History of Australia

2982: 6911: 6279: 6212:, introducing significant reforms and expanding the federal budget. Welfare benefits were extended and payment rates increased, a national health insurance scheme was introduced, and divorce laws liberalised. Commonwealth expenditure on schools trebled in the two years to mid-1975 and the Commonwealth assumed responsibility for funding higher education, abolishing tuition fees. In foreign affairs, the new government prioritised the Asia Pacific region, formally abolishing the White Australia Policy, recognising Communist China and enhancing ties with Indonesia. Conscription was abolished and the remaining Australian troops in Vietnam withdrawn. The Australian national anthem was changed from God Save the Queen to Advance Australia Fair, the imperial honours system was replaced at the Commonwealth level by the Order of Australia, and Queen Elizabeth II was officially styled Queen of Australia. Relations with the US, however, became strained after government members criticised the resumption of the US bombing campaign in North Vietnam. 2203: 1793: 1652: 1710: 7400: 6298:

espoused a policy of administrative competence and economic austerity leavened by progressive humanitarian, social and environmental interventions. The government enacted the Whitlam government's land rights bill with few changes, increased immigration, and resettled Indochinese refugees. It promoted multiculturalism and in 1978 established the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) as a multicultural broadcaster. In foreign policy, the government continued Labor's friendly relations with China and Indonesia, repaired the frayed relationship with the US and opposed white minority rule in South Africa and Rhodesia. Environmental policies included banning resource development on Fraser Island and the Great Barrier Reef, creating Kakadu National Park and banning whaling. However, the government refused to use Commonwealth powers to stop the construction of the

2524: 2157: 7101: 7419:, holding that Indigenous native title survived reception of English law and continued to exist unless extinguished by conflicting law or interests in land. The Keating government passed a Native Title Act in 1993 to regulate native title claims and established a Native Title Tribunal to hear those claims. In the subsequent Wik decision of 1996, the High Court found that a pastoral lease did not necessarily extinguish native title. In response, the Howard government amended the Native Title Act to provide better protection for pastoralists and others with an interest in land. By March 2019 the Native Titles Tribunal had determined that 375 Indigenous communities had established native title over 39 per cent of the Australian continent, with one third under exclusive title. 6433: 6327: 6645: 3602: 2637: 3765: 3213: 2047:) in 1803, partly to forestall a possible French settlement. The British settlement of the island soon centred on Launceston in the north and Hobart in the south. From the 1820s free settlers were encouraged by the offer of land grants in proportion to the capital the settlers would bring. Van Diemen's Land became a separate colony from New South Wales in December 1825 and continued to expand through the 1830s, supported by farming, sheep grazing and whaling. Following the suspension of convict transportation to New South Wales in 1840, Van Diemen's land became the main destination for convicts. Transportation to Van Diemen's Land ended in 1853 and in 1856 the colony officially changed its name to Tasmania. 5378:, formed in October 1941, that was largely responsible for "a complete revision of the whole Australian economic, domestic and industrial life". Rationing of fuel, clothing and some food was introduced, (although less severely than in Britain) Christmas holidays curtailed, "brown outs" introduced and some public transport reduced. From December 1941, the Government evacuated all women and children from Darwin and northern Australia, and more than 10,000 refugees arrived from South East Asia as Japan advanced. In January 1942, the Manpower Directorate was set up "to ensure the organisation of Australians in the best possible way to meet all defence requirements." Minister for War Organisation of Industry, 3061: 4545:, proposed a radical plan which repudiated overseas debt. The "Premier's Plan" finally accepted by federal and state governments in June 1931, followed the deflationary model advocated by Niemeyer and included a reduction of 20 per cent in government spending, a reduction in bank interest rates and an increase in taxation. In March 1931, Lang announced that interest due in London would not be paid and the Federal government stepped in to meet the debt. In May, the Government Savings Bank of New South Wales was forced to close. The Melbourne Premiers' Conference agreed to cut wages and pensions as part of a severe deflationary policy but Lang renounced the plan. The grand opening of the 4618:, Lyons held a steadfast belief in "the need to balance budgets, lower costs to business and restore confidence" and the Lyons period gave Australia "stability and eventual growth" between the drama of the Depression and the outbreak of the Second World War. A lowering of wages was enforced and industry tariff protections maintained, which together with cheaper raw materials during the 1930s saw a shift from agriculture to manufacturing as the chief employer of the Australian economy—a shift which was consolidated by increased investment by the commonwealth government into defence and armaments manufacture. Lyons saw restoration of Australia's exports as the key to economic recovery. 5702: 3994: 1553: 3292: 2387: 1145: 1231: 2950: 1329: 5544: 7055: 7905:, were written to influence public opinion and British policy in the colony. After the Australian colonies became self-governing in the 1850s, colonial governments commissioned histories aimed at promoting migration and investment from Britain. The beginning of professional academic history in Australian universities from 1891 saw the dominance of an Imperial framework for interpreting Australian history, in which Australia emerged from the successful transfer of people, institutions, and culture from Britain. Typical of the imperial school of Australian history was the Australian volume of the 7151: 4484: 7519: 6809: 6526: 3975: 2867: 7444: 2920: 1567: 3839: 7584: 1872: 6982: 841: 6182: 7489: 2701: 2330: 1779: 6058:: "seemed shattering to most Australians, particularly to older people and conservatives." Carl Bridge, however, points out that Australia had been "hedging its British bets" for some time. The ANZUS treaty and Australia's decision to enter the Vietnam War did not involve Britain and by 1967 Japan was Australia's leading export partner and the US her largest source of imports. According to Bridge, Australia's decision not to follow Britain's devaluation of her currency in 1967 "marked the demise of British Australia." 5822:

dramatic increases in home ownership, and by the sixties, Australia had the most equitable spread of income in the world. By the beginning of the sixties, an Australia-wide McNair survey estimated that 94% of homes had a fridge, 50% a telephone, 55% a television, 60% a washing machine, and 73% a vacuum cleaner. In addition, most households had now acquired a car. According to one study, "In 1946, there was one car for every 14 Australians; by 1960, it was one to 3.5. The vast majority of families had access to a car."

3590: 5314: 1832:, but a building program, assisted by convict labour, advanced steadily. Between 1788 and 1792, convicts and their gaolers made up the majority of the population; however, a free population soon began to grow, consisting of emancipated convicts, locally born children, soldiers whose military service had expired and, finally, free settlers from Britain. Governor Phillip departed the colony for England on 11 December 1792, with the new settlement having survived near starvation and immense isolation for four years. 4870: 6625: 3142: 6366: 6073: 4886: 4427: 8071:'s ideas on the relationship between memory and history influenced work in a number of fields including military history, ethnographic history, oral history and historical work in Australian museums. Interdisciplinary histories drawing on the insights of fields such as sociology, anthropology, cultural studies and environmental studies have become more common since the 1980s. Transnational approaches which analyse Australian history in a global and regional context have also flourished in recent decades. 1967: 6759: 4988: 4810: 600: 7533: 2832: 5710: 3105: 4702:

and Protection Boards with extensive powers to regulate the lives of Aboriginal Australians including their ownership of property, place of residence, employment, sexual relationships and custody of their children. Reserves were established, ostensibly for the protection of the Aboriginal population who had been dispossessed of their land. Church groups also ran missions throughout Australia providing shelter, food, religious instruction and elementary schooling for Indigenous people.

3957:, and Australia obtained a special League of Nations mandate over German New Guinea allowing Australia to control trade and immigration. Australia also gained a 42 per cent share of the formerly German-ruled island of Nauru, giving access to its rich superphosphate reserves. Australia argued successfully against a Japanese proposal for a racial equality clause in the League of Nations covenant, as Hughes feared that it would jeopardise the White Australia policy. As a signatory to the 4763: 2685: 2768: 2051: 1445: 1045: 5786: 3138:, the most famous bushrangers, were the sons of impoverished small farmers). The exploits of Ned Kelly and his gang garnered considerable local community support and extensive national press coverage at the time. After Kelly's capture and execution for murder in 1880 his story inspired numerous works of art, literature and popular culture and continuing debate about the extent to which he was a rebel fighting social injustice and oppressive police, or a murderous criminal. 2125: 2086: 6003: 5912: 3674:, Labor won a majority in both houses of parliament and Fisher again became prime minister. The Labor government introduced a series of reforms including a progressive land tax (1910), invalid pensions (1910) and a maternity allowance (1912). The government established the Commonwealth Bank (1911) but referendums to nationalise monopolies and extend Commonwealth trade and commerce powers were defeated in 1911 and 1913. The Commonwealth took over responsibility for the 5450: 3023: 7561:

against Australian Muslims and some other minority ethnic groups. The government increased funding for multicultural, citizenship and settlement programs, with an emphasis on the promotion of social cohesion and security. The annual immigration intake also increased substantially as the economy boomed, from 67,900 in 1998–99 to 148,200 in 2006–07. The proportion of migrants selected for their skills increased from 30 per cent in 1995–96 to 68 per cent in 2006–07.

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disadvantage and should be encouraged to understand and embrace other cultures." In response to the report, the Fraser government expanded funding for settlement services, established the Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs (AIMA), funded multicultural and community language education programs in schools and established the multi-lingual Special Broadcasting Service (SBS). State and territory government programs to support multiculturalism followed.

