Bird flight - Knowledge

822:). The barbules maintain the shape and function of the feather. Each feather has a major (greater) side and a minor (lesser) side, meaning that the shaft or rachis does not run down the center of the feather. Rather it runs longitudinally off the center with the lesser or minor side to the front and the greater or major side to the rear of the feather. This feather anatomy, during flight and flapping of the wings, causes a rotation of the feather in its follicle. The rotation occurs in the up motion of the wing. The greater side points down, letting air slip through the wing. This essentially breaks the integrity of the wing, allowing for a much easier movement in the up direction. The integrity of the wing is reestablished in the down movement, which allows for part of the lift inherent in bird wings. This function is most important in taking off or achieving lift at very low or slow speeds where the bird is reaching up and grabbing air and pulling itself up. At high speeds the air foil function of the wing provides most of the lift needed to stay in flight. 982: 5298: 270: 347: 676: 1043:) that used their forelimbs for balance while pursuing prey and that the forelimbs and feathers later evolved in ways that provided gliding and then powered flight. Another "ground upwards" theory argues the evolution of flight was initially driven by competitive displays and fighting: displays required longer feathers and longer, stronger forelimbs; many modern birds use their wings as weapons, and downward blows have a similar action to that of flapping flight. Many of the 359: 33: 5125: 493: 5149: 861: 735: 414: 193: 525: 796: 5161: 592: 5137: 282: 713:

the authors claimed that each bird in a V formation of 25 members can achieve a reduction of induced drag and as a result increase their range by 71%. It has also been suggested that birds' wings produce induced thrust at their tips, allowing for proverse yaw and net upwash at the last quarter of the wing. This would allow birds to overlap their wings and gain Newtonian lift from the bird in front.

1214: 248:, allowing it to maintain height or to climb. Flapping involves two stages: the down-stroke, which provides the majority of the thrust, and the up-stroke, which can also (depending on the bird's wings) provide some thrust. At each up-stroke the wing is slightly folded inwards to reduce the energetic cost of flapping-wing flight. Birds change the 221: 818:. The skeleton's breastbone has also adapted into a large keel, suitable for the attachment of large, powerful flight muscles. The vanes of each feather have hooklets called barbules that zip the vanes of individual feathers together, giving the feathers the strength needed to hold the airfoil (these are often lost in 678: 682: 681: 677: 683: 542:

might be more precise to refer to curving taper with fairly small radius at the tips. Many small birds have a low aspect ratio with elliptical character (when spread), allowing for tight maneuvering in confined spaces such as might be found in dense vegetation. As such they are common in forest raptors (such as

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are classified as coelurosaurs by nearly all palaeontologists. The original functions of feathers may have included thermal insulation and competitive displays. The most common version of the "from the ground up" hypothesis argues that bird's ancestors were small ground-running predators (rather like

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by which modern birds' wings produce swift, powerful upstrokes; this may mean that it and other early birds were incapable of flapping flight and could only glide. The presence of most fossils in marine sediments in habitats devoid of vegetation has led to the hypothesis that they may have used their

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Small birds often fly long distances using a technique in which short bursts of flapping are alternated with intervals in which the wings are folded against the body. This is a flight pattern known as "bounding" or "flap-bounding" flight. When the bird's wings are folded, its trajectory is primarily

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Some recent research undermines the "trees down" hypothesis by suggesting that the earliest birds and their immediate ancestors did not climb trees. Modern birds that forage in trees have much more curved toe-claws than those that forage on the ground. The toe-claws of Mesozoic birds and of closely

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ibis show that birds spatially coordinate the phase of wing flapping and show wingtip path coherence when flying in V positions, thus enabling them to maximally utilise the available energy of upwash over the entire flap cycle. In contrast, birds flying in a stream immediately behind another do not

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The wingtips of the leading bird in an echelon create a pair of opposite rotating line vortices. The vortices trailing a bird have an underwash part behind the bird, and at the same time they have an upwash on the outside, that hypothetically could aid the flight of a trailing bird. In a 1970 study

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A wide variety of birds fly together in a symmetric V-shaped or a J-shaped coordinated formation, also referred to as an "echelon", especially during long-distance flight or migration. It is often assumed that birds resort to this pattern of formation flying in order to save energy and improve the

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Technically, elliptical wings are those having elliptical (that is quarter ellipses) meeting conformally at the tips. The early model Supermarine Spitfire is an example. Some birds have vaguely elliptical wings, including the albatross wing of high aspect ratio. Although the term is convenient, it

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wings that are suited to low speed flying. Hummingbirds are a unique exception – the most accomplished hoverers of all birds. Hummingbird flight is different from other bird flight in that the wing is extended throughout the whole stroke, which is a symmetrical figure of eight, with the wing

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We propose that birds evolved from predators that specialized in ambush from elevated sites, using their raptorial hindlimbs in a leaping attack. Drag–based, and later lift-based, mechanisms evolved under selection for improved control of body position and locomotion during the aerial part of the

140:. The airfoil is shaped such that the air provides a net upward force on the wing, while the movement of air is directed downward. Additional net lift may come from airflow around the bird's body in some species, especially during intermittent flight while the wings are folded or semi-folded (cf. 388:

Landing is also a problem for large birds with high wing loads. This problem is dealt with in some species by aiming for a point below the intended landing area (such as a nest on a cliff) then pulling up beforehand. If timed correctly, the airspeed once the target is reached is virtually nil.

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on low-speed flight, for example when landing); but the hands of coelurosaurs are formed by digits 1, 2 and 3 (thumb and first 2 fingers in humans). However these embryological analyses were immediately challenged on the embryological grounds that the "hand" often develops differently in

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Landing on water is simpler, and the larger waterfowl species prefer to do so whenever possible, landing into wind and using their feet as skids. To lose height rapidly prior to landing, some large birds such as geese indulge in a rapid alternating series of

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Take-off is one of the most energetically demanding aspects of flight, as the bird must generate enough airflow across the wing to create lift. Small birds do this with a simple upward jump. However, this technique does not work for larger birds, such as

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The most obvious adaptation to flight is the wing, but because flight is so energetically demanding birds have evolved several other adaptations to improve efficiency when flying. Birds' bodies are streamlined to help overcome air-resistance. Also, the

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attack. Selection for enhanced lift-based control led to improved lift coefficients, incidentally turning a pounce into a swoop as lift production increased. Selection for greater swooping range would finally lead to the origin of true flight.

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have been found to have longer but more rounded wings than juveniles – suggesting that juvenile wing morphology facilitates their first migrations, while selection for flight maneuverability is more important after the juveniles' first molt.

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The shape of the wing is important in determining the flight capabilities of a bird. Different shapes correspond to different trade-offs between advantages such as speed, low energy use, and maneuverability. Two important parameters are the

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Female birds exposed to predators during ovulation produce chicks that grow their wings faster than chicks produced by predator-free females. Their wings are also longer. Both adaptations may make them better at avoiding avian predators.

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from the bird's frontal area. The streamlining of bird's body and wings reduces these forces. Unlike aircraft, which have engines to produce thrust, birds flap their wings with a given flapping amplitude and frequency to generate thrust.

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ballistic, with a small amount of body lift. The flight pattern is believed to decrease the energy required by reducing the aerodynamic drag during the ballistic part of the trajectory, and to increase the efficiency of muscle use.

