: 6979: 6859: 6825: 6727: 6547: 6542: 6354: 6073: 6009: 5884: 5869: 4961:. Research Reports: Daily Life in Ancient Times. Houghton Mifflin Company. Archived from 4394: 3566: 3488: 3449: 3313: 3263: 3004: 2872: 2780: 2776: 2669: 2348: 2240: 2211:

The Kingdom of Aksum was ideally located to take advantage of the new trading situation.

2073:

For important monuments built in the region, a particular type of granite is used called

1920:

consisting of 100 Muslim migrants occurred a few years later. Arabic inscriptions on the

1605: 1423: 1376: 1277: 1161: 1006: 846: 658: 309: 6695: 6685: 5739:

Foundations of an African civilization: Aksum & the Northern Horn, 1000 BC - AD 1300

5441:

Foundations of an African civilization: Aksum & the Northern Horn, 1000 BC - AD 1300

4410: 3884:

Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum & the Northern Horn, 1000 BC - AD 1300

1998:

were generally built with alternating layers of loose stone (often whitewashed, like at

830:. Aksum held on to Southern Arabia from 520 until 525 when Sumyafa Ashwa was deposed by 791:(320s – c. 360). Following their Christianization, the Aksumites ceased construction of 7092: 7072: 7055: 7006: 6871: 6680: 6631: 6564: 6482: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6369: 6339: 6231: 6129: 5997: 5972: 5651: 5643: 5551: 5543: 5413: 5276:

The Beta Israel (Falasha) in Ethiopia: From the Earliest Times to the Twentieth Century

4440: 3932: 3924: 3663: 3476: 2725: 2584: 2038: 1921: 1861: 1486: 1215: 1101: 967: 898: 776: 753: 5796: 5225:

Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum and the northern Horn, 1000 BC – AD 1300

4375:

Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa

3647:

The Global Church---The First Eight Centuries From Pentecost Through the Rise of Islam

1445:

around 1270 traced his ancestry and his right to rule from the last emperor of Aksum,

1276:

Around this same time, the Aksumite population was forced to go farther inland to the

7201: 7097: 7033: 7028: 6957: 6854: 6569: 6497: 6492: 6334: 6263: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6036: 5987: 5801: 5761: 5742: 5723: 5689: 5655: 5555: 5535: 5333: 5306: 5279: 5254: 5229: 5187: 5027: 4849: 4822: 4754: 4727: 4700: 4673: 4432: 4378: 4339: 4318: 4221: 4099: 4071: 4046: 4021: 3955: 3936: 3887: 3853: 3824: 3767: 3481: 3089: 2709: 2530: 2297: 2114: 1951: 1933: 1888: 1616: 1466: 1442: 1122: 1068: 1010: 815: 780: 765: 761: 593: 458: 336: 313: 231: 99: 47: 2168:

It benefited from a major transformation of the maritime trading system that linked

1474: 7050: 6837: 6832: 6788: 6775: 6705: 6673: 6668: 6532: 6527: 6509: 6470: 6403: 6386: 6327: 6312: 6253: 6209: 6179: 6139: 6122: 6105: 6068: 5819: 5635: 5598:

The effect of the Indian Ocean trading system on the rise of Aksum is described in

5527: 4444: 4422: 4414: 3988: 3916: 3607: 3158: 3134: 2931: 2922: 2860: 2697: 2413: 2271: 2122: 2089:

Aksum was an important participant in international trade from the 1st century AD (

1908: 1876: 1846: 1789: 1732: 1728: 1716: 1658: 1506: 1395: 1188: 1072: 933: 910: 709: 610: 61: 4245: 2085: 1331: 1199: 7268: 7236: 7109: 7077: 7060: 7016: 7011: 6989: 6984: 6942: 6935: 6910: 6770: 6765: 6606: 6487: 6381: 6376: 6344: 6169: 6159: 6053: 6046: 6041: 6026: 5982: 5864: 5850: 5790: 5606: 5420: 4253: 3807: 3611: 3603: 3168: 2764: 2217: 1572:, the integral regions of the Aksumite Kingdom included "much of the province of 1569: 1561: 1514: 1403: 1231: 1227: 1165: 1112: 1093: 1035: 952: 800: 353: 6690: 5781: 1754: 1646: 1620: 1149:

continued to govern Yemen through a tribute arrangement with the king of Aksum.

887: 7211: 7206: 7169: 7144: 7127: 7038: 7023: 6994: 6952: 6800: 6760: 6755: 6710: 6636: 6596: 6586: 6576: 6391: 6270: 6164: 6031: 5913: 3595: 3539: 2953: 2328: 2094: 1938: 1837: 1712: 1624: 1560:

on the Red Sea. Along this route, two of the largest Aksumite-era settlements,

1430:

by bearing children with a descendant of the last Aksumite emperor, Dil Na'od.

1056: 1021: 796: 717: 705: 519: 1355:

Local history holds that, around 960, a Jewish Queen named Yodit (Judith) or "

1343: 1020:

By the end of the 3rd century AD, Aksum had gained recognition by the prophet

7309: 7292: 7179: 6974: 6947: 6920: 6898: 6876: 6643: 6626: 6611: 6455: 6408: 6396: 6322: 6214: 6088: 6083: 6058: 5940: 5760:. Abhandlungen Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, vol. 29, Wiesbaden, pp. 251–54. 5539: 5299:

Munro-Hay, Stuart (2010). Henry Louis Gates Jr., Kwame Anthony Appiah (ed.).

4436: 3771: 3746: 3553: 3079: 2752: 2681: 2344: 2313: 2011: 1946:, 227–235 AD. The right coin reads in Greek ΕΝΔΥΒΙC ΒΑCΙΛΕΥC, "King Endybis". 1750: 1680:

religions around 325. The Axumite Coptic Church gave rise to the present day

1665: 1597: 1573: 1529: 1518: 1498: 1434: 1427: 1384: 1290: 1254: 1230:

persecution traveled to Axum and were given refuge; this journey is known in

1118: 1063: 1052: 1048: 807: 788: 749: 505: 277: 6720: 6700: 4564:

Cambridge History of Africa: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh century

1809:

French archaeologist Francis Anfray, suggests that the Aksumites worshipped

737: 7184: 6925: 6915: 6881: 6810: 6805: 6732: 6522: 6504: 6465: 6460: 6440: 6435: 6307: 6300: 6290: 6285: 6280: 6174: 6112: 6093: 6078: 6014: 5209:

UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. II, Abridged Edition: Ancient Africa

3992: 3571: 2796: 2621: 2173: 2118: 1993:

In general, elite Aksumite buildings such as palaces were constructed atop

1849:, who established the Axumite Coptic Church, which later became the modern 1796: 1775: 1673: 1577: 1553: 1549: 1541: 1446: 1438: 1407: 741: 713: 654: 567: 370: 294: 194: 4334:

Phillips, Jacke (2016). "Aksum, Kingdom of". In MacKenzie, John M. (ed.).