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conditions were deteriorating. The second oil shock in 1979 increased inflation which was exacerbated by a boom in commodity prices and a sharp increase in real wages. An international recession, the collapse of the resources boom and a severe drought in eastern Australia saw unemployment rise. The government responded with Keynesian deficit spending in its 1982 Budget, but by 1983 both unemployment and annual inflation exceeded 10 per cent. At the

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an Accord with trade unions under which wage demands would be curtailed in return for increased social benefits. Welfare payments were increased and better targeted to those on low incomes, and a retirement benefits scheme (superannuation) was extended to most employees. A new universal health insurance scheme, Medicare, was introduced. The Treasurer Paul Keating oversaw a program of deregulation and micro-economic reforms which broke with the

7674: 5133: 2275: 4225: 8087: 528: 3897: 2238: 118: 2787: 6239:, the Senate remained an obstacle to its political agenda. The government's popularity was also harmed by deteriorating economic conditions and a series of political scandals. Increased government spending, rapid wage growth, booming commodity prices and the first OPEC oil shock led to economic instability. The unemployment rate reached post-war high of 3.6 per cent in late 1974 and the annual inflation rate hit 17 per cent. 3321: 5099: 4598: 4649:, 41.3 per cent of men and 20.7 per cent of women were listed as unemployed. Geoffrey Spenceley stated that apart from variation between men and women, unemployment was also much higher in some industries, such as the building and construction industry, and comparatively low in the public administrative and professional sectors. In country areas, worst hit were small farmers in the wheat belts as far afield as north-east 5157:, to formulate a Pacific defence plan with Australia in March 1942. Curtin agreed to place Australian forces under the command of General MacArthur, who became "Supreme Commander of the South West Pacific". Curtin had thus presided over a fundamental shift in Australia's foreign policy. MacArthur moved his headquarters to Melbourne in March 1942 and American troops began massing in Australia. In late May 1942, Japanese 1636:(1775–1783) saw Britain lose most of its North American colonies and consider establishing replacement territories. Britain had transported about 50,000 convicts to the New World from 1718 to 1775 and was now searching for an alternative. The temporary solution of floating prison hulks had reached capacity and was a public health hazard, while the option of building more jails and workhouses was deemed too expensive. 1841: 1666:, who had also travelled with Cook, produced a new plan for colonising New South Wales in 1783. Matra argued that the country was suitable for plantations of sugar, cotton and tobacco; New Zealand timber and hemp or flax could prove valuable commodities; it could form a base for Pacific trade; and it could be a suitable compensation for displaced American Loyalists. Following an interview with Secretary of State 7565:

head of population. India and China became the largest source countries of new migrants. The immigration intake was reduced to 160,000 in 2018–19 as some State governments complained that high immigration was adding to urban congestion. The opposition also linked high immigration with low wages growth while the One Nation party continued to oppose high immigration while proclaiming: "It's okay to be white.".

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employment, education and place of residence of Aboriginal Victorians, and closely managed the five reserves and missions established since self government in 1858. In 1886, the protection board gained the power to exclude "half caste" Aboriginal people from missions and stations. The Victorian legislation was the forerunner of the racial segregation policies of other Australian governments from the 1890s.

2221:. Emancipists were granted small plots of land for farming and a year of government rations. Later they were assigned convict labour to help them work their farms. Some convicts were assigned to military officers to run their businesses. These convicts learnt commercial skills which could help them work for themselves when their sentence ended or they were granted a "ticket of leave" (a form of parole). 1102: 4638:

third is far too low." Potts himself though suggested a peak national figure of 25 per cent unemployed. Measurement is difficult in part because there was great variation, geographically, by age and by gender, in the level of unemployment. Statistics collected by historian Peter Spearritt show 17.8 per cent of men and 7.9 per cent of women unemployed in 1933 in the comfortable Sydney suburb of

4522:, and his largely inexperienced government were almost immediately faced with a series of crises. Hamstrung by their lack of control of the Senate, a lack of control of the banking system and divisions within their party about how best to deal with the situation, the government was forced to accept solutions that eventually split the party, as it had in 1917. Some gravitated to New South Wales 35: 5322: 4622: 3647: 3518: 1609:, no longer incognita, as this Map demonstrates, but the Southern Continent Discovered. It lies precisely in the richest climates of the World... and therefore whoever perfectly discovers and settles it will become infalliably possessed of Territories as Rich, as fruitful, and as capable of Improvement, as any that have hitherto been found out, either in the East Indies or the West. 4062: 7431:

report of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody in April 1991. The Keating government responded with $ 400 million in new spending to address some of the recommendations of the report. However, by 2001 Indigenous incarceration rates and deaths in custody had increased. Deaths in custody continued at an average of 15 per year during the decade to 2018.

7427:(or homelands), particularly in Arnhem Land and Central Australia. The movement to outstations was associated with a wider trend for the revival of traditional culture. However, the expense of providing infrastructure to small remote communities has seen pressure from federal, state and territory governments to redirect funding towards larger Indigenous communities. 5859:

has recalled life for a child in a new outer suburb of Melbourne as having a kind of joyous excitement. "Our imaginations saved us from finding life too humdrum, as did the wild freedom of being able to roam far and wide in different kinds of (neighbouring) bushland...Children in the suburbs found space in backyards, streets and lanes, playgrounds and reserves..."

4051: 2938:. campaigned for a greater degree of self-government, although there were divisions about the extent to which a future legislative body should be popularly elected. Other issues included traditional British political rights, land policy, transportation and whether a large population of convicts and former convicts could be trusted with self-government. The 7506:

social cohesion. In 1988, the opposition Leader, John Howard called for the abandonment of multiculturalism, a reduction in Asian immigration, and a focus on 'One Australia'. In the same year, the government's FitzGerald review of immigration recommended a sharper economic focus in the selection of immigrants. In 1989, the Hawke government released its

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Government... regards the Pacific struggle as primarily one in which the United States and Australia must have the fullest say in the direction of the democracies' fighting plan. Without inhibitions of any kind, I make it clear that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom."

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Aboriginal people lived on reserves in the 1920s. The majority lived in camps on the fringes of country towns and a small percentage lived in cities. During the Great Depression more Aboriginal people moved to reserves and missions for food and shelter. By 1941 almost half of the Aboriginal population of New South Wales lived on reserves.

7922:(1921–42). Bean's earlier work as Australia's official war correspondent had helped establish the Anzac legend which, according to McKenna: "immediately supplanted all other narratives of nationhood – the march of the explorers, the advance of settlement, Eureka, Federation and Australia's record of progressive democratic legislation." 7262:

restricted. Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory banned Aboriginal people from voting and Queensland and Western Australia controlled their right to marry. Aboriginals were often subjected to unofficial "colour bars" restricting their access to many goods, services and public facilities, especially in country towns.

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the navy, and the desirability of strategic ports in the region — were paramount. Christopher and Maxwell-Stewart argue that whatever the government's original motives were in establishing the colony, by the 1790s it had at least achieved the imperial objective of providing a harbour where vessels could be careened and resupplied.

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suffrage, and the right to stand for office, was first won in South Australia in 1895. Women won the vote in Western Australia in 1899, with racial restrictions. Women in the rest of Australia only won full rights to vote and to stand for elected office in the decade after Federation, although there were some racial restrictions.

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isolated penal settlements were established as places of secondary punishment, the rules for tickets of leave were tightened, and land grants were skewed to favour free settlers with large capital. As a result, convicts who arrived after 1820 were far less likely to become property owners, to marry, and to establish families.

4672:, a young New South Welshman of just 21 years of age wrote his name into the record books by smashing the previous highest batting score in first-class cricket with 452 runs not out in just 415 minutes. The rising star's world beating cricketing exploits were to provide Australians with much needed joy through the emerging 7335: 2424: 2364:, founded in 1838, provided hospitals, orphanages and asylums for the old and disabled. Religious organisations were also the main providers of school education in the first half of the nineteenth century, a notable example being Lang's Australian College which opened in 1831. Many religious associations, such as the 4190:, a balance of trade was not successfully achieved with Britain. "In the five years from 1924. .. to ... 1928, Australia bought 43.4% of its imports from Britain and sold 38.7% of its exports. Wheat and wool made up more than two-thirds of all Australian exports", a dangerous reliance on just two export commodities. 6938:, boat turnbacks, the reintroduction of temporary protection visas, and the resettlement in third countries of those found to be refugees. The number of people arriving by boat fell from 20,587 in 2013 to none in 2015. The government continued Australia's economic engagement with Asia, signing trade agreements with 7369:, the first indigenous Australian to hold vice-regal office. By the 2020s, Aboriginal representation in the federal parliament had exceeded the proportion of Aboriginal people in the general population, and Australia had its first Aboriginal leader of a state or territory in 2016, when the Country Liberal Party's 5999:, in 1954. He made the following remarks during a light-hearted speech to an American audience in New York, while on his way to attend her coronation in 1953: "We in Australia, of course, are British, if I may say so, to the boot heels...but we stand together – our people stand together – till the crack of doom." 4642:. This is not to say that 81.9 per cent of women were working but that 7.9 per cent of the women interested/looking for work were unable to find it, a much lower figure than maybe first thought, as many women stayed home and were not in the job force in those years, especially if they were unable to find work. 7472:

qualification. 68 per cent of women aged 20–74 years old participated in the labour force, compared with 78 per cent of men. However, 43 per cent of employed women were working part-time, compared with 16 per cent of men, and the average earnings of women working full-time was 14 per cent below that of men.

1775:. The colony was formally proclaimed by Governor Phillip on 7 February 1788 at Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Phillip described as being, 'with out exception the finest Harbour in the World Here a Thousand Sail of the Line may ride in the most perfect Security'. 6037:, the dominant theme in Australia's foreign policy under Australia's Liberal–Country Party governments of the 1950s and 1960s was anti-communism. Another former diplomat, Gregory Clark, suggested that it was specifically a fear of China that drove Australian foreign policy decisions for twenty years. The 4730:... efforts of all State authorities should be directed towards the education of children of mixed aboriginal blood at white standards, and their subsequent employment under the same conditions as whites with a view to their taking their place in the white community on an equal footing with the whites. 3000:. Further discoveries were made later that year in Victoria, where the richest gold fields were found. New South Wales and Victoria introduced a gold mining licence with a monthly fee, the revenue being used to offset the cost of providing infrastructure, administration and policing of the goldfields. 1804:

overseas were scarce. Between 1788 and 1792 about 3546 male and 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney. Many new arrivals were sick or unfit for work and the condition of healthy convicts also deteriorated due to the hard labour and poor food. The food situation reached crisis point in 1790 and the

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Immigration continued to grow under the Labor government (2007–13) with prime minister Kevin Rudd proclaiming a "big Australia" policy. The immigration intake averaged around 190,000 a year from 2011–12 to 2015–16, a level based on research indicating the optimum level to increase economic output per

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From 1960 the Indigenous population grew faster than the Australian population as a whole. The Aboriginal population was 106,000 in 1961 (1 per cent of the total population) but by 2016 had grown to 786,900 (3 per cent of the population) with a third living in major cities. Despite the drift to large

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The government changed its predecessor's asylum seeker policy by closing the Nauru processing centre, abolished temporary protection visas and improving the legal rights and processing time for applicants for asylum. However, unauthorised arrivals by boat increased sharply from 2009 and the number in