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in the cells that can damage DNA and lead to tumours. Birds, however, do not suffer from an otherwise expected shortened lifespan as their cells have evolved a more efficient antioxidant system than those found in other animals.

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High speed wings are short, pointed wings that when combined with a heavy wing loading and rapid wingbeats provide an energetically expensive high speed. This type of flight is used by the bird with the fastest wing speed, the

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In addition to anatomical and metabolic modifications, birds have also adapted their behavior to a life in air. To avoid flying into each other, birds take to the right when they are on a collision course with other birds.

517:(or the square of the wingspan divided by wing area). A high aspect ratio results in long narrow wings that are useful for endurance flight because they generate more lift. Wing loading is the ratio of weight to wing area. 225: 520:

Most kinds of bird wing can be grouped into four types, with some falling between two of these types. These types of wings are elliptical wings, high speed wings, high aspect ratio wings and slotted high-lift wings.

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Skandalis, Dimitri A.; Segre, Paolo S.; Bahlman, Joseph W.; Groom, Derrick J. E.; Welch, Kenneth C.; Witt, Christopher C.; McGuire, Jimmy A.; Dudley, Robert; Lentink, David; Altshuler, Douglas L. (19 October 2017).

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have wingtip coherence in their flight pattern and their flapping is out of phase, as compared to birds flying in V patterns, so as to avoid the detrimental effects of the downwash due to the leading bird's flight.

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Poessel, S. A.; Brandt, J.; Miller, T. A.; Katzner, T. E. (2018). "Meteorological and environmental variables affect flight behaviour and decision-making of an obligate soaring bird, the California Condor

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It explains that the evolution of elongated rachis-bearing feathers began with simple forms that produced a benefit by increasing drag. Later, more refined feather shapes could begin to also provide lift.

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through flapping alone, rather than by passage through the air, requiring considerable energy expenditure. This usually confines the ability to smaller birds, but some larger birds, such as a

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Bird flight includes multiple types of motion, including hovering, taking off, and landing, involving many complex movements. As different bird species adapted over millions of years through

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responsible for the wing's airfoil shape. The other set of flight feathers, behind the carpal joint on the ulna, are called the secondaries. The remaining feathers on the wing are known as

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Portugal, Steven J.; Hubel, Tatjana Y.; Fritz, Johannes; Heese, Stefanie; Trobe, Daniela; Voelkl, Bernhard; Hailes, Stephen; Wilson, Alan M. & Usherwood, James R. (16 January 2014).

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by "capturing" the energy in air flowing from the lower to upper wing surface at the tips, whilst the shorter size of the wings aids in takeoff (high aspect ratio wings require a long

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that modern birds' wings use to produce swift, powerful upstrokes. Since the downforce that WAIR requires is generated by upstrokes, it seems that early birds were incapable of WAIR.

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High aspect ratio wings, which usually have low wing loading and are far longer than they are wide, are used for slower flight. This may take the form of almost hovering (as used by

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Most recent attacks on the "from the ground up" hypothesis attempt to refute its assumption that birds are modified coelurosaurian dinosaurs. The strongest attacks are based on

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can hover for a short period of time. Although not a true hover, some birds remain in a fixed position relative to the ground or water by flying into a headwind. Hummingbirds,

224: 1058:, which conclude that birds' wings are formed from digits 2, 3 and 4 (corresponding to the index, middle and ring fingers in humans; the first of a bird's 3 digits forms the 2619: 1091:

functions as a result of the need to run quickly up very steep slopes such as tree trunks, for example to escape from predators. Note that in this scenario birds need

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producing lift on both the up- and down-stroke. Hummingbirds beat their wings at some 43 times per second, while others may be as high as 80 times per second.

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is the force opposite to the direction of motion, and hence the source of energy loss in flight. The drag force can be separated into two portions,

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aerodynamic efficiency. The birds flying at the tips and at the front would interchange positions in a timely cyclical fashion to spread flight

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The peregrine falcon has the highest recorded dive speed of 242 miles per hour (389 km/h). The fastest straight, powered flight is the

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Cabodevilla, X.; Moreno-Zarate, L.; Arroyo, B. (2018). "Differences in wing morphology between juvenile and adult European Turtle Doves

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fossils come from marine sediments and it has been suggested that wings may have helped the birds run over water in the manner of the

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When a bird flaps, as opposed to gliding, its wings continue to develop lift as before, but the lift is rotated forward by the flight

5555: 1252: 894:, but the origin of bird flight is one of the oldest and most hotly contested debates in paleontology. The four main hypotheses are: 947:

also had a wing feather arrangement like that of modern birds and similarly asymmetrical flight feathers on its wings and tail. But

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between the seasons. It is also used by some species to display during the breeding season and to reach safe isolated places for

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Baumel JJ (1993) Handbook of Avian Anatomy: Nomina Anatomica Avium. 2nd Ed. Nuttall Ornithological Club. Cambridge, MA, USA

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that have lost some digits in the course of their evolution, and therefore bird's hands do develop from digits 1, 2 and 3.

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Burke, A.C. & Feduccia, A. (1997). "Developmental Patterns and the Identification of Homologies in the Avian Hand".

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Kristen E. Crandell & Bret W. Tobalske (2011). "Aerodynamics of tip-reversal upstroke in a revolving pigeon wing".

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Albatrosses have locking mechanisms in the wing joints that reduce the strain on the muscles during soaring flight.

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is hollow to reduce weight, and many unnecessary bones have been lost (such as the bony tail of the early bird

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Scientists believe they could be a step closer to solving the mystery of how the first birds took to the air

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Ravi, S.; Crall, J. D.; McNeilly, L.; Gagliardi, S. F.; Biewener, A. A.; Combes, S. A. (12 March 2015).

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developed for other reasons and then evolved further to provide first lift and then true powered flight.

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Muijres, Florian T.; Dickinson, Michael H. (January 2014). "Fly with a little flap from your friends".

1232: 1180: 577:. Birds that make long migrations typically have this type of wing. The same wing shape is used by the 3719: 3709: 1202:. This illustrates both flight's importance in avoiding predators and its extreme demand for energy. 274: 4045: 4027: 3549: 745: 2283: 2053: 4050: 3045: 2020: 1861:

Hedrick, T. L.; Tobalske, B. W.; Ros, I. G.; Warrick, D. R.; Biewener, A. A. (14 December 2011).

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Flight is more energetically expensive in larger birds, and many of the largest species fly by

864: 855: 826: 157:, which is the inherent cost of the wing producing lift (this energy ends up primarily in the 5565: 3854: 2565: 2285: 1491: 1442: 1242: 2663: 5591: 5586: 5504: 5431: 5416: 4482: 3209: 3068: 3026: 2933: 2874: 2698: 2574: 2441: 2300: 2230: 1635: 1564: 1520: 1195: 476: 1199: 8: 5499: 5426: 4012: 3904: 3844: 3789: 3569: 2624: 2115:"Gliding Birds: Reduction of Induced Drag by Wing Tip Slots Between the Primary Feathers" 1768: 838: 814:), along with the toothed jaw of early birds, which has been replaced with a lightweight 502: 60: 3248: 3213: 3072: 3030: 2937: 2917: 2878: 2702: 2578: 2445: 2421:

Alonso, P.D.; Milner, A.C.; Ketcham, R.A.; Cokson, M.J. & Rowe, T.B. (August 2004).