6903: 6888: 6737: 6450: 6359: 6349: 6275: 5923: 5918: 2301: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2126: 1954:, which bore legends in Geʽez and Greek. From the reign of Endubis up to 1818: 1810: 1779: 1771: 1545: 1533: 1522: 1490: 1391: 1390:

According to an oral tradition, Gudit rose to power after she killed the

1380: 1367:. Her origin has been debated among scholars. Some argued that she had a 1339:(also known as Queen of Sheba's Palace) in Aksum, Tigray Region, Ethiopia 1250: 1134: 1089: 1080: 1076: 701: 694: 689:

served as the kingdom's capital for many centuries until it relocated to

650: 171: 3682:"Snowden Lectures: Stanley Burstein, When Greek was an African Language" 6930: 6747: 6621: 6581: 6514: 3420: 3323: 2309: 2305: 1959: 1697: 1693: 1364: 1310: 1286: 1262: 5647: 5621:"Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation" 5600:

State Formation in Ancient Northeast Africa and the Indian Ocean Trade

5547: 5516:"Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation" 3928: 6820: 6591: 6475: 6445: 6226: 6100: 5891: 5160: 4418: 3799: 2293: 1836:"The first carriers of Judaism reached Ethiopia between the reign of 1399: 1394:

king and then reigned for 40 years. She brought her Jewish army from

1168: 1142: 1130: 1126: 1026: 1014: 951:

enabled the exchange of Ethiopian products for foreign imports. Both

823: 697:

due to declining trade connections and recurring external invasions.

1742: 1470: 1059:, serving as victory monuments documenting the wars of these kings. 6221: 6004: 5962: 5901: 5806: 5639: 5531: 4270: 3920: 2102: 2025: 2015: 1950:

The Empire of Aksum was one of the first African polities to issue

1880: 1450: 1239: 937: 878: 877:. Archaeological evidence shows that the kingdom was influenced by 811: 674: 666: 557: 547: 281: 241: 4089: 4087: 2229: 1738: 1242:

sent a naval expedition against suspected Abyssinian pirates, the

882:

influence on later Aksumite civilization included the adoption of

685:

civilization, the kingdom was founded in 1st century. The city of

161: 6134: 6063: 6019: 5874: 5476:"A History of Christianity in the Middle East & North Africa" 5010:

Eritrea at a Crossroads A Narrative of Triumph, Betrayal and Hope

3668:

Fordham University Internet History Sourcebooks, chapters 4 and 5

2892: 2393: 2340: 2336: 2130: 2106: 2058: 1943: 1912: 1904: 1892: 1795:

Before its conversion to Christianity, the Aksumites practiced a

1701: 1654: 1601: 1565: 1433:

After a short Dark Age, the Aksumite Empire was succeeded by the

1372: 1301:

is noted in Ethiopia in the ninth century. The Coptic patriarchs

1297:; however, the exact location of this city is currently unknown. 1270: 1266: 1258: 1133:

was deposed and killed and Kaleb appointed an Arab viceroy named

1044: 960: 956: 806:

Aksumite dominance in the Red Sea culminated during the reign of

757: 670: 552: 225: 103: 5935: 5478:. Jerusalem & Middle East Church Association. Archived from 5378:"The Rise of the Askum Obelisk is the Rise of Ethiopian History" 5049:

The Garima Gospels: Early Illuminated Gospel Books from Ethiopia

5046: 3042: 2637: 1107: 975: 874: 682: 492: 5967: 5842: 5100: 4803:

The Rising Tide of Cultural Pluralism: The Nation-state at Bay?

4084: 3599: 3561: 2397: 2245: 2212: 2177: 2158: 2150: 2029: 2021: 1814: 1800: 1746: 1724: 1677: 1557: 1537: 1510: 1478: 1368: 1336: 1298: 1219: 1184: 1176: 1153: 1146: 1138: 1031: 948: 929: 831: 745: 733: 729: 166: 5797:

Ethiopian Treasures – Queen of Sheba, Aksumite Kingdom – Aksum

5141:. Encyclopædia Britannica Company, Limited. 1911. p. 629. 4919:"The wealth of Africa – The kingdom of Aksum: Teachers' notes" 4916: 2165:. Salt was abundant in Aksum and was traded quite frequently. 2049: 1517:

groups also inhabited Aksum, as inscriptions from the time of

6601: 5802:

Ancient History Sourcebook: Accounts of Meröe, Kush, and Axum

5787:

East-West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States

5206: 4981:

African Empires and Civilizations : Ancient and Medieval

3977:"Askumite Numismatics - A critical survey of recent Research" 2317: 2142: 2138: 2109:, Aksum was deeply involved in the trade network between the 1994: 1955: 1900: 1896: 1650: 1585: 1581: 1482: 1411: 1360: 1356: 1348: 1326: 1314: 1294: 1282: 1223: 1211: 1097: 988: 902: 862: 792: 725: 690: 678: 577: 572: 366: 349: 248: 135: 67: 4562:

E. Cerulli, "Ethiopia's Relations with the Muslim World" in

5079:

Pre-colonial Africa: Her Civilisations and Foreign Contacts

5061: 5012:. Strategic Book Publishing and Rights Company. p. 19. 4696:

Ark of God: The Incredible Power of the Ark of the Covenant

2221: 2220:, which had long supplied Egypt with African goods via the 2162: 2154: 2134: 2062: 1720: 1684:(only granted autonomy from the Coptic Church in 1959) and 1593: 1085: 971: 721: 686: 636: 562: 130: 5811: 5200: 5124:

Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind, Volume 1

5055: 4220:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 61–62. 4156:. Edinburgh: University Press. p. 57. Archived from 4045:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 15–16. 3658: 3656: 1179:

to depose the king of Yemen. The war culminated with the

1145:, following Aksum's unsuccessful attempts to remove him, 2080: 1576:, the whole of the Eritrean plateau" and the regions of 1441:, who killed the last Zagwe king and founded the modern 1410:, while other accounts say Dil Na'od went into exile in 1175:. Khosrow I sent a small fleet and army under commander 5720:

Ancient Ethiopia. Aksum: Its Antecedents and Successors

5007: 3749:; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). 1497:

notes that a "governor of Agau", was entrusted by King

1481:

inscription identifies them as the main inhabitants of

1414:, protected by Christians. He begged assistance from a 810:(514–542), who, at the behest of the Byzantine Emperor 604: 3653: 2339:

and his family take refuge in Aksum after the fall of

1828:

A Table of Hieroglyphics found at Axum c. 19th century

1164:, but having been denied, he decided to ally with the 7346:

States and territories established in the 1st century

5251:

UNESCO General History of Africa: Ancient Africa v. 2

5130: 5121: 5001: 4522:. Vol. II. Macmillan & Co. pp. 325–326. 4338:. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 1–2. 4241: 4239: 4237: 4070:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 55. 3954:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 17. 3823:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 69. 2292:

The Aksumite Empire is portrayed as the main ally of

1493:

were also known to have lived within the kingdom, as

5409: 5407: 5405: 5186:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 5. 5026:, p. 114, Barnsley, Pen & Sword Military, 2012, 4912: 4910: 4908: 3529: 922:

The first historical mention of Axum comes from the

783:. Due to its ties with the Greco-Roman world, Aksum 700:

The Kingdom of Aksum was considered one of the four

5115: 4750:

Ethiopia: The Land, Its People, History and Culture

4395:"The Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes" 2324:and succeeded by his youngest son Eon bisi Dakuen. 5371: 5369: 4234: 3706: 1879:, when the first followers of the Islamic prophet 1214:in the early 7th century and the expansion of the 7351:States and territories disestablished in the 960s 5432: 5430: 5428: 5402: 5383:. Newark, USA: Rutgers University. Archived from 5319: 5151: 4905: 4265: 4263: 4261: 3844:Burstein, Stanley (2015), Benjamin, Craig (ed.), 2440:Aksumite water-spouts in the shape of lion heads. 2380:The largest Aksumite stele, broken where it fell. 7307: 5184:Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity 5042: 5040: 4315:Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity 4218:Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity 4150:Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity 4068:Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity 4043:Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity 3952:Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity 3821:Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity 3745: 3644: 2037:and water spout on the roof. Both were found in 1426:in 1137 AD, who ushered in the formation of the 1375:lasted until 1137 AD, when it was overthrown by 5366: 5253:. University of California Press. p. 221. 4987: 4805:, (University of Wisconsin Press: 1993), p. 160 3906: 3877: 3875: 3721: 2203:14 Roman Coins found in Matara in 2-3rd century 1783: 1469:-speaking groups, one of these groups were the 720:. Aksum continued to expand under the reign of 39: 5688:. EUT Edizioni Università di Trieste: 69–100. 5571:Ancient and medieval Ethiopian history to 1270 5507: 5425: 5351: 5349: 5211:. University of California Press. p. 234. 5171:. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 34. 5145: 5126:. John and Arthur Arch, Cornhill. p. 284. 5076: 4776:Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270 4258: 4142: 4140: 4138: 4136: 4134: 4132: 4130: 4121:Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270 3638: 1875:Islam came in the 7th century at the reign of 5827: 5037: 4997:. University of California. 1975. p. 24. 4978: 4946: 4944: 4942: 4093: 3751:"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" 3715: 3511: 2971: 2312:. The series takes place during the reign of 795:. The kingdom continued to expand throughout 53: 7284:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 5782:World History Encyclopedia – Kingdom of Axum 5568: 5091: 5085: 4693:Childress, David Hatcher (27 October 2015). 4096:A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea 4018:A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea 3872: 3709:The African American People A Global History 2316:, who in the series was assassinated by the 2244:Axumite Menhir in Balaw Kalaw (Metera) near 2235: 1465:The Aksumite population mainly consisted of 1075:, which regarded itself as the protector of 5346: 5332:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 171. 5111:. Heinemann Educational Books. p. 398. 5066:. American Numismatic Society. p. 165. 5047:Judith S. McKenzie; Francis Watson (2016). 4387: 4377:(New York University Press, 2013), pp. 44. 4127: 4112: 1649:, which was eventually modified to include 1505:population, which resided in the cities of 1013:, with their influence extending as far as 771:As the kingdom became a major power on the 450:2,500,000 km (970,000 sq mi) 442:1,250,000 km (480,000 sq mi) 118:The Kingdom of Aksum during the 3rd century 5834: 5820: 5736: 5717: 5658:– via University of Texas at Austin. 5612: 5248: 5221: 5154:Introduction to Classical Ethiopic (Geʻez) 5070: 5016: 4972: 4939: 4773: 4011: 4009: 3915:(3). Cambridge University Press: 471–495. 3881: 3846:"Africa: states, empires, and connections" 3518: 3504: 2978: 2964: 1043:and back with inscriptions, attributed to 785:adopted Christianity as the state religion 704:of the 3rd century by the Persian prophet 112: 5325: 5298: 5181: 4814: 4692: 4426: 4215: 4209: 4181: 4146: 4065: 4040: 3949: 3818: 3700: 2263:soil erosion that began on a local scale 1845:converted to Christianity by his teacher 1071:. Aksum gained a political link with the 4746: 4333: 4118: 3886:. Woodbridge: James Currey. p. 48. 3843: 2239: 2198: 2084: 2048: 1980: 1937: 1823: 1765: 1731:, and other cities in the region during 1629: 1615: 1342: 1330: 1265:. They overran and pillaged much of the 1198: 1106: 856: 764:that have been excavated as far away as 7108: 5675:"Translations in Late Antique Ethiopia" 5305:. Oxford University press. p. 77. 5081:. Southern Book Publishers. p. 58. 4887:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 50. 4792:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 50. 4635:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 36. 4006: 2476:Entrance to the Tomb Of The False Door. 2101:Covering parts of what is now northern 14: 7308: 5618: 5583: 5513: 5436: 5273: 5207:Muḥammad Jamāl al-Dīn Mukhtār (1990). 4959:www.hmhco.com/ (formerly eduplace.com) 4917:The British Museum; The CarAf Centre. 4317:. Edinburgh: University Press. p. 40. 2500:Small stelae in the Gudit Stelae Field 1976: 1962:and a source of profit to the empire. 1203:14th century Islamic portrayal of the 1121:sent an expedition against the Jewish 27:Polity in Africa and Arabia before 960 5815: 5741:. Woodbridge, Suffolk: James Currey. 5672: 5024:The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean 4841: 4719: 4669:Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia 4665: 4661: 4659: 4015: 2081:Foreign relations, trade, and economy 5755: 5062:American Numismatic Society (1984). 4747:Mekonnen, Yohannes K. (April 2013). 4517: 3974: 1379:, resulting in the inception of the 983:of Aksum." Later in the century the 85:1st century – 960 AD 54: 5375: 3711:. Taylor & Francis. p. 13. 2428:Model of the Ta'akha Maryam palace. 1864:by rejecting the Fourth Ecumenical 1856:Frumentius was in contact with the 1320: 1244:Expedition of Alqammah bin Mujazziz 24: 5666: 5473: 4656: 3649:. Zondervan Academic. p. 146. 2157:. The people of Aksum also raised 1682:Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church 942:trade route between Rome and India 773:trade route between Rome and India 200:Nicene and Miaphysite Christianity 25: 7372: 5807:Aksum: UNESCO World Heritage Site 5793: (archived February 22, 2007) 5775: 4896: 4868: 4821:. The Red Sea Press. p. 33. 