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By 2007, the Howard government was consistently trailing the Labor opposition in opinion polls, with key issues being rising interest rates, the unpopular Work Choices industrial relations reforms, and climate change policy. There were also leadership tensions between Howard and Costello, and opinion

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In foreign affairs, the government advocated a policy of "Asia first, but not Asia only", emphasising traditional links to the Commonwealth and the US. Relations with Indonesia became strained over East Timor but generally improved after the Bali bombings. Australia's support of US policy during the

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Manufacturing grew significantly because of the war. "In 1939, there were only three Australian firms producing machine tools, but by 1943 there were more than one hundred doing so." From having few front line aircraft in 1939, the RAAF had become the fourth largest allied Air force by 1945. A number

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sent to defend Singapore were sunk soon afterwards. Australia was ill-prepared for an attack, lacking armaments, modern fighter aircraft, heavy bombers, and aircraft carriers. While demanding reinforcements from Churchill, on 27 December 1941 Curtin published an historic announcement: "The Australian

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In northern Australia, the majority of employed Aboriginal people worked in the pastoral industry where they lived in camps, often with their extended families. Many also camped on the margins of towns and reserves where they could avoid most of the controls imposed by the administrators of reserves,

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The segregation of Aboriginal people on reserves and in institutions was never systematically accomplished due to funding constraints, differing policy priorities in the states and territories, and resistance from Aboriginal people. In the more densely settled areas of Australia, about 20 per cent of

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Following federation Aboriginal affairs was a state responsibility, although the Commonwealth became responsible for the Aboriginal population of the Northern Territory from 1911. By that date the Commonwealth and all states except Tasmania had passed legislation establishing Protectors of Aborigines

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In 1890, a strike in the shipping industry spread to wharves, railways, mines and shearing sheds. Employers responded by locking out workers and employing non-union labour, and colonial governments intervened with police and troops. The strike failed, as did subsequent strikes of shearers in 1891 and

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Foreign pearlers moved into the Torres Strait Islands from 1868 bringing exotic diseases which halved the Indigenous population. In 1871, the London Missionary Society began operating in the islands and most Torres Strait Islanders converted to Christianity which they considered compatible with their

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units, and newly developed revolvers and breech-loaded guns. Conflict was particularly intense in NSW in the 1840s and in Queensland from 1860 to 1880. In central Australia, it is estimated that 650 to 850 Aboriginal people, out of a population of 4,500, were killed by colonists from 1860 to 1895. In

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Other introduced diseases such as measles, influenza, typhoid and tuberculosis also resulted in high death rates in Aboriginal communities. Butlin estimates that the Aboriginal population in the area of modern Victoria was around 50,000 in 1788 before two smallpox outbreaks reduced it to about 12,500

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When the First Fleet arrived in Sydney Cove with some 1,300 colonists in January 1788 the Aboriginal population of the Sydney region is estimated to have been about 3,000 people. The first governor of New South Wales, Arthur Phillip, arrived with instructions to: "endeavour by every possible means to

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The major alternative to Botany Bay was sending convicts to Africa. From 1775 convicts had been sent to garrison British forts in west Africa, but the experiment had proved unsuccessful. In 1783, the Pitt government considered exiling convicts to a small river island in Gambia where they could form a

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Aboriginal groups were semi-nomadic, generally ranging over a specific territory defined by natural features. Members of a group would enter the territory of another group through rights established by marriage and kinship or by invitation for specific purposes such as ceremonies and sharing abundant

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In 1996, Pauline Hanson, a newly elected independent member of parliament, called for a cut in Asian immigration and an end to multiculturalism. In 1998, her One Nation Party gained 23 per cent of the vote in the Queensland elections. The Howard government (1996 to 2007) initially abolished a number

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In 1961, just over 90 per cent of the Australian population had been born in Australia, New Zealand, the UK or Ireland. Another eight per cent had been born in continental Europe. The White Australia policy was in force and migrants were expected to assimilate into the Australian way of life. As the

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In foreign affairs, Australia signed a refugee exchange deal with the US in September 2016, allowing those in detention on Manus Island and Nauru to be settled in the US. There was increased tension with China over its policies in the South China Sea, Australia's new laws targeting foreign influence

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The economy continued its uninterrupted expansion since the early 1990s recession, with record jobs growth and the lowest unemployment rates since the 1970s. Exports, imports and foreign investment grew, and China became Australia's second largest trading partner after Japan. The coalition delivered

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On the economic front, the Fraser government followed a "fight inflation first" strategy centred on budget cuts and wage restraint. Welfare benefits were restricted, the universal healthcare system was partially dismantled, and university funding per student cut. However, by the early 1980s economic

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In Indigenous affairs, the government introduced a policy of self-determination for Aboriginal people in economic, social and political affairs. Federal expenditure on Aboriginal services increased from $ 23 million to $ 141 million during the three years of the government. One of the first acts of

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expressed his government's support for the US and its role in Vietnam in particular. "I don't know where people would choose to look for the security of this country were it not for the friendship and strength of the United States." While on a visit in the same year to the US, Holt assured President

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Summarising the policy of assimilation and forced removals of Aboriginal children of mixed descent, Richard Broome concludes: "Even though the children's material conditions and Western education may have been improved by removal, even though some removals were necessary, and even though some people

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During this period, the policy of assimilation attracted increasing criticism from Aboriginal people and their supporters on the grounds of its negative effects on Aboriginal families and its denial of Aboriginal cultural autonomy. Removals of Aboriginal children of mixed descent from their families

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In the 1960s, about 60 per cent of Australian manufacturing was protected by tariffs. Pressure from business interests and the union movement ensured these remained high. Historian Geoffrey Bolton suggests that this high tariff protection of the 1960s caused some industries to "lapse into lethargy",

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wrote "If the experience of the Pacific War has taught us one thing, it surely is that seven million Australians cannot hold three million square miles of this earth's surface indefinitely." All political parties shared the view that the country must "populate or perish". Calwell stated a preference

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In May 1942 uniform tax laws were introduced in Australia, ending state governments' control of income taxation. "The significance of this decision was greater than any other... made throughout the war, as it added extensive powers to the Federal Government and greatly reduced the financial autonomy

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The following decades saw an increase in the number of Aboriginal Australians of mixed descent removed from their families, although the states and territories progressively adopted a policy of cultural, rather than biological, assimilation, and justified removals on the grounds of child welfare. In

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By the time the war ended on 11 November 1918, 324,000 Australians had served overseas. Casualties included 60,000 dead and 150,000 wounded—the highest casualty rate of any allied force. Australian troops also had higher rates of unauthorised absence, crime and imprisonment than other allied forces.

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In July 1905, Deakin formed a Protectionist government with the support of Labor. The new government embarked on a series of social reforms and a program dubbed "new protection" under which tariff protection for Australian industries would be linked to their provision of "fair and reasonable" wages.

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Referendums held in 1898 resulted in solid majorities for the constitution in Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. However, the referendum failed to gain the required majority in New South Wales. The premiers of the other colonies agreed to a number of concessions to New South Wales (particularly

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The size of the government sector almost doubled from 10 per cent of national expenditure in 1850 to 19 per cent in 1890. Colonial governments spent heavily on infrastructure such as railways, ports, telegraph, schools and urban services. Much of the money for this infrastructure was borrowed on the

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By the 1880s half the Australian population lived in towns, making Australia more urbanised than the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada. Between 1870 and 1890 average income per person in Australia was more than 50 per cent higher than that of the United States, giving Australia one of the

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In the 1860s, New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and South Australia introduced Selection Acts intended to promote family farms and mixed farming and grazing. Improvements in farming technology and the introduction of crops adapted to Australian conditions eventually led to the diversification of

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The constitutions for New South Wales, Victoria and Van Diemen's Land (renamed Tasmania in 1856) gained Royal Assent in 1855, that for South Australia in 1856. The constitutions varied, but each created a lower house elected on a broad male franchise and an upper house which was either appointed for

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Governor Macquarie attempted to assimilate Aboriginal people, providing land grants, establishing Aboriginal farms, and founding a Native Institution to provide education to Aboriginal children. However, by the 1820s the Native Institution and Aboriginal farms had failed. Aboriginal people continued

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broke out in 1824, following a rapid expansion of settler numbers and sheep grazing in the island's interior. Martial law was declared in November 1828 and in October 1830 a "Black Line" of around 2,200 troops and settlers swept the island with the intention of driving the Aboriginal population from

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conducted a series of expeditions from the 1830s to follow up these previous expeditions. Mitchell employed three Aboriginal guides and recorded many Aboriginal place names. He also recorded a violent encounter with traditional owners on the Murray in 1836 in which his men pursued them, "shooting as

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The Bigge reforms also aimed to encourage free settlers by offering them land grants in proportion to their capital. From 1831, the colonies replaced land grants with land sales by auction at a fixed minimum price per acre, the proceeds being used to fund the assisted migration of workers. From 1821

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A series of reforms recommended by J. T. Bigge in 1822 and 1823 worsened conditions for convicts. The food ration was cut and their opportunities to work for wages restricted. More convicts were assigned to rural work gangs, bureaucratic control and surveillance of convicts was made more systematic,

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Convicts soon established a system of piece work which allowed them to work for wages once their allocated tasks were completed. By 1821 convicts, emancipists and their children owned two-thirds of the land under cultivation, half the cattle and one-third of the sheep. They also worked in trades and

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In 1825, the western boundary of New South Wales was extended to longitude 129° East, which is the current boundary of Western Australia. As a result, the territory of New South Wales reached its greatest extent, covering the area of the modern state as well as modern Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania,

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region as a promising area for expansion, and moved many of the convicts from late 1788 to establish a small township, which became the main centre of the colony's economic life. This left Sydney Cove only as an important port and focus of social life. Poor equipment and unfamiliar soils and climate

1140:

Aboriginal society consisted of family groups organised into bands and clans averaging about 25 people, each with a defined territory for foraging. Clans were attached to tribes or nations, associated with particular languages and country. At the time of European contact there were about 600 tribes

7670:. Features of the new wave were the extensive use of Australian colloquial speech (including obscenities), the exploration of the Australian identity, and the critique of cultural myths. By the end of the 1970s new Australian plays were a feature of small and large theatre companies in most states. 7560:

Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the US, the Bali bombings and other terrorist incidents, some media and political commentary sought to link terrorism with Islam. In 2004, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) reported an increase in vilification and violence

7501:

and a policy of cultural pluralism based on principles of social cohesion, equality of opportunity and cultural identity soon gained bipartisan support. The Galbally Report on migrant services in 1978 recommended that: "every person should be able to maintain his or her culture without prejudice or

7467:

bought in no-fault divorce. From the 1980s there was an increase in government funding of women's refuges, health centres, rape crisis centres and information services. The Australian government began funding child care with the Child Care Act of 1972, although state, territory and local government

6719:

After initial cuts, the immigration intake increased steadily, with a bias towards skilled workers to meet the needs of a rapidly growing economy. Immigration also became more diverse, with the proportion of immigrants from South Asia increasing from 8 per cent in 1996–97 to 20 per cent in 2007–08.