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Brush, A.H. (July 1998). "Taking Wing: Archaeopteryx and the Evolution of Bird Flight".

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Tobalske BW, Warrick DR, Clark CJ, Powers DR, Hedrick TL, Hyder GA, Biewener AA (2007).

1639: 1568: 1524: 921:, enabling the proto-birds to run up extremely steep slopes such as the trunks of trees. 5514: 5479: 5232: 4795: 3859: 3819: 3784: 3352: 3327: 3308: 3233: 3171: 2949: 2898: 2821: 2771: 2722: 2595: 2560: 2465: 2385: 2324: 2254: 2203: 2001: 1895: 1862: 1664: 1623: 1593: 1552: 717: 585: 469:, ostriches, several swifts and numerous others, as a local trait, in a few specimens. 390: 168: 3533: 2855: 2488:"Scapular orientation in theropods and basal birds, and the origin of flapping flight" 2422: 1532: 5530: 5509: 5469: 5349: 5267: 5148: 4921: 4868: 4818: 3961: 3951: 3894: 3694: 3689: 3629: 3541: 3487: 3472: 3457: 3442: 3427: 3405: 3390: 3382: 3357: 3300: 3225: 3163: 3136: 3118: 2997: 2972: 2890: 2813: 2763: 2714: 2653: 2600: 2512: 2457: 2401: 2328: 2316: 2286:"Upwash exploitation and downwash avoidance by flap phasing in ibis formation flight" 2246: 2221:

Lissaman, P.B.S.; Shollenberger, Carl A. (22 May 1970). "Formation Flight of Birds".

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related non-avian theropod dinosaurs are like those of modern ground-foraging birds.

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The downstoke of the wings generates lift and the wings are folded in during upstoke.

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Eastern Kentucky University ornithology course site, with pictures, text and videos.

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Book review that provides a good, non-technical summary of the issues. The book is

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was likely capable of flight, but in a manner substantially different from that of

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On Wings of the Minimum Induced Drag: Spanload Implications for Aircraft and Birds

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structures and inner-ear balance sensors that birds use to control their flight.

819: 625: 249: 37: 1432:, 46, pp. 963–973 (2009), DOI 10.1007/s00348-009-0614-9 (accessed 2 August 2016) 1306: 927:, which posits that flight evolved by modification from arboreal ambush tactics. 128:, in which the aerodynamic forces sustaining flight are lift, drag, and thrust. 5545: 5436: 5359: 5306: 5277: 5237: 5212: 5129: 5059: 5011: 4945: 4884: 4839: 4826: 4700: 4663: 4514: 4288: 4125: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3849: 3834: 3729: 3704: 3699: 3681: 3562: 2586: 1647: 1169: 1142: 1063: 825:

The large amounts of energy required for flight have led to the evolution of a

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It predicts the observed sequence of character acquisition in avian evolution.

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Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution

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The proavis theory was first proposed by Garner, Taylor, and Thomas in 1999:

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Chatterjee, S. (April 1998). "Counting the Fingers of Birds and Dinosaurs".

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uses its low wing loading and high aspect ratio to achieve low speed flight.

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for specific environments, prey, predators, and other needs, they developed

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What Makes Airplanes Fly? History, Science and Applications of Aerodynamics

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Birds can transition between stable and unstable states via wing morphing

3046:"Embryo Studies Show Dinosaurs Could Not Have Given Rise To Modern Birds" 1324: 1227: 1136: 1088: 1040: 940: 532:'s wings, as seen on this pet female, allow it excellent manoeuvrability. 311: 303: 83: 5177: 3114: 2453: 2312: 1996: 1694:"Hummingbird flight stability and control in freestream turbulent winds" 1551:

Ingersoll, Rivers; Haizmann, Lukas; Lentink, David (26 September 2018).

632:, which takes advantage of wind speed variation at different altitudes ( 32: 5344: 5287: 5257: 5252: 5075: 4937: 4876: 4855: 4687: 4671: 4606: 4551: 4523: 4455: 4420: 4298: 4146: 3981: 3956: 3714: 2389: 1838: 1821: 1795:"Osprey hovers like a hummingbird hunting in Yellowstone National Park" 1710: 1693: 1403: 1325:"The intermittent flight of Zebra Finches: Unfixed gears and body lift" 1055: 834: 660:. The slots at the end of the wings, between the primaries, reduce the 633: 529: 351: 3554: 3295: 3052: 2620:"This feathery dinosaur probably flew, but not like any bird you know" 1987: 1363: 907:, that birds' ancestors were small, fast predatory dinosaurs in which 184:

Birds use mainly three types of flight, distinguished by wing motion.

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Even within a species wing morphology may differ. For example, adult

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A hovering hummingbird traces out a figure 8 pattern (that resembles

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used their claws to clamber up trees and glided off from the tops.

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wings as aids to run across the water surface in the manner of the

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These wings are favored by larger species of inland birds, such as

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for a different purpose; auks use their wings to "fly" underwater.

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There has also been debate about whether the earliest known bird,

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to provide the large quantities of oxygen required for their high

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Rayner J.M.V. (1985). "Bounding and undulating flight in birds".

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This was the earliest hypothesis, encouraged by the examples of

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Nature's Flyers: Birds, Insects, and the Biomechanics of Flight

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to give their feet increased grip. But early birds, including

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The authors believed that this theory had four main virtues:

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Bret W. Tobalske, Jason W. D. Hearn and Douglas R. Warrick,

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Taking Wing: Archaeopteryx and the Evolution of Bird Flight

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Videler, JJ (2005) Avian Flight. Oxford University Press.

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Videler, JJ (2005) Avian Flight. Oxford University Press.

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or even briefly turning upside down in a maneuver termed

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that lack ground-based predators may over the course of

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The fundamentals of bird flight are similar to those of

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Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

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Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

1743:"Cascades Raptor Center Show Behavior of the Year 2012" 1455:

Tobalske, B.W., Peacock, W.L. & Dial, K.P. (1999).

1083:(WAIR) hypothesis was prompted by observation of young 3273: 1740: 457:

chicks), but claws are retained into adulthood by the

2558: 2220: 1426:"Aerodynamics of intermittent bounds in flying birds" 2559:

Voeten, Dennis F.A.E.; et al. (13 March 2018).

2361: 2343:"We Figured Out Why Birds Don't Fly Into Each Other" 2078: 2076: 2074: 1920:"Hummingbirds edge out helicopters in hover contest" 1822:"Three-dimensional kinematics of hummingbird flight" 1441:

Brendan Body, Tips and observations of bird flight:

1305:. The University of Montana-Missoula. Archived from 1209: 4176: 3276:"Mechanics of wing-assisted incline running (WAIR)" 3096:"Birds have dinosaur wings: The molecular evidence" 3087: 2788: 2687:"Explosive Evolution in Tertiary Birds and Mammals" 1974:: implications for migration and predator escape". 298:Several bird species use hovering, with one family 252:continuously within a flap, as well as with speed. 3381:. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. 3129: 1443:"Further affects of air resistance on small birds" 1134:It explains that primitive pouncers (perhaps like 3507:Freeview video provided by the Vega Science Trust 2071: 1278:"The Evolution of Birds and the Origin of Flight" 1194:lose the ability to fly. One such example is the 1164:Birds use flight to obtain prey on the wing, for 114: 5578: 3326:Mikula, P.; Toszogyova, A.; Albrecht, T (2022). 2740:Glen, C.L. & Bennett, M.B. (November 2007). 2423:"The avian nature of the brain and inner ear of 2277: 2169: 1792: 1140:) could coexist with more advanced fliers (like 1087:chicks, and proposes that wings developed their 1074: 639: 93:, including flight from falling or gliding (the 3422:Campbell, Bruce, and Elizabeth Lack (editors). 3404:. 1991. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1152:) since they did not compete for flying niches. 699: 171:from the friction of air and body surfaces and 3058: 2146:"Why do migratory birds fly in a V-formation?" 1028:dinosaurs (including the early tyrannosauroid 5193: 3570: 3141:"Bird Wings Really Are Like Dinosaurs' Hands" 2991: 2960: 2847: 2782: 1510: 132:is produced by the action of air flow on the 89:Various theories exist about how bird flight 4084: 3400:Brooke, Michael and Tim Birkhead (editors). 3189: 2684: 2645: 2552: 1616: 1614: 1612: 1546: 1544: 1542: 1496:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3135: 3094:Vargas, A.O.; Fallon, J.F. (October 2004). 2611: 2395: 2367: 2143: 1741:Cascades Raptor Center (28 February 2012). 1291: 849: 763:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 5200: 5186: 3577: 3563: 3195: 2485: 1318: 1316: 991:could fly, or if it could even fly at all. 799:Diagram of the wing of a chicken, top view 603: 97:hypothesis), from running or leaping (the 86:, and acquired different forms of flight. 5556:Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water 5207: 3402:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Ornithology 3351: 3294: 2966: 2757: 2594: 1995: 1894: 1837: 1709: 1663: 1609: 1592: 1539: 1253:Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water 1106: 783:Learn how and when to remove this message 724: 3469:Readings from Scientific American, Birds 2916:Burgers, P. & L. M. Chiappe (1999). 2531:"How Archaeopteryx could run over water" 2137: 1168:, to commute to feeding grounds, and to 980: 963:In March 2018, scientists reported that 859: 794: 674: 590: 523: 491: 412: 357: 345: 280: 268: 219: 191: 119: 31: 3584: 3243: 2617: 2528: 1854: 1687: 1685: 1683: 1313: 1276:Pifer, Emily K. McCormick, Ruby (ed.). 1160:Uses and loss of flight in modern birds 341: 14: 5579: 3274:Bundle, M.W. & Dial, K.P. (2003). 2854:Mayr G.; Pohl B.; Peters D.S. (2005). 2112: 2018: 1917: 976: 40:each in a different phase of its flap. 5181: 4069: 3558: 2108: 2106: 1378:Simulating Avian Wingbeats and Wakes, 1024:have been discovered in a variety of 1016: 354:runs atop the water while taking off. 306:. True hovering occurs by generating 277:can beat its wings 52 times a second. 196:Lesser flamingos flying in formation. 59:. Flight assists birds with feeding, 5136: 3454:Handbook of Birds of the World Vol 1 3441:. 2004. Princeton University Press. 2021:"Frightened birds grow longer wings" 1801:from the original on 31 October 2021 1749:from the original on 31 October 2021 1680: 1322: 1003:. It suggests that proto-birds like 761:adding citations to reliable sources 728: 55:species in which birds take off and 27:Aerial locomotion in avian dinosaurs 5160: 3471:. 1980. San Francisco: WH Freeman. 3283:The Journal of Experimental Biology 2996:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2789:Prum, R. & Brush, A.H. (2002). 2091:. Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute 1911: 1464:The Journal of Experimental Biology 1392:The Journal of Experimental Biology 563: 536: 24: 3456:. 1992. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, 3437:Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology 2163: 2103: 255: 215: 25: 5613: 4038:Late Quaternary prehistoric birds 3498: 3426:. 1985. Calton: T&A D Poyse. 3249:"Secrets of bird flight revealed" 2649:The Origin and Evolution of Birds 2082: 1793:Wild West Nature (4 April 2013). 1275: 709:equally among the flock members. 588:at 105 mph (169 km/h). 187: 5296: 5159: 5147: 5135: 5124: 5123: 5014:(New World vultures and condors) 3522:'Pigeon Take off in slow motion' 2860:specimen with theropod features" 2529:Videler, John (1 January 2005). 1212: 733: 333:Most birds that hover have high 3319: 3010: 2985: 2909: 2798:The Quarterly Review of Biology 2678: 2522: 2505: 2335: 2119:Journal of Experimental Biology 2046: 2012: 1963: 1946: 1937: 1813: 1786: 1761: 1734: 1698:Journal of Experimental Biology 1504: 1445:, 2009 (accessed 2 August 2016) 827:unidirectional pulmonary system 509:. Aspect ratio is the ratio of 4070: 2922:as a primary thrust generator" 2685:Feduccia, A. (February 1995). 2618:Guarino, Ben (13 March 2018). 2144:Batt, Bruce (1 October 2007). 2019:Kaplan, Matt (25 March 2011). 1513:Journal of Theoretical Biology 1448: 1435: 1418: 1383: 1370: 1338: 1269: 1186:Birds that settle on isolated 115:Basic mechanics of bird flight 13: 1: 3371: 3160:10.1126/science.307.5707.194b 3081:10.1126/science.280.5362.355a 3048:. ScienceDaily. October 1997. 2495:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 2243:10.1126/science.168.3934.1003 1533:10.1016/s0022-5193(85)80164-8 1299:"Intermittent Flight Studies" 1081:wing-assisted incline running 1075:Wing-assisted incline running 935:, could fly. It appears that 915:Wing-assisted incline running 837:produces large quantities of 640:Soaring wings with deep slots 487: 103:wing-assisted incline running 3039:10.1126/science.278.5338.666 2711:10.1126/science.267.5198.637 1769:"Osprey General Information" 700:Coordinated formation flight 573:, as well as by most of the 7: 5078:(woodpeckers and relatives) 2113:Tucker, Vance (July 1993). 1205: 264: 10: 5618: 5412:Flying and gliding animals 5248:Fin and flipper locomotion 4940:(cormorants and relatives) 4033:Extinct species since 1500 3534:How do hummingbirds hover? 