4616: 4588: 4547: 4532: 4520:History of the Later Roman Empire 4502: 4487: 4472: 4457: 4358: 4298: 4283: 4187:"Let's Look Across the Red Sea I" 3759:Journal of World-Systems Research 2416:after being returned to Ethiopia. 614: 202:; official after mid-4th century) 5569:Sergew Hable, Sellassie (1972). 5008:Andebrhan Welde Giorgis (2014). 4842:Hatke, George (7 January 2013). 3781:from the original on 7 July 2020 3546: 3532: 3014: 2947: 2594: 2553: 2541: 2529: 2517: 2505: 2493: 2481: 2469: 2457: 2452:Aksumite jar with figural spout. 2445: 2433: 2421: 2405: 2385: 2373: 2361: 2277: 2176:and overland connections to the 1891:due to their persecution by the 1692:(451), it has been an important 1686:Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church 1457:shows heavy Aksumite influence. 917: 868: 665:, based in what is now northern 524: 510: 485: 92: 5592: 5577: 5562: 5494: 5467: 5292: 5267: 5242: 5215: 5175: 5109:Ancient Civilizations of Africa 4890: 4877: 4862: 4835: 4808: 4795: 4782: 4767: 4740: 4713: 4686: 4647: 4638: 4625: 4610: 4597: 4582: 4569: 4556: 4541: 4526: 4511: 4496: 4481: 4466: 4451: 4367: 4352: 4327: 4307: 4292: 4277: 4175: 4119:Selassie, Sergew Hable (1972). 4059: 4034: 3968: 3943: 3900: 3837: 3812: 3800:The Cultural Heritage of Aksum. 3686:The Center for Hellenic Studies 3617: 2809:British Military Administration 2719:Late 13th century–18th century) 2192:to the Arabian Sea and India. 2024:usually consisted of a central 1965: 1870:Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion 822:perpetrated by the Jewish king 760:(270–310), Aksum began minting 337:Early south Arabian involvement 5122:James Cowles Prichard (1826). 5064:Museum Notes, Volumes 29 to 31 4505:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: He-N 4428:2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t07w6zm1b 4405:(2127): 133–134. August 1910. 4098:. Leiden: Brill. p. 169. 3793: 3739: 3730: 3674: 3589: 2512:Another stelae field in Aksum. 2464:Tombs beneath the stele field. 2226:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 2091:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 1872:by Menelik I for safekeeping. 1261:plateau through the valley of 925:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 787:in the mid-4th century, under 13: 1: 5737:Phillipson, David W. (2012). 5718:Phillipson, David W. (1998). 5682:Egitto Crocevia di Traduzioni 5514:Butzer, Karl W. (July 1981). 5439:"Review: Phillipson, (2012). 5437:Záhoří, Jan (February 2014). 5326:Adejumobi, Saheed A. (2007). 5302:Encyclopedia of Africa Vol. I 5278:. New York University Press. 4899:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C 4871:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C 4619:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C 4591:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C 4550:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C 4535:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C 4490:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C 4475:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C 4460:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C 4361:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C 4301:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C 4286:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C 4020:. Leiden: Brill. p. 34. 3882:Phillipson, David W. (2012). 3631: 2716: 2688: 2660: 2644: 2628: 2264: 1088:", and the other against the 936:as lying within the realm of 818:in Yemen in order to end the 744:(until c. 230), and parts of 268: 140: 7341:Countries in medieval Africa 7331:Political history of Eritrea 5722:. The British Museum Press. 5357:"GoBlues - Asheville School" 5228:. James Currey. p. 91. 4885:Church and State in Ethiopia 4790:Church and State in Ethiopia 4633:Church and State in Ethiopia 2848:Eritrean War of Independence 2524:Istifanos Monastery in Hayk. 1079:. Three inscriptions on the 884:Ancient South Arabian script 841: 681:. Emerging from the earlier 637: 605: 7: 7336:Countries in ancient Africa 7326:Former monarchies of Africa 5841: 5756:Yule, Paul A., ed. (2013). 5096:. Lucent Books. p. 28. 4815:Pankhrust, Richard (1997). 4720:Jewel, Lady (August 2012). 3707:Molefi Kete Asante (2013). 2565: 2129:, tortoise shell, gold and 1761: 1719:communities established in 1707: 1532:, Ethiopia, as well as the 781:Greco-Roman cultural sphere 673:, and spanning present-day 384:Aksumite invasion of Himyar 10: 7377: 5673:Bausi, Alessandro (2018). 5573:. Addis Ababa. p. 79. 5222:Phillipson, David (2012). 5182:Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). 5169:Area Handbook for Ethiopia 5152:Thomas O. Lambdin (2018). 4336:The Encyclopedia of Empire 4216:Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). 4147:Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). 4066:Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). 4041:Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). 3950:Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). 3819:Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). 3254:Second Italo–Ethiopian War 2354: 2281: 2170:the Roman Empire and India 1969: 1931: 1927: 1784: 1611: 1485:and its surroundings. The 1460: 1324: 1194: 1100:carved on the wall of the 1017:and the borders of Egypt. 947:The Aksumite control over 852: 626: 597: 68: 40: 7277: 7229: 6746: 6150: 5849: 5609:, by Stanley M. Burstein. 5139:1921 Inclusive, Volume 24 4818:The Ethiopian Borderlands 3645:Donald Fairbairn (2021). 3304:Eritrean Independence War 3224:First Italo–Ethiopian War 2488:The Stelae Park in Aksum. 2236:Climate change hypothesis 2105:and southern and eastern 2044: 1911:, arguing that the early 1851:Ethiopian Orthodox Church 1806:General History of Africa 1704:continue to be in Geʽez. 901:, two kilometers west of 820:persecution of Christians 775:and gained a monopoly of 540: 464: 454: 446: 438: 433: 429: 419: 406: 393: 380: 363: 346: 333: 323: 319: 305: 301: 288: 265: 261: 247: 237: 224: 187: 154: 123: 111: 89: 84: 34: 7321:Former empires in Africa 5619:Butzer, Karl W. (1981). 5588:(in French). p. 69. 5584:Anfray, Francis (1965). 5249:G. Mokhtar, ed. (1990). 5051:. NYU Press. p. 18. 4983:. Routledge. p. 71. 4774:Hable Selassie, Sergew. 4183:Pankhurst, Richard K. P. 3726:. Routledge. p. 71. 3722:Vincent Khapoya (2015). 