6620:

Honouring an election commitment, the Howard government set up a people's convention on an Australian republic. The resulting 1999 referendum on a republic failed. Howard, a monarchist, became the only Australian Prime Minister to publicly oppose a constitutional amendment he had put to the people.

6479:

Under the Hawke government the annual migration intake had more than doubled from 54,500 in 1984–85 to more than 120,000 in 1989–90. The Keating government responded to community concerns about the pace of immigration by cutting the immigration intake and introducing mandatory detention for illegal

6348:

pursued a mixture of free market reforms and consensus politics featuring "summits" of government representatives, business leaders, trade unions and non-government organisations in order to reach consensus on key issues such as economic policy and tax reform. The centrepiece of this policy mix was

5971:

In the early 1950s, the Menzies government saw Australia as part of a "triple alliance" in concert with both the US and traditional ally Britain. At first, "the Australian leadership opted for a consistently pro-British line in diplomacy", while at the same time looking for opportunities to involve

4848:

said "The dependence of Australia upon the competence, let alone the readiness, of British statesmen to send forces to our aid is too dangerous a hazard upon which to found Australia's defence policy." According to John Robertson, "some British leaders had also realised that their country could not

4609:

Australia recovered relatively quickly from the financial downturn of 1929–1930, with recovery beginning around 1932. The Prime Minister, Joseph Lyons, favoured the tough economic measures of the Premiers' Plan, pursued an orthodox fiscal policy and refused to accept the proposals of the Premier of

4193:

Australia embraced the new technologies of transport and communication. Coastal sailing ships were finally abandoned in favour of steam, and improvements in rail and motor transport heralded dramatic changes in work and leisure. In 1918, there were 50,000 cars and lorries in the whole of Australia.

3642:

which grew from under 100,000 members in 1901 to more than half a million in 1914. The party also drew considerable support from clerical workers, Catholics and small farmers. In 1905, the Labor party adopted objectives at the federal level which included the "cultivation of an Australian sentiment

3178:

In 1856, building workers in Sydney and Melbourne were the first in the world to win the eight hour working day. The 1880s saw trade unions grow and spread to lower skilled workers and also across colonial boundaries. By 1890 about 20 per cent of male workers belonged to a union, one of the highest

2972:

The increasing number of free settlers and people born in the colonies led to further agitation for liberal and democratic reforms. In the Port Phillip District there was agitation for representative government and independence from New South Wales. In 1850, Britain granted Van Diemen's Land, South

2352:

The Bigge reports recommended that the status of the Anglican Church be enhanced. An Anglican archdeacon was appointed in 1824 and allocated a seat in the first advisory Legislative Council. The Anglican clergy and schools also received state support. This policy was changed under Governor Burke by

1689:

There has been a longstanding debate over whether the key consideration in the decision to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay was the pressing need to find a solution to the penal management problem, or whether broader imperial goals — such as trade, securing new supplies of timber and flax for

1156:

Aboriginal society was egalitarian with no formal government or chiefs. Authority rested with elders and group decisions were generally made through the consensus of elders. The traditional economy was cooperative, with males generally hunting large game while females gathered local staples such as

8336:

Clarkson, Chris; Jacobs, Zenobia; Marwick, Ben; Fullagar, Richard; Wallis, Lynley; Smith, Mike; Roberts, Richard G.; Hayes, Elspeth; Lowe, Kelsey; Carah, Xavier; Florin, S. Anna; McNeil, Jessica; Cox, Delyth; Arnold, Lee J.; Hua, Quan; Huntley, Jillian; Brand, Helen E. A.; Manne, Tiina; Fairbairn,

7731:

became the first Australian to win a Nobel Prize for Literature. While there were only around twenty Australian novels published in 1973, this had grown to around 300 in 1988. By 1985 more than 1,000 writers had received grants and more than 1,000 books had been subsidised by the Literature Board.

7451:

Holmes and Pinto point out that in 1960 domesticity and motherhood were still the dominant conceptions of femininity. In 1961, women made up only 25 per cent of employed adults and twice as many women described their occupation as "home duties" compared with those in paid employment. The fertility

6858:

Following mounting leadership speculation and poor polling for the government, Rudd defeated Gillard in a leadership ballot in June 2013 and returned as prime minister, promising to replace the carbon tax with an emissions trading scheme and to ensure that people arriving without authority by boat

6021:

As British influence declined in South East Asia, the US alliance came to have greater significance for Australian leaders and the Australian economy. British investment in Australia remained significant until the late 1970s, but trade with Britain declined through the 1950s and 1960s. In the late

5858:

Some writers defended suburban life. Journalist Craig Macgregor saw suburban life as a "...solution to the needs of migrants..." Hugh Stretton argued that "plenty of dreary lives are indeed lived in the suburbs... but most of them might well be worse in other surroundings". Historian Peter Cuffley

5821:

The great housing boom of the post war period saw rapid growth in the suburbs of the major Australian cities. By the 1966 census, only 14 per cent lived in rural Australia, down from 31 per cent in 1933, and only 8 per cent lived on farms. Virtual full employment meant high standards of living and

5733:

Migration brought large numbers of southern and central Europeans to Australia for the first time. A 1958 government leaflet assured readers that unskilled non-British migrants were needed for "labour on rugged projects ... work which is not generally acceptable to Australians or British workers".

3083:

The secret ballot was adopted in Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia in 1856, followed by New South Wales (1858), Queensland (1859) and Western Australia (1877). South Australia introduced universal male suffrage for its lower house in 1856, followed by Victoria in 1857, New South Wales (1858),

3075:

Elections for the semi-representative Legislative Councils, held in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Van Diemen's Land in 1851, produced a greater number of liberal members who agitated for full self-government. In 1852, the British Government announced that convict transportation to

3003:

The gold rush initially caused inflation and labour shortages as male workers moved to the goldfields. Immigrants als poured in from Britain, Europe, the United States and China. The Australian population increased from 430,000 in 1851 to 1,170,000 in 1861. Victoria became the most populous colony

2890:

In more densely settled areas, most Aboriginal people who had lost control of their land lived on reserves and missions, or on the fringes of cities and towns. In pastoral districts the British Waste Land Act of 1848 gave traditional landowners limited rights to live, hunt and gather food on Crown

1117:

The Aboriginal population faced significant changes in the climate and environment. About 30,000 years ago, sea levels began to fall, temperatures in the south-east of the continent dropped by as much as 9 degrees Celsius, and the interior of Australia became more arid. About 20,000 years ago, New

7505:

By the late 1980s Australia had a high migrant intake which included significant numbers of new arrivals from Asian and Middle‐Eastern countries, leading to public debate on immigration policy. In 1984, the historian Geoffrey Blainey called for a reduction in Asian immigration in the interests of

7455:

The reforming drive of the 1960s and the increasing influence of the women's movement led to a series of legislative and institutional changes. These included the abolition of the "marriage bar" in the Australian public service in 1966, the Arbitration Commission's equal pay decisions of 1969 and

5958:

In 1997, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission estimated that between 10 per cent and one-third of Aboriginal children had been removed from their families from 1910 to 1970. Regional studies indicate that 15 per cent of Aboriginal children were removed in New South Wales from 1899 to

5817:

Prices for wool and wheat remained high, with wool the mainstay of Australia's exports. Sheep numbers grew from 113 million in 1950 to 171 million in 1965. Wool production increased from 518,000 to 819,000 tonnes in the same period. Wheat, wool and minerals ensured a healthy balance of trade

5346:

also brought the war close to home for Australians. Austerity measures, rationing and labour controls measures were all implemented to assist the war effort. Australian civilians dug air raid shelters, trained in civil defence and first aid, and Australian ports and cities were equipped with anti

4454:

and wheat. Exposed by continuous borrowing to fund capital works in the 1920s, the Australian and state governments were "already far from secure in 1927, when most economic indicators took a turn for the worse. Australia's dependence of exports left her extraordinarily vulnerable to world market

4170:

became Prime Minister in 1923, when members of the Nationalist Party Government voted to remove W.M. Hughes. Speaking in early 1925, Bruce summed up the priorities and optimism of many Australians, saying that "men, money and markets accurately defined the essential requirements of Australia" and

3617:

The government also introduced a tariff on imports, designed to raise revenue and protect Australian industry. However, disagreements over industrial relations legislation led to the fall of Deakin's Protectionist government in April 1904 and the appointment of the first national Labor government

3444:

An obstacle to federation was the fear of the smaller colonies that they would be dominated by New South Wales and Victoria. Queensland, in particular, although generally favouring a white Australia policy, wished to maintain an exception for South Sea Islander workers in the sugar cane industry.

2964:

Transportation to New South Wales was suspended in 1840. In 1842 Britain granted limited representative government to the colony by reforming the Legislative Council so that two-thirds of its members would be elected by male voters. However, a property qualification meant that only 20 per cent of

2818:

The spread of British settlement also led to an increase in inter-tribal Aboriginal conflict as more people were forced off their traditional lands into the territory of other, often hostile, tribes. Butlin estimated that of the 8,000 Aboriginal deaths in Victoria from 1835 to 1855, 200 were from

1819:

in the South Pacific where he hoped to obtain timber and flax for the navy. The island, however, had no safe harbour, which led the settlement to be abandoned and the settlers evacuated to Tasmania in 1807. The island was subsequently re-established as a site for secondary transportation in 1825.