2587:10.1038/s41467-018-03296-8 1648:10.1038/s41467-017-01223-x 1233:Flying and gliding animals 1062:, which they use to avoid 853: 406: 369: 5523: 5462: 5402: 5305: 5294: 5223: 5119: 5070:(kingfishers and rollers) 5002: 4957: 4924:(albatrosses and petrels) 4896: 4867: 4838: 4817: 4808:(swifts and hummingbirds) 4790:(nightjars and relatives) 4778: 4741: 4732: 4699: 4662: 4653: 4644: 4640: 4614:(pheasants and relatives) 4589: 4513: 4472: 4410: 4382: 4358: 4334: 4307: 4228: 4215: 4172: 4145: 4141: 4080: 4076: 4065: 4061: 4000: 3903: 3803: 3753: 3680: 3610: 3597: 3511:Beautiful Birds in Flight 2759:10.1016/j.cub.2007.09.026 2652:. Yale University Press. 2548:– via ResearchGate. 1323:Tobalske, B; et al. 624:flight, particularly the 302:for hovering – the 275:ruby-throated hummingbird 179: 4969:(seriemas and relatives) 4948:(pelicans and relatives) 3467:Wilson, Barry (editor). 3452:Del Hoyo, Josep, et al. 3439:handbook of bird biology 2491:(Automatic PDF download) 2400:. Simon & Schuster. 1263: 850:Evolution of bird flight 402: 330:use this wind hovering. 5062:(hornbills and hoopoes) 4977:(falcons and relatives) 3482:Attenborough, D. 1998. 3222:10.1126/science.1078237 2887:10.1126/science.1120331 1918:Gill V (30 July 2014). 1476:10.1242/jeb.202.13.1725 1348:Gymnogyps californianus 985:It is unknown how well 865:Black-legged kittiwakes 604:High aspect ratio wings 47:is the primary mode of 5551:Terrestrial locomotion 5495:Evolution of cetaceans 5490:Origin of avian flight 5475:Evolution of tetrapods 5046:(trogons and quetzals) 4858:(cranes and relatives) 4128:(emus and cassowaries) 4018:Glossary of bird terms 3830:Confuciusornithiformes 3486:Chapter 2. BBC Books. 3344:10.1098/rspb.2022.0370 2992:Videler, J.J. (2005). 1879:10.1098/rspb.2011.2238 1577:10.1126/sciadv.aat2980 1118: 1107:Pouncing proavis model 1056:embryological analyses 992: 876: 856:Origin of avian flight 800: 725:Adaptations for flight 696: 600: 533: 497: 422: 367: 355: 295: 278: 233: 197: 41: 5566:Undulatory locomotion 5515:Homologous structures 4887:(kagu and sunbittern) 4850:(gulls and relatives) 3855:Songlingornithiformes 3820:Omnivoropterygiformes 3424:A Dictionary of Birds 3419:. Facts on File, 1990 2971:. Blackwell Science. 2646:Feduccia, A. (1999). 2566:Nature Communications 2131:10.1242/jeb.180.1.285 2033:10.1038/news.2011.187 1628:Nature Communications 1243:List of soaring birds 1113: 984: 863: 798: 687:Slow motion video of 686: 594: 527: 495: 477:European Turtle Doves 416: 361: 349: 289: 272: 231: 195: 120:Lift, drag and thrust 111:(pouncing) behavior. 35: 5510:Analogous structures 5505:Convergent evolution 4709:Phoenicopteriformes 3377:Alexander, David E. 3289:(Pt 24): 4553–4564. 2396:Shipman, P. (1999). 2058:Science Learning Hub 1809:– via YouTube. 1757:– via YouTube. 1376:Parslew, B. (2012). 1285:www.purplemartin.org 1196:flightless cormorant 999:vertebrates such as 757:improve this section 620:) or in soaring and 342:Take-off and landing 5561:Rotating locomotion 5500:Comparative anatomy 4680:Mesitornithiformes 4674:(doves and pigeons) 4008:Families and orders 3870:Ichthyornithiformes 3845:Patagopterygiformes 3247:(24 January 2008). 3214:2003Sci...299..402D 3196:Dial, K.P. (2003). 3115:10.1002/jez.b.21023 3073:1998Sci...280..355C 3031:1997Sci...278..666B 2938:1999Natur.399...60B 2879:2005Sci...310.1483M 2873:(5753): 1483–1486. 2703:1995Sci...267..637F 2625:The Washington Post 2579:2018NatCo...9..923V 2486:Senter, P. (2006). 2454:10.1038/nature02706 2446:2004Natur.430..666A 2313:10.1038/nature12939 2305:2014Natur.505..399P 2235:1970Sci...168.1003L 2229:(3934): 1003–1005. 2150:Scientific American 2054:"Wing aspect ratio" 1972:Streptopelia turtur 1873:(1735): 1986–1992. 1773:www.newyorkwild.org 1640:2017NatCo...8.1047S 1569:2018SciA....4.2980I 1525:1985JThBi.117...47R 1181:soaring and gliding 977:From the trees down 899:From the trees down 513:to the mean of its 206:rising air currents 5480:Evolution of birds 5233:Aquatic locomotion 5022:(eagles and hawks) 4922:Procellariiformes 4827:Opisthocomiformes 4796:Steatornithiformes 4023:List by population 3860:Hongshanornithidae 3785:Evolution of birds 3484:The Life of Birds. 3338:(1973): 20220370. 3067:(5362): 355a–355. 2967:Cowen, R. (1991). 2856:"A well-preserved 2835:on 15 October 2003 1839:10.1242/jeb.005686 1711:10.1242/jeb.114553 1404:10.1242/jeb.051342 1101:shoulder mechanism 1017:From the ground up 993: 953:shoulder mechanism 905:From the ground up 877: 801: 697: 672:to get airborne). 601: 586:spine-tailed swift 534: 498: 423: 368: 356: 296: 279: 234: 198: 169:skin friction drag 101:hypothesis), from 42: 5574: 5573: 5531:Animal locomotion 5470:Evolution of fish 5350:facultative biped 5175: 5174: 5115: 5114: 5111: 5110: 5107: 5106: 5103: 5102: 5099: 5098: 5095: 5094: 5091: 5090: 5087: 5086: 4908:(loons or divers) 4877:Phaethontiformes 4869:Phaethontimorphae 4819:Opisthocomiformes 4788:Caprimulgiformes 4728: 4727: 4717:Podicipediformes 4636: 4635: 4632: 4631: 4628: 4627: 4354: 4353: 4137: 4136: 4094:Struthioniformes 3962:Waterfowl hunting 3895:Gastornithiformes 3890:Aepyornithiformes 3880:Lithornithiformes 3296:10.1242/jeb.00673 3208:(5605): 402–404. 3154:(5707): 194–195. 3025:(5338): 666–668. 3003:978-0-19-856603-8 2978:978-0-7266-0287-0 2697:(5198): 637–638. 2659:978-0-300-07861-9 2440:(7000): 666–669. 2407:978-0-684-84965-2 2347:Popular Mechanics 2299:(7483): 399–402. 2178:(7483): 295–296. 1988:10.1111/ibi.12564 1470:(13): 1725–1739. 1398:(11): 1867–1873. 1364:10.1111/ibi.12531 1309:on 10 March 2014. 1303:Flight Laboratory 1200:Galápagos Islands 883:agree that birds 831:respiratory rates 793: 792: 785: 684: 548:hawks), and many 287: 229: 154:lift-induced drag 16:(Redirected from 5609: 5541:Robot locomotion 5315:Limb development 5300: 5273:Lobe-finned fish 5202: 5195: 5188: 5179: 5178: 5163: 5162: 5151: 5139: 5138: 5127: 5126: 5079: 5071: 5063: 5055: 5052:Leptosomiformes 5047: 5039: 5031: 5023: 5020:Accipitriformes 5015: 4994: 4993:(perching birds) 4986: 4978: 4970: 4949: 4941: 4933: 4925: 4917: 4914:Sphenisciformes 4909: 4888: 4880: 4859: 4851: 4848:Charadriiformes 4830: 4809: 4791: 4770: 4762: 4759:Musophagiformes 4754: 4739: 4738: 4720: 4712: 4691: 4683: 4675: 4660: 4659: 4651: 4650: 4642: 4641: 4615: 4602: 4380: 4379: 4376: 4369: 4282: 4275: 4239: 4226: 4225: 4222: 4213: 4212: 4209: 4174: 4173: 4170: 4169: 4143: 4142: 4129: 4121: 4113: 4105: 4097: 4082: 4081: 4078: 4077: 4067: 4066: 4063: 4062: 3930:Bird collections 3885:Dinornithiformes 3790:Darwin's finches 3780:Origin of flight 3720:Seabird breeding 3710:Sexual selection 3579: 3572: 3565: 3556: 3555: 3415:Burton, Robert. 