3582: 3411:Ethiopian civil conflict 3361:Eritrean border conflict 2836:Autonomy within Ethiopia 2368:Reconstruction of Dungur 2288:Ethiopian historiography 2000:Yemrehana Krestos Church 1899:tribal confederation of 1790:Morning and Evening Star 1455:Yemrehana Krestos Church 1166:Sassanid Persian Emperor 892:Ancient Semitic religion 284:(according to tradition) 216:Ancient Semitic religion 7356:Former Christian states 5329:The History of Ethiopia 5077:F. J. Nöthling (1989). 4995:Abba Salama Volumes 6-8 4672:. Hurst & Company. 4666:Henze, Paul B. (2000). 4313:S. C. Munro-Hay (1991) 3975:Hahn, Wolfgang (2000). 3294:Federation with Eritrea 3179:Ottoman border conflict 3100:Amda Seyon's Expansions 2216:Africa was that of the 1672:in place of its former 1477:, the commenter of the 886:, which developed into 5274:Kaplan, Steve (1994). 4979:George O. Cox (2015). 3993:10.3406/numi.2000.2289 3724:The African Experience 3614:, and other languages. 3351:Eritrean–Ethiopian War 3090:Early Solomonic period 2911:Eritrean–Ethiopian War 2560:Aksum stelle in desert 2548:Aksum stelle and ruins 2248: 2204: 2145:), and Indian states. 2098: 2066: 1990: 1985:An Axumite Cathedral, 1972:Ethiopian architecture 1947: 1829: 1792: 1788:), Semitic god of the 1749:. In the 4th century, 1642: 1636:illuminated manuscript 1627: 1544:are located as far as 1352: 1340: 1207: 1115: 985:mlky hhst dtwns wzqrns 934:Ptolemais of the Hunts 865: 410:Early Muslim conquests 290:• 917 or 940-960 7254:Medieval great powers 5500:Trimingham, Spencer, 5092:Louise Minks (1995). 4952:"Daily Life in Aksum" 4603:Trimingham, Spencer, 4575:Trimingham, Spencer, 3577:Monumentum Adulitanum 3284:Italian guerrilla war 2793:East African Campaign 2282:Further information: 2243: 2202: 2088: 2052: 1984: 1941: 1827: 1769: 1633: 1619: 1592:These crops included 1495:Cosmas Indicopleustes 1346: 1334: 1202: 1173:Aksumite–Persian wars 1110: 1040:Cosmas Indicopleustes 1003:Cosmas Indicopleustes 998:Monumentum Adulitanum 860: 828:Aksumite–Persian wars 768:and southern India. 230:Aksumite, Ethiopian, 155:Common languages 69:Βασιλεία τῶν Ἀξωμιτῶν 7264:European colonialism 7249:Ancient great powers 4753:. New Africa Press. 4699:. SCB Distributors. 4518:Bury, J. B. (1923). 3117:Early modern history 2536:Aksumite gold coins. 2284:Ethiopian literature 1866:Council of Chalcedon 1858:Church of Alexandria 1690:Council of Chalcedon 641:) also known as the 397:Year of the Elephant 7259:Modern great powers 5705:on 4 September 2018 5156:. Brill. p. 1. 4935:on 4 November 2019. 4411:1910Natur..84..133. 4185:(17 January 2003). 3567:History of Ethiopia 3391:East Africa drought 3314:Ethiopian Civil War 3264:Italian East Africa 3214:Menelik's Invasions 2873:Ethiopian Civil War 2781:Italian East Africa 2777:Eritrea Governorate 2670:Sultanate of Dahlak 2349:Plague of Justinian 2111:Indian subcontinent 2097:leagued against it. 1977:Palace architecture 1883:(also known as the 1670:Coptic Christianity 1606:Guizotia abyssinica 1473:or the speakers of 1424:Mara Tekla Haymanot 1377:Mara Takla Haymanot 1162:Justinian the Great 1007:Ethiopian Highlands 987:(kings of Habashat 847:Carlo Conti Rossini 659:classical antiquity 649:, was a kingdom in 325:• Established 310:Classical antiquity 207:Aksumite polytheism 5628:American Antiquity 5605:2009-01-14 at the 5520:American Antiquity 5482:on 3 February 2014 5419:2020-09-25 at the 5094:Traditional Africa 5022:Raoul McLaughlin, 4252:2018-03-29 at the 4163:on 23 January 2013 3981:Revue Numismatique 3909:American Antiquity 3806:2023-10-08 at the 3465:Army of the Empire 3152:1557 – 17th cent. 3140:1543 – 17th cent. 3125:Ethiopian–Adal War 2954:Eritrea portal 2859:Annexation as the 2726:Sultanate of Aussa 2249: 2205: 2099: 2067: 2055:King Ezana's Stela 2008:rock hewn churches 1991: 1948: 1922:Dahlak Archipelago 1862:Oriental Orthodoxy 1830: 1793: 1778:, associated with 1741:, the language of 1643: 1628: 1353: 1341: 1285:. The Arab writer 1216:Rashidun Caliphate 1208: 1156:'s death, his son 1116: 1102:Temple of Kalabsha 866: 777:Indian Ocean trade 178:(from 1st century) 7303: 7302: 7225: 7224: 7190:Polish–Lithuanian 6365:Gurjara-Pratihara 5767:978-3-447-06935-9 5748:978-1-84701-088-9 5729:978-0-7141-2763-7 5695:978-88-8303-937-9 5502:Islam in Ethiopia 5455:on 7 January 2017 5390:on 7 January 2017 5339:978-0-313-32273-0 4968:on 3 August 2020. 4926:BritishMuseum.org 4897:Uhlig, Siegbert. 4883:Taddesse Tamrat, 4869:Uhlig, Siegbert. 4788:Taddesse Tamrat, 4760:978-9987-16-024-2 4733:978-1-4497-5061-9 4726:. WestBow Press. 4706:978-1-939149-60-2 4679:978-1-85065-393-6 4631:Taddesse Tamrat, 4617:Uhlig, Siegbert. 4605:Islam in Ethiopia 4589:Uhlig, Siegbert. 4577:Islam in Ethiopia 4548:Uhlig, Siegbert. 4533:Uhlig, Siegbert. 4503:Uhlig, Siegbert. 4488:Uhlig, Siegbert. 4473:Uhlig, Siegbert. 4458:Uhlig, Siegbert. 4359:Uhlig, Siegbert. 4299:Uhlig, Siegbert. 4284:Uhlig, Siegbert. 4197:on 9 January 2006 4105:978-90-04-41958-2 4027:978-90-04-41958-2 3893:978-1-84701-041-4 3859:978-1-139-05925-1 3688:. 2 November 2020 3528: 3527: 3429: 3428: 3332: 3331: 3187: 3186: 3108: 3107: 3051: 3050: 2988: 2987: 2939: 2938: 2883: 2882: 2819: 2818: 2736: 2735: 2710:Dankali Sultanate 2298:Belisarius series 2075:nepheline syenite 1987:Lady Mary of Zion 1934:Aksumite currency 1443:Solomonic dynasty 1171:, triggering the 1011:Arabian Peninsula 816:Himyarite Kingdom 779:, it entered the 748:territory around 635: 603: 586: 585: 536: 535: 532: 531: 498: 497: 459:Aksumite currency 369:'s conversion to 314:Early Middle Ages 203: 147: 100:Aksumite currency 16:(Redirected from 7368: 7316:Kingdom of Aksum 7106: 7105: 6771:Austro-Hungarian 6471:Chagatai Khanate 5836: 5829: 5822: 5813: 5812: 5771: 5752: 5733: 5714: 5712: 5710: 5704: 5698:. 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Archived from 4179: 4173: 4172: 4170: 4168: 4162: 4155: 4144: 4125: 4124: 4116: 4110: 4109: 4091: 4082: 4081: 4063: 4057: 4056: 4038: 4032: 4031: 4013: 4004: 4003: 4001: 3999: 3987:(155): 281–311. 