8074:

In the 21st century, most historical works are not created by academic historians, and public conceptions of Australia's history are more likely to be shaped by popular histories, historical fiction and drama, the media, the internet, museums and public institutions. Popular histories by amateur

7866:

and others, have been able to establish careers both in Australia and abroad. The technical expertise developed in the Australian industry, and the increasing number of internationally successful Australian directors and actors, encouraged foreign producers to make more films in Australia. Major

7430:

From 1971 to 2006, indicators for Indigenous employment, median incomes, home ownership, education and life expectancy all improved, although they remained well below the level for those who were not indigenous. High rates of Indigenous incarceration and deaths in custody were highlighted by the

7096:

The Australian government made provision for $ 267 billion in economic stimulus measures, and $ 16.6 billion in health measures in response to COVID-19. As a result of the COVID-19 recession, the unemployment rate peaked at 7.5 per cent in July 2020 before falling to 5.6 per cent in March 2021.

6361:

The government's environmental interventions included stopping the Franklin Dam in Tasmania, banning new uranium mines at Jabiluka, and proposing Kakadu National park for world heritage listing. In foreign policy, the government maintained strong relations with the US and was instrumental in the

6112:

in addition to the advisers of the AATTV placed throughout Vietnam, and personnel reached a peak total of almost 8,000, comprising about one third of the Army's combat capacity. Between 1962 and 1972 almost 60,000 personnel served in Vietnam, including ground troops, naval forces and air assets.

4705:

Some officials were concerned by the growing number of Aboriginal children of mixed heritage, particularly in northern Australia where large Indigenous, South Sea Islander and Asian populations were seen as inconsistent with the white Australia policy. Laws concerning Aboriginal Australians were

4637:

in her collection of oral histories of the depression; however, David Potts argued that "over the last thirty years ...historians of the period have either uncritically accepted that figure (29% in the peak year 1932) including rounding it up to 'a third', or they have passionately argued that a

3705:

The prewar period saw strong growth in the population and economy. The economy grew by 75 per cent, with rural industries, construction, manufacturing and government services leading the way. The population increased from four million in 1901 to five million in 1914. From 1910 to 1914 just under

3395:

produced poetry and prose exploring the nature of bush life and themes of independence, stoicism, masculine labour, egalitarianism, anti-authoritarianism and mateship. Protagonists were often shearers, boundary riders and itinerant bush workers. In the following decade Lawson, Paterson and other

3383:

followed the example of the European Impressionists by painting in the open air. They applied themselves to capturing the light and colour of the Australian landscape and exploring the distinctive and the universal in the "mixed life of the city and the characteristic life of the station and the

2886:

In New South Wales, 116 Aboriginal reserves were established between 1860 and 1894. Most reserves allowed Aboriginal people a degree of autonomy and freedom to enter and leave. In contrast, the Victorian Board for the Protection of Aborigines (created in 1869) had extensive power to regulate the

2696:

The British settlement was initially planned to be a self-sufficient penal colony based on agriculture. Karskens argues that conflict broke out between the settlers and the traditional owners of the land because of the settlers' assumptions about the superiority of British civilisation and their

2661:

There were further smallpox outbreaks devastating Aboriginal populations from the late 1820s (affecting south-eastern Australia), in the early 1860s (travelling inland from the Coburg Peninsula in the north to the Great Australian Bight in the south), and in the late 1860s (from the Kimberley to

2081:

The proclamation meant that from then, all people found occupying land without the authority of the government would be considered illegal trespassers. In 1836, Port Phillip was officially recognised as a district of New South Wales and opened for settlement. The main settlement of Melbourne was

1979:

in 1815 the transportation of convicts increased rapidly and the number of free settlers grew steadily. From 1821 to 1840, 55,000 convicts arrived in New South Wales and 60,000 in Van Diemen's Land. However, by 1830, free settlers and the locally born exceeded the convict population of New South

1803:

Governor Phillip was vested with complete authority over the inhabitants of the colony. His intention was to establish harmonious relations with local Aboriginal people and try to reform as well as discipline the convicts of the colony. Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from

7552:

Multicultural programs continued to expand between 1986 and 1996 with an emphasis on addressing disadvantage in migrant communities as well as settlement services for recent migrants. James Walter argues that the Hawke and Keating governments (1983–96) also promoted high migration as a means of

6353:

that had traditionally been favoured by the Labor party. These reforms included floating the Australian dollar, deregulating capital markets and allowing competition from foreign banks. Business regulation and competition policy was streamlined, tariffs and quotas on imports were reduced, and a

5954:

Controls over the daily lives of Aboriginal people and the removal of Aboriginal children of mixed descent continued under the policy of assimilation, although the control was now largely exercised by Welfare Boards and removals were justified on welfare grounds. The number of Aboriginal people

5805:

motor car came out of General Motors-Holden's Fisherman's Bend factory in November 1948. Car ownership rapidly increased—from 130 owners in every 1,000 in 1949 to 271 owners in every 1,000 by 1961. By the early 1960s, four competitors to Holden had set up Australian factories, employing between

5341:

While the Australian civilian population suffered less at the hands of the Axis powers than did other Allied nations in Asia and Europe, Australia nevertheless came under direct attack by Japanese naval forces and aerial bombardments, particularly through 1942 and 1943, resulting in hundreds of

3914:

replaced Fisher as prime minister in October 1915, regulations under the act were increasingly used to censor publications, penalise public speech and suppress organisations that the government considered detrimental to the war effort. Anti-German leagues were formed and 7,000 Germans and other

3422:

Growing nationalist sentiment coincided with business concerns about the economic inefficiency of customs barriers between the colonies, the duplication of services by colonial governments and the lack of a single national market for goods and services. Colonial concerns about German and French

3045:

Following a Royal Commission, the monthly licence was replaced with a cheaper annual miner's right which gave holders the right to vote and build a dwelling on the goldfields. The administration of the Victorian goldfields was also reformed. The Eureka rebellion soon became a part of Australian

3033:

Faced with increasing competition, Victorian miners increasingly complaint about the licence fee, corrupt and heavy-handed officials, and the lack of voting rights for itinerant miners. Protests intensified in October 1854 when three miners were arrested following a riot at Ballarat. Protesters

2560:

only to discover the rest of their party had departed the location only a matter of hours previously. They became tragic heroes to the European settlers, their funeral attracting a crowd of more than 50,000 and their story inspiring numerous books, artworks, films and representations in popular

2298:

One of the goals of the assisted migration programs from the 1830s was to promote migration of women and families to provide a more even gender balance in the colonies. Caroline Chisholm established a shelter and labour exchange for migrant women in New South Wales in the 1840s and promoted the

2213:

Between 1788 and 1868, approximately 161,700 convicts were transported to the Australian colonies of New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land and Western Australia. The literacy rate of convicts was above average and they brought a range of useful skills to the new colony including building, farming,

2152:

included a guarantee of Aboriginal land rights. The colony, however, was badly hit by the depression of 1841–44. Conflict with Indigenous traditional landowners also reduced the protections they had been promised. In 1842, the settlement became a Crown colony administered by the governor and an

7471:

According to Holmes and Pinto, reliable birth control, increased employment opportunities, and improved family welfare and childcare provision increased opportunities for women outside motherhood and domesticity. In 2019–20, women were more likely than men to hold a bachelor's degree or higher

3230:

Falling wool prices and the collapse of a speculative property bubble in Melbourne heralded the end of the long boom. A number of major banks suspended business and the economy contracted by 20 per cent from 1891 to 1895. Unemployment rose to almost a third of the workforce. The depression was

3007:

Chinese migration was a particular concern for colonial officials due to the widespread belief that it represented a danger to white Australian living standards and morality. Colonial governments responded by imposing taxes and restrictions on Chinese migrants and residents. Anti-Chinese riots

2862:

Following escalating frontier conflict, Protectors of Aborigines were appointed in South Australia and the Port Phillip District in 1839, and in Western Australia in 1840. The aim was to extend the protection of British law to Aboriginal people, to distribute rations, and to provide education,

2720:

Conflict also arose from cross-cultural misunderstandings and from reprisals for previous actions such as the kidnapping of Aboriginal men, women and children. Reprisal attacks and collective punishments were perpetrated by colonists and Aboriginal groups alike. Sustained Aboriginal attacks on

1677:

In 1785, a parliamentary select committee chaired by Lord Beauchamp recommended against the Gambia plan, but failed to endorse the alternative of Botany Bay. In a second report, Beauchamp recommended a penal settlement at Das Voltas Bay in modern Namibia. The plan was dropped, however, when an

1125:

The warmer climate was associated with new technologies. Small back-bladed stone tools appeared 15–19 thousand years ago. Wooden javelins and boomerangs have been found dating from 10,000 years ago. Stone points for spears have been found dating from 5–7 thousand years ago. Spear throwers were

7261:

At the start of the decade, Aboriginal affairs were still regulated by state governments and, in the Northern Territory, by the Australian government. In most states Aboriginal Australians were banned from drinking alcohol and their freedom of association, movement and control of property was

6586:

and other multicultural agencies, and introduced citizenship tests for migrants. Following a sharp increase in unauthorised arrivals by boat from 1999, the government opened new mandatory detention centres in remote areas of Australia and issued temporary visas for those found to be refugees.

6297:

resulted in a landslide victory for the Liberal-Country Party coalition and Malcolm Fraser continued as prime minister. The coalition government won subsequent elections in 1977 and 1980, making Fraser the second longest serving Australian prime minister up to that time. The Fraser government

3803:

peninsula on 25 April 1915. The Australian and New Zealand position at Anzac Cove was vulnerable to attack and the troops suffered heavy losses in establishing a narrow beachhead. After it had become clear that the expeditionary force would be unable to achieve its objectives, the Anzacs were

3087:

Societies to promote women's suffrage were formed in Victoria in 1884, South Australia in 1888 and New South Wales in 1891. The Women's Christian Temperance Union also established branches in most Australian colonies in the 1880s, promoting votes for women and a range of social causes. Female

3197:

From the late 1870s trade unions, Anti-Chinese Leagues and other community groups campaigned against Chinese immigration and low-wage Chinese labour. Following intercolonial conferences on the issue in 1880–81 and 1888, colonial governments responded with a series of laws which progressively

2286:

Women comprised only about 15% of convicts transported. Due to the shortage of women in the colony they were more likely to marry than men and tended to choose older, skilled men with property as husbands. The early colonial courts enforced the property rights of women independently of their

6602:

In Indigenous affairs the Prime Minister rejected calls for a treaty with Indigenous Australians and an apology for past actions which had harmed them. Instead, the government pursued a policy of "practical reconciliation" involving specific measures to improve Indigenous education, health,

2822:

Broome estimates the total death toll from settler-Aboriginal conflict between 1788 and 1928 as 1,700 settlers and 17–20,000 Aboriginal people. Reynolds has suggested a higher "guesstimate" of 3,000 settlers and up to 30,000 Aboriginals killed. A project team at the University of Newcastle,

2143:

was to be planned with a generous provision of churches, parks and schools. Land was to be sold at a uniform price and the proceeds used to secure an adequate supply of labour through selective assisted migration. Various religious, personal and commercial freedoms were guaranteed, and the

1743:

withdrew the extensive territorial claim over the South Pacific, passing an act specifying that Tahiti, New Zealand and other islands of the South Pacific were not within His Majesty's dominions. However, it is unclear whether the claim ever extended to the current islands of New Zealand.