3389:(hardcover) and 3366: 3365: 3355: 3323: 3317: 3316: 3298: 3280: 3271: 3265: 3264: 3262: 3260: 3245:Morelle, Rebecca 3241: 3193: 3187: 3186: 3185:on 27 July 2011. 3184: 3178:. 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1215: 1198:, native to the 1001:flying squirrels 958:basilisk lizards 925:Pouncing proavis 820:flightless birds 788: 781: 777: 774: 768: 737: 729: 685: 666:wingtip vortices 571:peregrine falcon 564:High speed wings 537:Elliptical wings 288: 230: 159:wingtip vortices 38:domestic pigeons 21: 5617: 5616: 5612: 5611: 5610: 5608: 5607: 5606: 5577: 5576: 5575: 5570: 5519: 5485:Origin of birds 5458: 5398: 5320:Limb morphology 5301: 5292: 5278:Ray-finned fish 5243:Fish locomotion 5219: 5206: 5176: 5171: 5083: 5077: 5069: 5061: 5060:Bucerotiformes 5054:(cuckoo-roller) 5053: 5045: 5037: 5029: 5021: 5013: 5012:Cathartiformes 4998: 4992: 4984: 4983:Psittaciformes 4976: 4968: 4953: 4947: 4946:Pelecaniformes 4939: 4931: 4923: 4915: 4907: 4892: 4886: 4885:Eurypygiformes 4878: 4863: 4857: 4849: 4834: 4828: 4813: 4807: 4789: 4774: 4768: 4760: 4752: 4724: 4718: 4710: 4695: 4689: 4688:Pterocliformes 4681: 4673: 4624: 4613: 4600: 4585: 4509: 4468: 4406: 4371: 4370: 4363: 4362: 4350: 4330: 4303: 4280: 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12: 11: 5: 5615: 5605: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5572: 5571: 5569: 5568: 5563: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5527: 5525: 5521: 5520: 5518: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5466: 5464: 5460: 5459: 5457: 5456: 5451: 5449:Pterosaur wing 5446: 5441: 5440: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5419: 5414: 5408: 5406: 5400: 5399: 5397: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5385: 5384: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5363: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5317: 5311: 5309: 5303: 5302: 5295: 5293: 5291: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5275: 5270: 5265: 5260: 5255: 5250: 5245: 5240: 5238:Cephalopod fin 5235: 5229: 5227: 5221: 5220: 5205: 5204: 5197: 5190: 5182: 5173: 5172: 5170: 5169: 5157: 5145: 5133: 5120: 5117: 5116: 5113: 5112: 5109: 5108: 5105: 5104: 5101: 5100: 5097: 5096: 5093: 5092: 5089: 5088: 5085: 5084: 5082: 5081: 5073: 5068:Coraciiformes 5065: 5057: 5049: 5044:Trogoniformes 5041: 5033: 5025: 5017: 5008: 5006: 5000: 4999: 4997: 4996: 4991:Passeriformes 4988: 4980: 4975:Falconiformes 4972: 4967:Cariamiformes 4963: 4961: 4955: 4954: 4952: 4951: 4943: 4935: 4930:Ciconiiformes 4927: 4919: 4911: 4902: 4900: 4894: 4893: 4891: 4890: 4882: 4873: 4871: 4865: 4864: 4862: 4861: 4853: 4844: 4842: 4840:Cursorimorphae 4836: 4835: 4833: 4832: 4823: 4821: 4815: 4814: 4812: 4811: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4784: 4782: 4776: 4775: 4773: 4772: 4764: 4756: 4747: 4745: 4736: 4730: 4729: 4726: 4725: 4723: 4722: 4714: 4705: 4703: 4701:Mirandornithes 4697: 4696: 4694: 4693: 4685: 4677: 4672:Columbiformes 4668: 4666: 4664:Columbimorphae 4657: 4648: 4638: 4637: 4634: 4633: 4630: 4629: 4626: 4625: 4623: 4622: 4617: 4609: 4604: 4599:Meleagridinae 4595: 4593: 4587: 4586: 4584: 4583: 4576: 4569: 4562: 4555: 4548: 4541: 4534: 4527: 4519: 4517: 4515:Odontophoridae 4511: 4510: 4508: 4507: 4500: 4493: 4486: 4478: 4476: 4470: 4469: 4467: 4466: 4459: 4452: 4445: 4438: 4431: 4424: 4416: 4414: 4408: 4407: 4405: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4388: 4386: 4377: 4356: 4355: 4352: 4351: 4349: 4348: 4340: 4338: 4332: 4331: 4329: 4328: 4321: 4313: 4311: 4305: 4304: 4302: 4301: 4296: 4294:Stictonettinae 4291: 4289:Dendrocygninae 4286: 4285: 4284: 4277: 4265: 4264: 4263: 4258: 4253: 4242: 4240: 4223: 4210: 4167: 4139: 4138: 4135: 4134: 4132: 4131: 4123: 4115: 4107: 4099: 4090: 4088: 4074: 4073: 4059: 4058: 4056: 4055: 4054: 4053: 4048: 4042:Notable birds 4040: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4004: 4002: 3998: 3997: 3995: 3994: 3992:Egg collecting 3989: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3944: 3943: 3942: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3911: 3909: 3901: 3900: 3898: 3897: 3892: 3887: 3882: 3877: 3875:Hesperornithes 3872: 3867: 3862: 3857: 3852: 3850:Ambiortiformes 3847: 3842: 3837: 3835:Enantiornithes 3832: 3827: 3822: 3817: 3809: 3807: 3801: 3800: 3798: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3776: 3775: 3770: 3759: 3757: 3751: 3750: 3748: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3686: 3684: 3678: 3677: 3675: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3639: 3638: 3637: 3627: 3622: 3616: 3614: 3608: 3607: 3605: 3604: 3598: 3595: 3594: 3582: 3581: 3574: 3567: 3559: 3553: 3552: 3548:, released in 3539: 3531: 3525: 3519: 3508: 3500: 3499:External links 3497: 3496: 3495: 3480: 3465: 3450: 3435: 3420: 3413: 3398: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3367: 3318: 3266: 3242:Summarized in 3188: 3128: 3086: 3051: 3043:Summarized at 3009: 3002: 2984: 2977: 2959: 2908: 2846: 2810:10.1086/341993 2804:(3): 261–295. 2781: 2752:(21): R911–2. 2732: 2677: 2666:on 2 June 2020 2658: 2638: 2610: 2551: 2521: 2504: 2475: 2413: 2406: 2376:(3): 806–808. 2360: 2334: 2276: 2264: 2213: 2162: 2136: 2102: 2070: 2045: 2011: 1982:(2): 458–463. 1962: 1945: 1936: 1910: 1853: 1812: 1785: 1760: 1733: 1679: 1608: 1538: 1503: 1447: 1434: 1417: 1382: 1369: 1337: 1312: 1290: 1267: 1265: 1262: 1261: 1260: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1240: 1235: 1230: 1224: 1223: 1207: 1204: 1161: 1158: 1157: 1156: 1153: 1143:Confuciusornis 1132: 1125: 1108: 1105: 1076: 1073: 1026:coelurosaurian 1018: 1015: 978: 975: 929: 928: 922: 912: 902: 854:Main article: 851: 848: 835:metabolic rate 791: 790: 741: 739: 732: 726: 723: 701: 698: 641: 638: 605: 602: 565: 562: 538: 535: 489: 486: 407:Main article: 404: 401: 343: 340: 266: 263: 257: 254: 217: 214: 202:gliding flight 189: 188:Gliding flight 186: 181: 178: 164:parasitic drag 136:, which is an 121: 118: 116: 113: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5614: 5603: 5602:Animal flight 5600: 5598: 5597:Bird behavior 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5584: 5582: 5567: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5528: 5526: 5522: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5467: 5465: 5461: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5424: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5409: 