3972: 3966: 3965: 3947: 3941: 3940: 3904: 3898: 3897: 3879: 3870: 3869: 3868: 3866: 3841: 3835: 3834: 3816: 3810: 3797: 3791: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3780: 3755: 3743: 3737: 3734: 3728: 3727: 3719: 3713: 3712: 3704: 3698: 3697: 3695: 3693: 3678: 3672: 3671: 3660: 3651: 3650: 3642: 3625: 3621: 3615: 3593: 3556: 3551: 3550: 3549: 3542: 3537: 3536: 3535: 3520: 3513: 3506: 3445:Economic history 3347: 3346: 3200: 3199: 3159:Gondarine period 3153: 3141: 3135:Oromo migrations 3121: 3120: 3066: 3065: 3029: 3028: 3018: 3008: 2990: 2989: 2980: 2973: 2966: 2952: 2951: 2950: 2932:2010s in Eritrea 2923:2000s in Eritrea 2917: 2902:1990s in Eritrea 2898: 2897: 2893:State of Eritrea 2879: 2867: 2861:Eritrea Province 2854: 2842: 2832: 2831: 2815: 2803: 2787: 2771: 2759: 2749: 2748: 2732: 2720: 2718: 2704: 2698:Ethiopian Empire 2692: 2690: 2676: 2664: 2662: 2648: 2646: 2638:Kingdom of Dəmot 2632: 2630: 2609: 2608: 2598: 2588: 2570: 2569: 2557: 2545: 2533: 2521: 2509: 2497: 2485: 2473: 2461: 2449: 2437: 2425: 2414:Obelisk of Aksum 2409: 2389: 2377: 2365: 2333:The Lion Hunters 2272:land degradation 2269: 2266: 2133:, and importing 1918:second migration 1909:Ashama ibn-Abjar 1907:appealed to the 1887:) migrated from 1877:Ashama ibn-Abjar 1787: 1786: 1770:A stela with an 1729:Ptolemais Theron 1696:church, and its 1668:, Aksum adopted 1659:Obelisk of Aksum 1640:Holy Mother Mary 1507:Ptolemais Theron 1396:Semien Mountains 1321:Gudit's invasion 1273:ports was lost. 1189:Stuart Munro-Hay 1073:Byzantine Empire 911:Stuart Munro-Hay 752:in the northern 640: 630: 628: 620: 608: 602:romanized: 601: 599: 590:Kingdom of Aksum 528: 527: 514: 513: 502: 501: 489: 488: 482: 481: 466: 465: 421:• Collapse 273: 270: 197: 179: 145: 142: 138: 116: 96: 79: 71: 70: 65: 57: 56: 51: 43: 42: 36:Kingdom of Aksum 32: 31: 21: 7376: 7375: 7371: 7370: 7369: 7367: 7366: 7365: 7361:Former kingdoms 7306: 7305: 7304: 7299: 7288:American Empire 7273: 7269:African empires 7221: 7104: 6796:Central African 6742: 6560:Romano-Germanic 6146: 5880:Middle Assyrian 5853: 5845: 5840: 5791:Wayback Machine 5778: 5768: 5749: 5730: 5708: 5706: 5702: 5696: 5677: 5669: 5667:Further reading 5664: 5663: 5623: 5617: 5613: 5607:Wayback Machine 5597: 5593: 5582: 5578: 5567: 5563: 5512: 5508: 5499: 5495: 5485: 5483: 5472: 5468: 5458: 5456: 5452: 5445: 5435: 5426: 5421:Wayback Machine 5414:Kingdom of Axum 5412: 5403: 5393: 5391: 5387: 5380: 5374: 5367: 5359: 5355: 5354: 5347: 5340: 5324: 5320: 5313: 5297: 5293: 5286: 5272: 5268: 5261: 5247: 5243: 5236: 5220: 5216: 5205: 5201: 5194: 5180: 5176: 5165: 5161: 5150: 5146: 5136: 5135: 5131: 5120: 5116: 5105: 5101: 5090: 5086: 5075: 5071: 5060: 5056: 5045: 5038: 5021: 5017: 5006: 5002: 4993: 4992: 4988: 4977: 4973: 4965: 4954: 4950: 4949: 4940: 4932: 4921: 4915: 4906: 4895: 4891: 4882: 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920: 871: 855: 844: 647:Aksumite Empire 643:Kingdom of Axum 618: 582: 525: 511: 486: 422: 412: 399: 386: 373: 356: 354:Kingdom of Kush 339: 326: 291: 274: 271: 212: 180: 177: 176: 150: 143: 119: 107: 106: 97: 80: 73: 66: 59: 52: 45: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7374: 7364: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7301: 7300: 7298: 7297: 7296: 7295: 7290: 7281: 7279: 7275: 7274: 7272: 7271: 7266: 7261: 7256: 7251: 7246: 7245: 7244: 7233: 7231: 7227: 7226: 7223: 7222: 7220: 7219: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7199: 7198: 7197: 7187: 7182: 7177: 7172: 7167: 7162: 7157: 7152: 7147: 7142: 7141: 7140: 7135: 7125: 7120: 7114: 7112: 7103: 7102: 7101: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7070: 7065: 7064: 7063: 7053: 7048: 7047: 7046: 7041: 7036: 7026: 7021: 7020: 7019: 7014: 7004: 7003: 7002: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6972: 6971: 6970: 6965: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6939: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6908: 6907: 6906: 6901: 6891: 6886: 6885: 6884: 6879: 6869: 6868: 6867: 6862: 6852: 6851: 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5000: 4986: 4971: 4938: 4904: 4901:. p. 187. 4889: 4876: 4873:. p. 187. 4861: 4854: 4834: 4827: 4807: 4794: 4781: 4766: 4759: 4739: 4732: 4712: 4705: 4685: 4678: 4655: 4646: 4637: 4624: 4621:. p. 178. 4609: 4596: 4593:. p. 178. 4581: 4568: 4555: 4552:. p. 178. 4540: 4537:. p. 178. 4525: 4510: 4495: 4492:. p. 177. 4480: 4477:. p. 176. 4465: 4462:. p. 175. 4450: 4386: 4373:George Hatke, 4366: 4363:. p. 174. 4351: 4344: 4326: 4306: 4303:. p. 181. 4291: 4288:. p. 173. 4276: 4257: 4233: 4226: 4208: 4174: 4126: 4111: 4104: 4083: 4076: 4058: 4051: 4033: 4026: 4005: 3967: 3960: 3942: 3921:10.2307/280596 3899: 3892: 3871: 3858: 3836: 3829: 3811: 3792: 3747:Turchin, Peter 3738: 3729: 3714: 3699: 3673: 3652: 3636: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3627: 3626: 3616: 3587: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3580: 3579: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3558: 3557: 3543: 3540:Eritrea portal 3526: 3525: 3523: 3522: 3515: 3508: 3500: 3497: 3496: 3492: 3491: 3486: 3485: 3484: 3474: 3469: 3468: 3467: 3457: 3452: 3447: 3441: 3440: 3437: 3436: 3433: 3432: 3427: 3426: 3423: 3417: 3416: 3413: 3407: 3406: 3403: 3401:Oromo protests 3397: 3396: 3393: 3387: 3386: 3383: 3381:War in Somalia 3377: 3376: 3373: 3367: 3366: 3363: 3357: 3356: 3353: 3345: 3342:Recent history 3340: 3339: 3336: 3335: 3330: 3329: 3326: 3320: 3319: 3316: 3310: 3309: 3306: 3300: 3299: 3296: 3290: 3289: 3286: 3280: 3279: 3276: 3270: 3269: 3266: 3260: 3259: 3256: 3250: 3249: 3246: 3240: 3239: 3236: 3230: 3229: 3226: 3220: 3219: 3216: 3210: 3209: 3206: 3198: 3196:Modern history 3195: 3194: 3191: 3190: 3185: 3184: 3181: 3175: 3174: 3171: 3165: 3164: 3161: 3155: 3154: 3149: 3143: 3142: 3137: 3131: 3130: 3127: 3119: 3116: 3115: 3112: 3111: 3106: 3105: 3102: 3096: 3095: 3092: 3086: 3085: 3082: 3076: 3075: 3072: 3064: 3059: 3058: 3055: 3054: 3049: 3048: 3045: 3039: 3038: 3035: 3027: 3024: 3023: 3020: 3019: 3011: 3010: 3001: 3000: 2993: 2986: 2985: 2983: 2982: 2975: 2968: 2960: 2957: 2956: 2943: 2942: 2937: 2936: 2934: 2928: 2927: 2925: 2919: 2918: 2913: 2907: 2906: 2904: 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1978: 1975: 1970:Main article: 1967: 1964: 1942:Coins of king 1932:Main article: 1929: 1926: 1838:Queen of Sheba 1763: 1760: 1723:, the port of 1709: 1706: 1664:Under Emperor 1653:, becoming an 1625:Garima Gospels 1613: 1610: 1462: 1459: 1420:Moses Georgios 1351:, 330–360 AD. 1347:Coins of King 1325:Main article: 1322: 1319: 1305:(819–830) and 1196: 1193: 1067:link with the 1055:, and his son 919: 916: 870: 867: 854: 851: 843: 840: 814:, invaded the 797:late antiquity 728:, such as the 584: 583: 581: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 555: 550: 544: 542: 538: 537: 534: 533: 530: 529: 522: 520:Sasanian Yemen 516: 515: 508: 