7949: 1930:

to a budding civil society. He established a bank, a currency and a hospital. He employed a planner to design the street layout of Sydney and commissioned the construction of roads, wharves, churches, and public buildings. He sent explorers out from Sydney and, in 1815, a road across the

5890:

The Menzies era (1949–1972) saw significant strides in civil rights for indigenous Australians. Over the period, Menzies and his successors dismantled remaining restrictions on voting rights for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples culminating in the Menzies Government's 1962

1129:

Aboriginal Tasmanians were isolated from the mainland from about 14,000 years ago. As a result, they only possessed one quarter of the tools and equipment of the adjacent mainland. Coastal Tasmanians switched from fish to abalone and crayfish and more Tasmanians moved to the interior.

7605:, the Australian Film Development Corporation (AFDC) and the National Film and Television Training School. The Whitlam government (1972–75) established the Australia Council with funding to promote crafts, Aboriginal arts, literature, music, visual arts, theatre, film and television. 7276:

In 1963, the Yolngu people of Arnhem Land sent a bark petition to the Australian parliament asking for recognition of their traditional land rights. They subsequently took their case to the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory which ruled against them in September 1971. In 1965,

6408:

The Keating government's first priority was economic recovery. In February 1992 it released the "One Nation" job creation package and later legislated tax cuts to corporations and individuals to boost economic growth. Unemployment reached 11.4 per cent in 1992—the highest since the

18190:

Covering His Indian Report to the Dutch East India Company and the Wreck of the Ship 'Batavia' in 1629 Off the Coast of Western Australia Together With the Full Text of His Journals, Concerning the Rescue Voyages, the Mutiny On the Abrolhos Islands and the Subsequent Trials of the

7092:

to address the crisis. The national cabinet announced restrictions on non-essential business, travel and gatherings of people. These restrictions were eased from May, although individual states and territories reimposed restrictions in response to particular outbreaks of COVID-19.

2183:. A series of disputes between northern pastoralists and the government in Sydney led to increasing demands from the northern settlers for separation from New South Wales. In 1857, the British government agreed to the separation and in 1859 the colony of Queensland was proclaimed. 7681:

Support through the AFDC (from 1975 the Australian Film Commission) and state funding bodies, and generous tax concessions for investors introduced in 1981, led to a large increase in Australian produced films. Almost 400 were produced between 1970 and 1985. Notable films include

5825:

Car ownership flourished during the postwar period, with 1970/1971 census data estimating that 96.4 per cent of Australian households in the early Seventies owned at least one car; however, not all felt the rapid suburban growth was desirable. Distinguished Architect and designer

6358:. Paul Kelly concludes that, "In the 1980s both Labor and non-Labor underwent internal philosophical revolutions to support a new set of ideas—faith in markets, deregulation, a reduced role for government, low protection and the creation of a new cooperative enterprise culture." 4975:

campaigns, Menzies re-approached the Labor Party to form a War Cabinet. Unable to secure their support, and with an unworkable parliamentary majority, Menzies resigned as prime minister. The coalition held office for another month, before the independents switched allegiance and

6041:

security treaty, which had been signed in 1951, had its origins in Australia's and New Zealand's fears of a rearmed Japan. Its obligations on the US, Australia and New Zealand are vague, but its influence on Australian foreign policy thinking, at times has been significant. The

3918:

The economy contracted by 10 per cent during the course of hostilities. Inflation rose in the first two years of war and real wages fell. Lower wages and perceptions of profiteering by some businesses led, in 1916, to a wave of strikes by miners, waterside workers and shearers.

3096:

From the 1850s to 1871 gold was Australia's largest export and allowed the colony to import a range of consumer and capital goods. The increase in population in the decades following the gold rush stimulated demand for housing, consumer goods, services and urban infrastructure.

7763:

began using acrylic paints to make "dot" paintings based on the traditional Honey Ant Dreaming. Indigenous artists from other regions also developed distinctive styles based on a fusion of modern art materials and traditional stories and iconography. Indigenous writers such as

4593:

also points out that although Australian GDP grew from £386.9 million to £485.9 million between 1931 and 1932 and 1938–39, real domestic product per head of population was still "but a few shillings greater in 1938–39 (£70.12), than it had been in 1920–21 (£70.04)."

7497:

White Australia policy was gradually dismantled in the 1960s and formally abolished in 1973, governments developed a policy of multiculturalism to manage Australia's increasing cultural diversity. In August 1973 Labor's immigration minister Al Grassby announced his vision of

7434:

Richard Broome has concluded: "To close the gap on inequality and well being will take many years; some despairingly say generations. Compensation for lost wages, for missing out on native title settlements and for being removed from one's family and kin remain unresolved."

4471:

magazine described loans as occurring with a "disconcerting frequency" unrivalled in the British Empire: "It may be a loan to pay off maturing loans or a loan to pay the interest on existing loans, or a loan to repay temporary loans from the bankers..." Thus, well before the

3807:

The Australians suffered about 8,000 deaths in the campaign. Australian war correspondents variously emphasised the bravery and fighting qualities of the Australians and the errors of their British commanders. The 25 April soon became an Australian national holiday known as

2653:

The relative isolation of the Indigenous population for some 60,000 years meant that they had little resistance to many introduced diseases. An outbreak of smallpox in April 1789 killed about half the Aboriginal population of the Sydney region. The source of the outbreak is

7568:

By 2020, 30 per cent of the Australian population were born overseas. The top five countries of birth for those born overseas were England, China, India, New Zealand and the Philippines. Australia's population encompassed migrants born in almost every country in the world.

3934:

From August to October 1917 there was a major strike of New South Wales railway, transport, waterside and coal workers which was defeated after the Commonwealth and New South Wales governments arrested strike leaders and organised special constables and non-union labour. A

16900: 5842:

as a parody of a house-proud housewife of staid 1950s Melbourne suburbia (the character only later morphed into a critique of self-obsessed celebrity culture). It was the first of many of his satirical stage and screen creations based around quirky Australian characters:

5800:

Australia enjoyed significant growth in prosperity in the 1950s and 1960s, with increases in both living standards and in leisure time. The manufacturing industry, previously playing a minor part in an economy dominated by primary production, greatly expanded. The first

4735:

1940, New South Wales became the first state to introduce a child welfare model whereby Aboriginal children of mixed descent were removed from their families under general welfare provisions by court order. Other jurisdictions introduced a welfare model after the war.

7384:

on the lawns of parliament house, Canberra and issued a number demands including land rights, compensation for past loss of land and self-determination. The leader of the opposition Gough Whitlam was among those who visited the tent embassy to discuss their demands.

2082:

established in 1837 as a planned town on the instructions of Governor Bourke. Squatters and settlers from Van Diemen's Land and New South Wales soon arrived in large numbers. In 1851, the Port Phillip District separated from New South Wales as the colony of Victoria.

6053:

As Britain struggled to enter the Common Market in the 1960s, Australia saw that its historic ties with the mother country were rapidly fraying. Canberra was alarmed but kept a low profile, not wanting to alienate London. Russel Ward states that the implications of

2434:

In 1798, the former convict John Wilson and two companions crossed the Blue Mountains, west of Sydney, in an expedition ordered by Governor Hunter. Hunter suppressed news of the feat for fear that it would encourage convicts to abscond from the settlement. In 1813,

7973:

developed an idiosyncratic interpretation of Australian history telling the story of "epic tragedy" in which "the explorers, Governors, improvers, and perturbators vainly endeavoured to impose their received schemes of redemption on an alien, intractable setting".

4632:

The extent of unemployment in Australia, often cited as peaking at 29 per cent in 1932 is debated. "Trade union figures are the most often quoted, but the people who were there...regard the figures as wildly understating the extent of unemployment" wrote historian

3634:

of the Conciliation and Arbitration Court set a basic wage based on the needs of a male breadwinner supporting a wife and three children. By 1914 the Commonwealth and all the states had introduced systems to settle industrial disputes and fix wages and conditions.

2669:

Venereal diseases were also a factor in Indigenous depopulation, reducing Aboriginal fertility rates in south-eastern Australia by an estimated 40 per cent by 1855. By 1890 up to 50 per cent of the Aboriginal population in some regions of Queensland were affected.

1992:, but booming wool prices and the high cost of land in the settled areas encouraged further squatting. By 1844 wool accounted for half of the colony's exports and by 1850 most of the eastern third of New South Wales was controlled by fewer than 2,000 pastoralists. 1851:

After the departure of Phillip, the colony's military officers began acquiring land and importing consumer goods obtained from visiting ships. Former convicts also farmed land granted to them and engaged in trade. Farms spread to the more fertile lands surrounding

7475:

In the five-to-ten years to 2020, the number of women in private sector leadership roles, female federal Justices and Judges, and federal parliamentarians have all increased gradually. However, between 1999 and 2021, Australia has fallen from ninth to 50th in the

2882:

at Lake Macquarie. In the 1830s and early 1840s there were also missions in the Wellington Valley, Port Phillip and Moreton Bay. The settlement for Aboriginal Tasmanians on Flinders Island operated effectively as a mission under George Robinson from 1835 to 1838.

2775:

The spread of settlers and pastoralists into the region of modern Victoria in the 1830s also sparked conflict with traditional landowners. Broome estimates that 80 settlers and 1,000–1,500 Aboriginal people died in frontier conflict in Victoria from 1835 to 1853.