5407: 5405: 5401: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5383: 5380: 5379: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5322: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5312: 5310: 5308: 5304: 5299: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5283:Pectoral fins 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5231: 5230: 5228: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5203: 5198: 5196: 5191: 5189: 5184: 5183: 5180: 5168: 5167: 5158: 5156: 5155: 5150: 5146: 5144: 5143: 5134: 5132: 5131: 5122: 5121: 5118: 5080: 5074: 5072: 5066: 5064: 5058: 5056: 5050: 5048: 5042: 5040: 5034: 5032: 5028:Strigiformes 5026: 5024: 5018: 5016: 5010: 5009: 5007: 5005: 5001: 4995: 4989: 4987: 4981: 4979: 4973: 4971: 4965: 4964: 4962: 4960: 4956: 4950: 4944: 4942: 4936: 4934: 4928: 4926: 4920: 4918: 4912: 4910: 4904: 4903: 4901: 4899: 4895: 4889: 4883: 4881: 4879:(tropicbirds) 4875: 4874: 4872: 4870: 4866: 4860: 4854: 4852: 4846: 4845: 4843: 4841: 4837: 4831: 4825: 4824: 4822: 4820: 4816: 4810: 4804: 4802: 4801:Podargiformes 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4786: 4785: 4783: 4781: 4777: 4771: 4765: 4763: 4757: 4755: 4751:Cuculiformes 4749: 4748: 4746: 4744: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4731: 4721: 4715: 4713: 4707: 4706: 4704: 4702: 4698: 4692: 4686: 4684: 4678: 4676: 4670: 4669: 4667: 4665: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4597: 4596: 4594: 4592: 4588: 4582: 4581: 4577: 4575: 4574: 4570: 4568: 4567: 4563: 4561: 4560: 4556: 4554: 4553: 4549: 4547: 4546: 4542: 4540: 4539: 4535: 4533: 4532: 4528: 4526: 4525: 4521: 4520: 4518: 4516: 4512: 4506: 4505: 4501: 4499: 4498: 4494: 4492: 4491: 4487: 4485: 4484: 4480: 4479: 4477: 4475: 4471: 4465: 4464: 4460: 4458: 4457: 4453: 4451: 4450: 4449:Macrocephalon 4446: 4444: 4443: 4439: 4437: 4436: 4432: 4430: 4429: 4425: 4423: 4422: 4418: 4417: 4415: 4413: 4409: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4389: 4387: 4385: 4381: 4378: 4374: 4367: 4361: 4357: 4347: 4346: 4342: 4341: 4339: 4337: 4336:Anseranatidae 4333: 4327: 4326: 4322: 4320: 4319: 4315: 4314: 4312: 4310: 4306: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4287: 4283: 4278: 4276: 4271: 4270: 4269: 4266: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4248: 4247: 4244: 4243: 4241: 4237: 4231: 4227: 4224: 4218: 4214: 4211: 4207: 4201: 4175: 4171: 4168: 4166: 4144: 4140: 4130: 4124: 4122: 4116: 4114: 4110:Tinamiformes 4108: 4106: 4100: 4098: 4092: 4091: 4089: 4087: 4086:Palaeognathae 4083: 4079: 4075: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4052: 4049: 4047: 4044: 4043: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4005: 4003: 3999: 3993: 3990: 3988: 3985: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3972:Pigeon racing 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3941: 3938: 3937: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3912: 3910: 3908: 3902: 3896: 3893: 3891: 3888: 3886: 3883: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3853: 3851: 3848: 3846: 3843: 3841: 3838: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3816: 3815: 3814:Archaeopteryx 3811: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3802: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3774: 3771: 3769: 3766: 3765: 3764: 3761: 3760: 3758: 3756: 3752: 3746: 3743: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3687: 3685: 3683: 3679: 3673: 3670: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3636: 3633: 3632: 3631: 3628: 3626: 3623: 3621: 3618: 3617: 3615: 3613: 3609: 3603: 3600: 3599: 3596: 3591: 3587: 3580: 3575: 3573: 3568: 3566: 3561: 3560: 3557: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3532: 3529: 3526: 3524:YouTube video 3523: 3520: 3518: 3517: 3516:Life magazine 3512: 3509: 3506: 3503: 3502: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3449:. (hardcover) 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3418: 3414: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3375: 3363: 3359: 3354: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3322: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3297: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3277: 3270: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3192: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3142: 3138: 3132: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3097: 3090: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3055: 3047: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3013: 3005: 2999: 2995: 2988: 2980: 2974: 2970: 2963: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2946:10.1038/19967 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2921: 2920:Archaeopteryx 2918:"The wing of 2912: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2861: 2859: 2858:Archaeopteryx 2850: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2792: 2785: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2760: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2736: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2681: 2665: 2661: 2655: 2651: 2650: 2642: 2627: 2626: 2621: 2614: 2606: 2602: 2597: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2567: 2562: 2555: 2540: 2536: 2535:Archaeopteryx 2532: 2525: 2518: 2517:0-19-856603-4 2514: 2508: 2501:(2): 305–313. 2500: 2496: 2489: 2482: 2480: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2428: 2426: 2425:Archaeopteryx 2417: 2409: 2403: 2399: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2364: 2348: 2344: 2338: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2287: 2280: 2273: 2268: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2217: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2166: 2151: 2147: 2140: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2109: 2107: 2090: 2086: 2079: 2077: 2075: 2059: 2055: 2049: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2015: 2007: 2003: 1998: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1966: 1959: 1958:0-19-856603-4 1955: 1949: 1940: 1925: 1921: 1914: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1857: 1849: 1845: 1840: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1816: 1800: 1796: 1789: 1774: 1770: 1764: 1748: 1744: 1737: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1712: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1688: 1686: 1684: 1675: 1671: 1666: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1617: 1615: 1613: 1604: 1600: 