499: 496: 495: 490: 478: 477: 472: 462: 461: 456: 452: 451: 448: 444: 443: 440: 436: 435: 431: 430: 427: 426: 423: 420: 417: 416: 413: 407: 404: 403: 400: 394: 391: 390: 387: 381: 378: 377: 374: 364: 361: 360: 357: 352:Conquest's of 347: 344: 343: 340: 334: 331: 330: 327: 324: 321: 320: 317: 316: 307: 306:Historical era 303: 302: 299: 298: 292: 289: 286: 285: 280:(first known) 275: 266: 263: 262: 259: 258: 255: 245: 244: 239: 235: 234: 228: 222: 221: 220: 219: 211: 210: 204: 191: 189: 185: 184: 175: 174: 169: 164: 158: 156: 152: 151: 149: 148: 133: 127: 125: 121: 120: 117: 109: 108: 98: 91: 90: 87: 86: 82: 81: 38: 35: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7373: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7313: 7311: 7294: 7293:Soviet empire 7291: 7289: 7286: 7285: 7283: 7282: 7280: 7278:Miscellaneous 7276: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7243: 7240: 7239: 7238: 7235: 7234: 7232: 7228: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7196: 7193: 7192: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7130: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7115: 7113: 7111: 7107: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7075: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7062: 7059: 7058: 7057: 7054: 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6646: 6645: 6642: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6619: 6618: 6617:Turco-Persian 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6562: 6561: 6558: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6525: 6524: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6485: 6484: 6481: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6458: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6406: 6405: 6402: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6379: 6378: 6375: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6357: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6315: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6302: 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6273: 6272: 6269: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6256: 6255: 6252: 6248: 6245: 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3292: 3291: 3287: 3285: 3282: 3281: 3277: 3275: 3272: 3271: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3261: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3251: 3247: 3245: 3242: 3241: 3237: 3235: 3234:Modernization 3232: 3231: 3227: 3225: 3222: 3221: 3217: 3215: 3212: 3211: 3207: 3205: 3202: 3201: 3193: 3192: 3182: 3180: 3177: 3176: 3172: 3170: 3167: 3166: 3162: 3160: 3157: 3156: 3150: 3148: 3147:Habesh Eyalet 3145: 3144: 3138: 3136: 3133: 3132: 3128: 3126: 3123: 3122: 3114: 3113: 3103: 3101: 3098: 3097: 3093: 3091: 3088: 3087: 3083: 3081: 3080:Zagwe dynasty 3078: 3077: 3073: 3071: 3068: 3067: 3062: 3057: 3056: 3046: 3044: 3041: 3040: 3036: 3034: 3031: 3030: 3025:Early history 3022: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3012: 3009: 3003: 3002: 2997: 2992: 2991: 2981: 2976: 2974: 2969: 2967: 2962: 2961: 2959: 2958: 2955: 2945: 2944: 2935: 2933: 2930: 2929: 2926: 2924: 2921: 2920: 2914: 2912: 2909: 2908: 2905: 2903: 2900: 2899: 2894: 2889: 2888: 2876: 2874: 2871: 2870: 2864: 2862: 2858: 2857: 2851: 2849: 2846: 2845: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2833: 2828:Post-Colonial 2825: 2824: 2812: 2810: 2807: 2806: 2800: 2798: 2794: 2791: 2790: 2784: 2782: 2778: 2775: 2774: 2768: 2766: 2763: 2762: 2756: 2754: 2751: 2750: 2742: 2741: 2729: 2727: 2724: 2723: 2713: 2711: 2708: 2707: 2701: 2699: 2696: 2695: 2685: 2683: 2682:Zagwe Dynasty 2680: 2679: 2673: 2671: 2668: 2667: 2657: 2655: 2652: 2651: 2641: 2639: 2636: 2635: 2625: 2623: 2620: 2619: 2616: 2614: 2611: 2610: 2602: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2592: 2589: 2583: 2582: 2577: 2572: 2571: 2556: 2551: 2544: 2539: 2532: 2527: 2520: 2515: 2508: 2503: 2496: 2491: 2484: 2479: 2472: 2467: 2460: 2455: 2448: 2443: 2436: 2431: 2424: 2419: 2415: 2408: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2392:Aksumite-era 2388: 2383: 2376: 2371: 2364: 2359: 2358: 2352: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2325: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2308:published by 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2289: 2285: 2278:In literature 2275: 2273: 2260: 2256: 2253: 2247: 2242: 2233: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2214: 2209: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2166: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2146: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2125:), exporting 2124: 2120: 2116: 2115:Mediterranean 2112: 2108: 2104: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2078: 2076: 2071: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2042: 2040: 2034: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2003: 2001: 1996: 1988: 1983: 1973: 1963: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1952:its own coins 1945: 1940: 1935: 1925: 1923: 1919: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1895:, the ruling 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1854: 1852: 1848: 1842: 1839: 1834: 1826: 1822: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1807: 1802: 1798: 1791: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1768: 1759: 1756: 1753:promoted the 1752: 1751:Ezana of Axum 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1705: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1641: 1637: 1632: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1609: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1598:finger millet 1595: 1589: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1526: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1499:Kaleb of Axum 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1458: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1435:Zagwe dynasty 1431: 1429: 1428:Zagwe dynasty 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1388: 1386: 1385:Zagwe dynasty 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1350: 1345: 1338: 1333: 1328: 1318: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1247: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1206: 1201: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1158:Masruq Abraha 1155: 1150: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1114: 1109: 