16728: 2891:

land under pastoral leases. Many Aboriginal groups camped on pastoral stations where Aboriginal men were often employed as shepherds and stockmen. These groups were able to retain a connection with their lands and maintain aspects of their traditional culture.

2666:

in 1830. Between 1835 and 1853, the Aboriginal population of Victoria fell from 10,000 to around 2,000. It is estimated that about 60 per cent of these deaths were from introduced diseases, 18 per cent from natural causes and 15 per cent from settler violence.

7557:

of multicultural agencies and reduced funding to some migrant services as part of a general program of budget cuts. In 1999, the government adopted a policy of "Australian multiculturalism" with an emphasis on citizenship and adherence to "Australian values".

6855:, and school funding reforms. The government negotiated an agreement with Malaysia to process some asylum seekers there but the plan was struck down by the High Court. In response, the government reopened offshore processing centres on Manus Island and Nauru. 1730:

The territory of New South Wales claimed by Britain included all of Australia eastward of the meridian of 135° East. This included more than half of mainland Australia. The claim also included "all the Islands adjacent in the Pacific" between the latitudes of

1593:

sent a plan to the Dutch East India Company for the colonisation of an area in modern South Australia. The company rejected the plan with the comment that, "There is no prospect of use or benefit to the Company in it, but rather very certain and heavy costs".

1121:

About 19,000 years ago temperatures and sea levels began to rise. Tasmania became separated from the mainland some 14,000 years ago, and between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago thousands of islands in the Torres Strait and around the coast of Australia were formed.

6957:

The government's May 2014 Budget proved unpopular, with the perception that it had involved breaking a number of election promises. The government secured the passage of legislation abolishing the carbon tax (July 2014) and the mining tax (September 2014).

3084:

Queensland (1872), Western Australia (1893) and Tasmania (1900). Queensland excluded Aboriginal males from voting in 1885. In Western Australia a property qualification for voting existed for male Aboriginals, Asians, Africans and people of mixed descent.

7618:

became a local and international success. By 1969 eight of the twelve most popular television programs were Australian. With these successes, locally produced dramas became a staple of Australian television in the 1970s and 1980s. Notable examples include

4782:, both political parties advocated increased defence spending, in the context of increased Japanese aggression in China and Germany's aggression in Europe; however, there was a difference in opinion about how the defence spending should be allocated. The 2763:

led a series of "Friendly Missions" to the Aboriginal tribes which effectively ended the war. Around 200 settlers and 600 to 900 Aboriginal Tasmanians were killed in the conflict and the Aboriginal survivors were eventually relocated to Flinders Island.

4939:

and a citizen militia organised for local defence. Troubled by Britain's failure to increase defences at Singapore, Menzies was cautious in committing troops to Europe. By the end of June 1940, France, Norway, Denmark and the Low Countries had fallen to

2287:

husbands, and the ration system also gave women and their children some protection from abandonment. Women were active in business and agriculture from the early years of the colony, among the most successful being the former convict turned entrepreneur

7046:, a number of coalition members rebelled. The controversy harmed the government, which had already lost more than 30 consecutive Newspolls. The parliamentary Liberal Party elected Scott Morrison as its new leader and he was sworn in as prime minister. 6447:

In May 1994 a more ambitious "Working Nation" jobs program was introduced. The Keating government also pursued a number of "big picture" issues throughout its two terms including increased political and economic engagement in the Asia Pacific region,

3467:

In 1891, a National Australasian Convention was held in Sydney, with all the colonies and New Zealand represented. A draft constitutional Bill was adopted, but the worsening economic depression and opposition in colonial parliaments delayed progress.

3952:

in 1919, Hughes argued that Germany should pay the full cost of the war, but ultimately gained only £5 million in war reparations for Australia. Australia and the other self-governing British dominions won the right to become full members of the new

7929:

published a series of histories from 1939 to 1941 which sought to demonstrate the exploitative nature of Britain's economic relationship with Australia and the role of the labour movement in a struggle for social justice and economic independence.

5951:, the Commonwealth Minister for Territories, stated: "Assimilation means, in practical terms, that, in the course of time, it is expected that all persons of aboriginal blood or mixed blood in Australia will live like other white Australians do." 3277:, a forerunner of the White Australia Policy. However, after Britain and Japan voiced objections to the legislation, New South Wales, Tasmania and Western Australia instead introduced European language tests to restrict "undesirable" immigrants. 16326: 2805:

The spread of sheep and cattle grazing after 1850 brought further conflict with Aboriginal tribes more distant from the closely settled areas. Aboriginal casualty rates in conflicts increased as the colonists made greater use of mounted police,

6831:

as leader: Australia's first female prime minister. The new leader was able to negotiate concessions on a new mining tax with large mining companies but failed to reach agreement with East Timor on a proposed migration processing centre there.

5746:

complex in south-east Australia consisted of sixteen major dams and seven power stations constructed between 1949 and 1974. It remains the largest engineering project undertaken in Australia. Necessitating the employment of 100,000 people from

2933:

Imperial legislation in 1823 had provided for a Legislative Council nominated by the governor of New South Wales, and a new Supreme Court, providing additional limits to the power of governors. A number of prominent colonial figures, including

3947:

Hughes attended the Imperial War Conference and Imperial War Cabinet in London from June 1918 where Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa won British support for their separate representation at the eventual peace conference. At the

1974:

In 1820, British settlement was largely confined to a 100 kilometre radius around Sydney and to the central plain of Van Diemen's land. The settler population was 26,000 on the mainland and 6,000 in Van Diemen's Land. Following the end of the

7468:

were still the main providers of funding. In 1984, the Australian government introduced standardised fee relief for child care, and funding was greatly expanded in 1990 by the decision to extend fee relief to commercial child care centres.

3922:

Enlistments in the military also declined, falling from 35,000 a month at its peak in 1915 to 6,000 a month in 1916. In response, Hughes decided to hold a referendum on conscription for overseas service. Following the narrow defeat of the

3483:

All of the colonies except Queensland sent representatives to a constitutional convention which held sessions in 1897 and 1898. The convention drafted a proposed constitution for a Commonwealth of federated states under the British Crown.

5350:

The Australian economy was markedly affected by World War II. Expenditure on war reached 37 per cent of GDP by 1943–44, compared to 4 per cent expenditure in 1939–1940. Total war expenditure was £2,949 million between 1939 and 1945.

5963:

were thankful for it in retrospect, overall it was a disaster....It was a rupturing of tens of thousands of Aboriginal families, aimed at eradicating Aboriginality from the nation in the cause of homogeneity and in fear of difference."

5571:, added to a sense of impending threat that politically favoured Menzies' Liberal-CP government, as the Labor Party split over concerns about the influence of the Communist Party on the trade union movement. The tensions led to another 4928:, undertaking bomber missions over Europe, engaging in naval battles in the Mediterranean. At home, Japanese attacks included mini-submarine raids on Sydney Harbour and very heavy air raids on and near the Northern Territory's capital, 4549:

in 1932 provided little respite to the growing crisis straining the young federation. With multimillion-pound debts mounting, public demonstrations and move and counter-move by Lang and then Scullin, then Lyons federal governments, the

1647:

on his 1770 voyage, recommended Botany Bay as a suitable site for a penal settlement. Banks's plan was to send 200 to 300 convicts to Botany Bay where they could be left to their own devices and not be a burden on the British taxpayer.

4589:, easily won office. They remained in power until September 1940. The Lyons government has often been credited with steering recovery from the depression, although just how much of this was owed to their policies remains contentious. 3883:

in August 1916. In 1917, they participated in the allied advance through the Sinai Peninsula and into Palestine. In 1918, they pressed on through Palestine and into Syria in an advance that led to the Ottoman surrender on 31 October.

9099:(ed.) The Discovery of Tasmania: Journal Extracts from the Expeditions of Abel Janszoon Tasman and Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne 1642 & 1772, St David's Park Publishing/Tasmanian Government Printing Office, Hobart, 1992, p. 106, 4115:". The goal was to enhance the status of the graziers (operators of big sheep ranches) and small farmers, and secure subsidies for them. Enduring longer than any other major party save the Labor party, it has generally operated in 3622:. The Watson government itself fell in April and a Free Trade government under prime minister Reid successfully introduced legislation for a Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Court to settle interstate industrial disputes. 7798:

Carter and Griffen-Foley state that by the end of the 1970s: "There was a widely shared sense of Australian culture as independent, no longer troubled by its relationship with Britain." However, by 1990 commentators as diverse as

7882:

Carter and Griffen-Follet conclude: "Australia is no longer a Dominion or client state within a closed imperial market, but a medium-sized player, exporter as well as importer, within globalised cultural industries and markets."

3363:

declared that all white men who left the religious and class divisions of the old world behind were Australians. A white Australia also meant the exclusion of cheap Asian labour, an idea strongly promoted by the labour movement.

3499:. Following negotiations with the British government, the federation Bill was passed by the imperial parliament on 5 July 1900 and gained Royal Assent on 9 July. Western Australia subsequently voted to join the new federation. 1015:

program received more than 7 million migrants from every continent. Supported by immigration of people from almost every country in the world since the end of World War II, the population increased to more than 25.5 million by

2462:

led an expedition to find new grazing land in the south of the colony, and also to find out where New South Wales' western rivers flowed. Over 16 weeks in 1824–25, they journeyed to Port Phillip and back. They discovered the

1987:

increasingly established unauthorised cattle and sheep runs beyond the official limits of the settled colony. In 1836, a system of annual licences authorising grazing on Crown Land was introduced in an attempt to control the

1180:

consists of hand-prints, hand-stencils, and engravings of circles, tracks, lines and cupules, and has been dated to 35,000 years ago. Around 20,000 year ago Aboriginal artists were depicting humans and animals. According to

6396:

Strong economic growth, falling unemployment, an unstable opposition, and Bob Hawke's popularity with the public contributed to the re-election of the Hawke government in 1984, 1987 and 1990. However, the economy went into

5294:

Of Australia's wartime population of seven million, almost one million men and women served in a branch of the services during the six years of warfare. By war's end, gross enlistments totalled 727,200 men and women in the

5192:

in June effectively defeated the Japanese navy and the Japanese army launched a land assault on Moresby from the north. Between July and November 1942, Australian forces repulsed Japanese attempts on the city by way of the

3678:

from South Australia in 1911. The government increased defence spending, expanding the system of compulsory military training which had been introduced by the previous government and establishing the Royal Australian Navy.