1595: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1547: 1545: 1543: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1507: 1499: 1493: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1458: 1451: 1444: 1438: 1431: 1427: 1421: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1386: 1379: 1373: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1341: 1326: 1319: 1317: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1294: 1286: 1279: 1272: 1268: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1238:Insect flight 1236: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1225: 1221: 1210: 1203: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1184: 1182: 1177: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1154: 1151: 1150: 1145: 1144: 1139: 1138: 1133: 1130: 1129:Archaeopteryx 1126: 1123: 1122: 1121: 1117: 1112: 1104: 1102: 1099:, lacked the 1098: 1097:Archaeopteryx 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1072: 1070: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1052: 1050: 1046: 1045:Archaeopteryx 1042: 1037: 1033: 1032: 1027: 1023: 1014: 1010: 1008: 1007: 1006:Archaeopteryx 1002: 998: 990: 989: 988:Archaeopteryx 983: 974: 972: 968: 967: 966:Archaeopteryx 961: 959: 954: 950: 949:Archaeopteryx 946: 945:Archaeopteryx 942: 938: 937:Archaeopteryx 934: 933:Archaeopteryx 926: 923: 920: 916: 913: 910: 906: 903: 900: 897: 896: 895: 893: 890: 886: 882: 874: 870: 866: 862: 857: 847: 843: 840: 836: 832: 828: 823: 821: 817: 813: 812: 811:Archaeopteryx 807: 806:bird skeleton 797: 787: 784: 776: 766: 762: 758: 752: 751: 747: 742:This section 740: 736: 731: 730: 722: 719: 714: 710: 708: 694: 690: 673: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 637: 635: 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 598: 593: 589: 587: 582: 580: 576: 572: 561: 559: 555: 551: 547: 546: 531: 526: 522: 518: 516: 512: 508: 504: 494: 485: 481: 478: 473: 470: 468: 464: 460: 459:secretarybird 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 420: 415: 410: 400: 398: 397: 392: 386: 384: 380: 373: 372:Bird landings 365: 360: 353: 348: 339: 336: 331: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 293: 292:insect flight 276: 271: 262: 253: 251: 247: 243: 239: 213: 211: 207: 203: 194: 185: 177: 174: 170: 166: 165: 160: 156: 155: 150: 145: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 112: 110: 109: 104: 100: 96: 92: 87: 85: 81: 77: 72: 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 51:used by most 50: 46: 39: 34: 30: 19: 5164: 5152: 5140: 5128: 5038:(mousebirds) 5036:Coliiformes 4906:Gaviiformes 4898:Aequornithes 4806:Apodiformes 4767:Otidiformes 4743:Otidimorphae 4690:(sandgrouse) 4612:Phasianinae 4578: 4571: 4564: 4559:Odontophorus 4557: 4550: 4543: 4536: 4529: 4522: 4502: 4495: 4488: 4481: 4461: 4454: 4447: 4440: 4433: 4426: 4419: 4397:Oreophasinae 4343: 4323: 4316: 4221:(waterfowls) 4217:Anseriformes 3967:Cockfighting 3952:Conservation 3947:Bird feeding 3935:Birdwatching 3925:Ornithomancy 3865:Gansuiformes 3812: 3805:Fossil birds 3695:Intelligence 3656: 3514: 3483: 3468: 3453: 3438: 3423: 3416: 3401: 3397:(paperback). 3378: 3335: 3331: 3321: 3286: 3282: 3269: 3257:. Retrieved 3252: 3205: 3201: 3191: 3180:the original 3151: 3147: 3131: 3109:(1): 86–90. 3106: 3102: 3089: 3064: 3060: 3054: 3022: 3018: 3012: 2994:Avian Flight 2993: 2987: 2968: 2962: 2929: 2925: 2919: 2911: 2870: 2866: 2857: 2849: 2837:. Retrieved 2830:the original 2801: 2797: 2784: 2749: 2745: 2735: 2694: 2690: 2680: 2668:. Retrieved 2664:the original 2648: 2641: 2629:. Retrieved 2623: 2613: 2573:(923): 923. 2570: 2564: 2554: 2542:. Retrieved 2538: 2534: 2524: 2519:pages 98-117 2507: 2498: 2494: 2437: 2433: 2424: 2416: 2397: 2373: 2369: 2363: 2351:. Retrieved 2346: 2337: 2296: 2292: 2279: 2267: 2226: 2222: 2216: 2175: 2171: 2165: 2153:. Retrieved 2149: 2139: 2122: 2118: 2093:. Retrieved 2088: 2083:Lewis, Joe. 2061:. Retrieved 2057: 2048: 2036:. Retrieved 2024: 2014: 1997:10261/174622 1979: 1975: 1971: 1965: 1948: 1939: 1927:. Retrieved 1923: 1913: 1870: 1866: 1856: 1829: 1825: 1815: 1803:. Retrieved 1788: 1776:. Retrieved 1772: 1763: 1751:. Retrieved 1736: 1701: 1697: 1631: 1627: 1560: 1556: 1519:(1): 47–77. 1516: 1512: 1506: 1492:cite journal 1467: 1463: 1450: 1437: 1429: 1420: 1395: 1391: 1385: 1377: 1372: 1358:(1): 36–53. 1355: 1351: 1347: 1340: 1328:. Retrieved 1307:the original 1302: 1293: 1284: 1271: 1220:Birds portal 1185: 1178: 1163: 1147: 1141: 1135: 1128: 1119: 1114: 1110: 1096: 1092: 1078: 1053: 1044: 1029: 1020: 1011: 1004: 994: 986: 971:modern birds 964: 962: 948: 944: 936: 932: 930: 924: 918: 914: 904: 898: 878: 871:in the High 844: 833:. This high 824: 809: 802: 779: 770: 755:Please help 743: 715: 711: 703: 662:induced drag 643: 607: 597:roseate tern 583: 567: 543: 540: 519: 507:wing loading 503:aspect ratio 499: 482: 474: 471: 424: 394: 387: 375: 364:magpie-goose 335:aspect ratio 332: 304:hummingbirds 297: 259: 235: 199: 183: 167:, including 162: 152: 147:Aerodynamic 146: 142:lifting body 123: 106: 102: 98: 94: 88: 73: 44: 43: 29: 18:Avian flight 5592:Ornithology 5587:Bird flight 5444:Insect wing 5394:Webbed foot 5335:unguligrade 5330:plantigrade 5325:digitigrade 5166:WikiProject 5076:Piciformes 4959:Australaves 4938:Suliformes 4856:Gruiformes 4711:(flamingos) 4620:Tetraoninae 4591:Phasianidae 4580:Rhynchortyx 4545:Dactylortyx 4412:Megapodidae 4402:Penelopinae 4360:Galliformes 4102:Rheiformes 4096:(ostriches) 4046:individuals 3920:Ornithology 3907:interaction 3662:Preen gland 3417:Bird Flight 3137:Pennisi, E. 2125:: 285–310. 1960:pages 33-34 1929:26 February 1634:(1): 1047. 1430:Exp. Fluids 1228:Flight call 1137:Microraptor 1089:aerodynamic 1041:roadrunners 951:lacked the 941:avian brain 887:from small 716:Studies of 496:Wing shapes 425:The bird's 409:Bird's wing 379:albatrosses 366:taking off. 300:specialized 240:to provide 63:, avoiding 45:Bird flight 36:A flock of 5581:Categories 5372:Cephalopod 5288:Pelvic fin 5258:Dorsal fin 5253:Caudal fin 4916:(penguins) 4769:(bustards) 4607:Perdicinae 4552:Dendrortyx 4524:Callipepla 4456:Megapodius 4421:Aepypodius 4299:Tadorninae 4281:true geese 4112:(tinamous) 4071:Neornithes 3982:Pheasantry 3957:Aviculture 3725:Incubation 3715:Lek mating 3492:0563387920 3477:0716712067 3462:8487334105 3447:093802762X 3432:0856610399 3410:0521362059 3395:0801880599 3387:0801867568 3372:References 3259:25 January 3255:. BBC News 3099:(abstract) 2155:16 January 1826:J Exp Biol 1380:PhD Thesis 1034:). 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