1105: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1069:Mediterranean 1065: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 999: 994: 990: 986: 982: 977: 973: 969: 964: 962: 958: 954: 950: 945: 943: 939: 935: 931: 927: 926: 918:Rise of Aksum 915: 912: 906: 904: 900: 895: 893: 889: 885: 880: 876: 869:Early history 864: 859: 850: 848: 839: 835: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 813: 809: 808:Kaleb of Axum 804: 802: 799:, conquering 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 778: 774: 769: 767: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 698: 696: 692: 688: 684: 680: 676: 672: 668: 664: 660: 656: 652: 648: 644: 639: 633: 624: 623:Ancient Greek 616: 612: 607: 595: 591: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 549: 546: 545: 543: 541:Today part of 539: 523: 521: 518: 517: 509: 507: 506:Zagwe dynasty 504: 503: 500: 494: 491: 484: 483: 480: 479: 476: 473: 471: 468: 467: 463: 460: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 432: 428: 424: 418: 414: 411: 405: 401: 398: 392: 388: 385: 379: 375: 372: 368: 362: 358: 355: 351: 345: 341: 338: 332: 328: 322: 318: 315: 311: 308: 304: 300: 296: 293: 287: 283: 279: 278:Bazen of Axum 276: 272: 100 AD 264: 260: 256: 254: 253:Negusa Nagast 250: 246: 243: 240: 236: 233: 229: 227: 223: 217: 214: 213: 208: 205: 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In 630, 1119:King Kaleb 376:325 or 328 238:Government 232:Abyssinian 226:Demonym(s) 144: 800 102:depicting 41:መንግሥተ አክሱም 7195:Couronian 6833:Ethiopian 6821:Manchukuo 6776:Brazilian 6622:Ghaznavid 6592:Srivijaya 6543:Trebizond 6528:Byzantine 6510:North Sea 6505:Norwegian 6493:Almoravid 6476:Ilkhanate 6446:Majapahit 6419:Muromachi 6328:Solomonic 6313:Ethiopian 6227:Caliphate 6160:Aragonese 5988:Ptolemaic 5656:162374800 5556:162374800 5540:0002-7316 5459:6 January 5394:6 January 4566:, p. 575. 4437:0028-0836 3937:162374800 3802:, UNESCO 3772:1076-156X 3472:Expansion 3425:2020–2022 3405:2014–2016 3395:2011–2012 3385:2006–2009 3365:1998–2018 3355:1998–2000 3328:1977–1978 3318:1974–1991 3308:1961–1991 3298:1952–1962 3288:1941–1943 3268:1936–1941 3258:1935–1936 3248:1914–1918 3238:1913–1974 3228:1895–1896 3218:1878–1904 3208:1855–1913 3183:1832–1848 3173:1769–1855 3163:1632–1769 3129:1527–1543 3104:1314–1344 3094:1270–1529 2294:Byzantium 2123:Byzantium 1733:Ptolemaic 1447:Dil Na'od 1408:Dil Na'od 1400:Lake Tana 1335:Ruins of 1278:highlands 1169:Khosrow I 1143:Procopius 1131:Dhu Nuwas 1127:Dhu Nuwas 1123:Himyarite 1027:Kephalaia 1015:Lake Tana 968:Al-Maafer 842:Etymology 824:Dhu Nuwas 754:highlands 645:, or the 632:romanized 295:Dil Na'od 188:Religion 7175:Japanese 7138:Scottish 7118:American 7110:Colonial 7039:Imperial 7007:Moroccan 6943:Japanese 6921:Afsharid 6780:Burmese 6766:Austrian 6721:Later Le 6696:Early Le 6681:Venetian 6607:Tiwanaku 6520:Hellenic 6483:Moroccan 6414:Kamakura 6404:Japanese 6387:Saffarid 6340:Georgian 6254:Chalukya 6232:Rashidun 6222:Calakmul 6190:Bruneian 6069:Haryanka 6047:Sasanian 6042:Parthian 5993:Bactrian 5983:Seleucid 5963:Goguryeo 5941:Egyptian 5875:Assyrian 5865:Akkadian 5856:Colonies 5603:Archived 5504:, p. 47. 5417:Archived 4607:, p. 49. 4579:, p. 46. 4250:Archived 4248:ufl.edu 3804:Archived 3776:Archived 3482:Aksumite 3477:Currency 3460:Military 3084:900–1270 3007:Ethiopia 2996:a series 2994:Part of 2745:Colonial 2576:a series 2574:Part of 2566:See also 2131:emeralds 2121:, later 2113:and the 2103:Ethiopia 2026:pavilion 2016:Lalibela 1881:Muhammad 1762:Religion 1708:Language 1487:Cushitic 1471:Agʿazian 1451:Lalibela 1267:Eritrean 1259:Eritrean 1240:Muhammad 1228:Qurayshi 1226:fleeing 1009:and the 938:Zoskales 879:Sabaeans 812:Justin I 766:Caesarea 675:Djibouti 667:Ethiopia 638:Axōmítēs 627:Ἀξωμίτης 615:𐩱𐩫𐩪𐩣 558:Ethiopia 548:Djibouti 455:Currency 282:Ethiopis 242:Monarchy 55:𐩱𐩫𐩪𐩣 7242:largest 7237:Empires 7217:Swedish 7212:Spanish 7207:Russian 7170:Italian 7145:Chinese 7133:English 7128:British 7123:Belgian 7098:Vietnam 7088:Tay son 7034:Tsarist 7029:Russian 7024:Ottoman 6990:Dzungar 6985:Khoshut 6958:Mexican 6953:Maratha 6936:Pahlavi 6916:Safavid 6911:Iranian 6838:Haitian 6801:Chinese 6761:Ashanti 6733:Wagadou 6659:Eastern 6654:Western 6637:Timurid 6597:Tibetan 6587:Songhai 6577:Serbian 6498:Almohad 6488:Idrisid 6392:Samanid 6382:Tahirid 6377:Iranian 6355:Kannauj 6335:Genoese 6271:Chinese 6264:Eastern 6259:Western 6247:Fatimid 6242:Abbasid 6237:Umayyad 6210:Burmese 6170:Ayyubid 6165:Angevin 6135:Xianbei 6123:Eastern 6118:Western 6064:Magadha 6027:Iranian 6020:Xiongnu 6005:Hittite 5914:Chinese 5902:Kassite 5851:Ancient 5843:Empires 5789:at the 4445:3942233 4407:Bibcode 4271:"Aksum" 3608:Persian 3489:Famines 3450:Emperor 3037: 2587:Eritrea 2394:Amphora 2355:Gallery 2341:Camelot 2337:Mordred 2331:series 2327:In the 2296:in the 2107:Eritrea 2059:obelisk 2039:Hawelti 2022:Palaces 1944:Endybis 1928:Coinage 1905:Quraysh 1893:Quraysh 1885:Sahabah 1702:liturgy 1655:abugida 1623:in the 1612:Culture 1602:sorghum 1566:Qohaito 1515:Nilotic 1467:Semitic 1461:Society 1373:dynasty 1287:Ya'qubi 1271:Red Sea 1255:Zanafaj 1234:as the 1220:Muslims 1195:Decline 1045:Ousanas 1024:in the 961:Ptolemy 899:Gobedra 853:History 758:Endubis 738:Maʿafir 730:Tihāmah 693:in the 671:Eritrea 661:to the 634:: 611:Sabaean 553:Eritrea 408:• 395:• 382:• 365:• 348:• 335:• 267:• 182:Various 139:(after 124:Capital 62:Sabaean 18:Axumite 7180:Mongol 7165:German 7160:French 7150:Danish 7093:Dainam 7068:Tongan 7056:Somali 7051:Sokoto 7017:'Alawi 6995:Kalmyk 6975:Mongol 6968:Second 6948:Korean 6899:Mughal 6889:Indian 6872:German 6865:Second 6855:French 6848:Second 6784:Second 6756:Afghan 6748:Modern 6674:Kyrgyz 6669:Uighur 6664:Second 6644:Turkic 6612:Toltec 6548:Epirus 6533:Nicaea 6456:Mongol 6409:Yamato 6345:Huetar 6203:Second 6140:Rouran 6089:Shunga 6084:Maurya 6059:Kushan 6032:Median 6010:Hunnic 5968:Harsha 5764: 5745: 5726: 5692: 5654: 5648:280596 5646: 5554: 5548:280596 5546: 5538: 5336: 5309: 5282: 5257: 5232: 5190: 5030: 4852: 4825: 4757: 4730: 4703: 4676: 4443: 4435: 4399:Nature 4381: 4342: 4321: 4224: 4102: 4074: 4049: 4024: 3958: 3935: 3929:280596 3927: 3890: 3856: 3827: 3785:5 June 3770: 3612:Nubian 3604:Coptic 3600:Arabic 3562:Abraha 3438:Topics 2998:on the 2578:on the 2398:Asmara 2246:Senafe 2213:Adulis 2178:Levant 2159:cattle 2151:barley 2095:powers 2045:Stelae 2030:Dungur 2012:Tigray 1913:Muslim 1903:. 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