7081:, calling for constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians and a "voice to parliament". In 2019, the government announced a process to ensure that Indigenous Australians would be heard at all levels of government. 5499:

As in the United States in the early 1950s, allegations of communist influence in society saw tensions emerge in politics. Refugees from Soviet dominated Eastern Europe immigrated to Australia, while to Australia's north,

5148:

Two battle-hardened Australian divisions were already steaming from the Middle East for Singapore. Churchill wanted them diverted to Burma, but Curtin refused, and anxiously awaited their return to Australia. US President

2253:

Two-thirds of the migrants to Australia during this period received assistance from the British or colonial governments. Families of convicts were also offered free passage and about 3,500 migrants were selected under the

3575:. This centrepiece of the White Australia policy, the act used a dictation test in a European language to exclude Asian migrants, who were considered a threat to Australia's living standards and majority British culture. 1868:, and by 1803 the colony was self-sufficient in grain. Boat building developed in order to make travel easier and exploit the marine resources of the coastal settlements. Sealing and whaling became important industries. 3583:. When the British government asked for more troops from Australia in early 1902, the Australian government obliged with a national contingent. Some 16,500 men had volunteered for service by the war's end in June 1902. 6139:

Despite Holt's sentiments and his government's electoral success in 1966, the war became unpopular in Australia, as it did in the United States. The movements to end Australia's involvement gathered strength after the

990:

to Australia was phased out from 1840 to 1868. Autonomous parliamentary democracies began to be established throughout the six British colonies from the mid-19th century. The colonies voted by referendum to unite in a

13144:

by Australia shows de facto recognition of sovereign nation status. See Sir Geoffrey Butler KBE, MA and Fellow, Librarian and Lecturer in International Law and Diplomacy of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge author of

5079:

With most of Australia's best forces committed to fight against Hitler in the Middle East, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, the US naval base in Hawaii, on 8 December 1941 (eastern Australia time). The British battleship

3080:

life (New South Wales) or elected on a more restricted property franchise. When Queensland became a separate colony in 1859 it immediately became self-governing. Western Australia was granted self-government in 1890.

2121:, becoming the first convict-free and privatised colony in Australia. However, by 1850 there were a little more than 5,000 settlers. The colony accepted convicts from that year because of the acute shortage of labour. 8337:

Andrew; Shulmeister, James; Lyle, Lindsey; Salinas, Makiah; Page, Mara; Connell, Kate; Park, Gayoung; Norman, Kasih; Murphy, Tessa; Pardoe, Colin (2017). "Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago".

6354:

number of government enterprises were privatised. The higher education system was restructured and significantly expanded, partly funded by the reintroduction of fees in the form of student loans and "contributions"

5830:, a critic of Australia's built surroundings, described Australia as "'the constant sponge lying in the Pacific', following the fashions of overseas and lacking confidence in home-produced, original ideas". In 1956, 1678:

investigation of the site in 1786 found it to be unsuitable. Two weeks later, in August 1786, the Pitt government announced its intention to send convicts to Botany Bay. The Government incorporated the settlement of

6167:

The Australian military presence in Vietnam had lasted 10 years, and in purely human cost, more than 500 had been killed and more than 2,000 wounded. The war cost Australia $ 218 million between 1962 and 1972.

4171:

that he was seeking such from Britain. The migration campaign of the 1920s, operated by the Development and Migration Commission, brought almost 300,000 Britons to Australia, although schemes to settle migrants and

3739:

When the United Kingdom declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914, the declaration automatically involved all of Britain's colonies and dominions. Both major parties offered Britain 20,000 Australian troops. As the

3475:

in July 1893 they developed a new plan for federation involving a constitutional convention with directly elected delegates and a referendum in each colony to endorse the proposed constitution. The new NSW premier,

8793: 4688:

in 1932. Soon after, on the cusp of US success, Phar Lap developed suspicious symptoms and died. Theories swirled that the champion race horse had been poisoned and a devoted Australian public went into shock. The

3578:

With federation, the Commonwealth inherited the small defence forces of the six former Australian colonies. By 1901, units of soldiers from all six Australian colonies had been active as part of British forces in

2175:. In 1842, the penal colony was closed and the area was opened for free settlement. By 1850 the population of Brisbane had reached 8,000 and increasing numbers of pastoralists were grazing cattle and sheep in the 7937:(1958) which sought to trace the origins of a distinctive democratic national ethos from the experiences of the convicts, bushrangers, gold-diggers, drovers and shearers. In the 1960s, Marxist historians such as 7407:

Following this, some states introduced their own land rights legislation; however, there were significant limitations on the returned lands, or that available for claim. In 1985, the Hawke government handed over

3662:

Deakin's Protectionist government remained in power, but following the passage of legislation for old age pensions and a new protective tariff in 1908, Labor withdrew its support for the government. In November,

5405:

Australia also created, virtually from nothing, a significant female workforce engaged in direct war production. Between 1939 and 1944 the number of women working in factories rose from 171,000 to 286,000. Dame

1526:, in command of two French ships, reached Van Diemen's land on his way to Tahiti and the South Seas. His party became the first recorded Europeans to encounter the Indigenous Tasmanians and to kill one of them. 6897:

challenged for and won the leadership of the Liberals within Abbott's first term. After Turnbull narrowly returned the coalition to office in 2016, Party dissatisfaction with his leadership saw him replaced by

5668:, but also launched post-war trade with Japan, beginning a growth of Australian exports of coal, iron ore and mineral resources that would steadily climb until Japan became Australia's largest trading partner. 4860:

increased the reserve militia to almost 80,000. The first division raised for war was designated the 6th Division, of the 2nd AIF, there being 5 Militia Divisions on paper and a 1st AIF in the First World War.

4706:

progressively tightened to make it easier for officials to remove Aboriginal children of mixed descent from their parents and place them in reserves, missions, institutions and employment with white employers.

5772:

which replaced the Immigration Restriction Act's arbitrarily applied dictation test with an entry permit system, that reflected economic and skills criteria. Further changes in the 1960s effectively ended the

3586:

In 1902, the government introduced female suffrage in the Commonwealth jurisdiction, but at the same time excluded Aboriginal people from the franchise unless they already had the vote in a state jurisdiction.

4721:

he destiny of the natives of aboriginal origin, but not of the full blood, lies in their ultimate absorption by the people of the Commonwealth and it therefore recommends that all efforts be directed to that

6777:

moved quickly to ratify the Kyoto protocols, dismantle the previous government's Work Choices industrial relations reforms, and issue an apology to Aboriginal Australians for past policies, particularly the

2658:; some researchers contend that it originated from contact with Indonesian fisherman in the far north while others argue that it is more likely to have been inadvertently or deliberately spread by settlers. 2153:

appointed Legislative Council. The economy recovered and by 1850 the settler population had grown to 60,000. In 1851, the colony achieved limited self-government with a partially elected Legislative Council.

6599:, which involved moving unauthorised immigrants to detention centres in Nauru and Papua New Guinea while their refugee status was determined, as well as a policy of turning back vessels intercepted at sea. 5899:

received overwhelming public support for the transfer of responsibility for Aboriginal Affairs to the Federal Government, and the removal of discriminatory provisions regarding the national census from the

4130:. Industrial disputes characterised the 1920s in Australia. Other major strikes occurred on the waterfront, in the coalmining and timber industries in the late 1920s. The union movement had established the 7255: 5262:, though clearly marked as a medical vessel, was sunk by Japanese raiders off the Queensland coast, killing 268, including all but one of the nursing staff, further enraging popular opinion against Japan. 4726:

The officials saw the policy of Aboriginal assimilation by absorption into the white community as progressive, aimed at eventually achieving civil and economic equality for mixed-descent Aboriginal people.

2214:

sailing, fishing and hunting. The small number of free settlers meant that early governors also had to rely on convicts and emancipists for professions such as lawyers, architects, surveyors and teachers.

18972:

Van Duivenvoorde, Wendy; Kaiser, Bruce; Megens, Luc; van Bronswijk, Wilhelm (2015), 'Pigments from the Zuiddorp (Zuytdorp) ship sculpture: red, white and blue?,'. Post-Medieval Archaeology 49(2): 268–290

15935: 2353:

the Church Acts of 1836 and 1837. The government now provided state support for the clergy and church buildings of the four largest denominations: Anglican, Catholic, Presbyterian and, later, Methodist.

16334: 7841:

In film, the number of Australian productions averaged 14 per year in the 1970s but grew to 31 per year in the 2000s and 37 per year in the 2010s. A number of Australian directors and actors, including

5579:(DLP). The DLP remained an influential political force, often holding the balance of power in the Senate, until 1974. Its preferences supported the Liberal and Country Party. The Labor party was led by 3273:

At an Intercolonial Conference in 1896, the colonies agreed to extend restrictions on Chinese immigration to "all coloured races". Labor supported the Reid government of New South Wales in passing the

1954:

as a magistrate. His policy on emancipists was opposed by many influential free settlers, officers and officials, and London became concerned at the cost of his public works. In 1819, London appointed

7388:

The Whitlam government came to power in December 1972 with a policy of self-determination for Aboriginal people. The government also passed legislation against racial discrimination and established a

6790:, responding with a series of economic stimulus measures worth A$ 75 billion. Although economic growth slowed in 2008, Australia was one of the few advanced economies in the world to avoid recession. 6104:

in 1971 indicated that the decision to commit troops was made by Australia and the US, not at the request of South Vietnam. By 1968, there were three Australian Army battalions at any one time at the

2541:

led three expeditions in northern Australia in the 1840s, sometimes with the help of Aboriginal guides. He and his party disappeared in 1848 while attempting to cross the continent from east to west.

16652: 7124:. The first initiative under AUKUS would be for Australia to acquire nuclear-powered submarine technology. As a result of the agreement, Australia cancelled its 2016 contract for the diesel-electric 5255:, which persisted into 1945. The offensives in Papua and New Guinea of 1943–44 were the single largest series of connected operations ever mounted by the Australian armed forces. On 14 May 1943, the 2250:

to 1850, Australia attracted 200,000 immigrants from the United Kingdom. However, the system of land allocations led to the concentration of land in the hands of a small number of affluent settlers.

16490: 2326:(various ministries 1795–1838) became known for his missionary work, the severity of his punishments as a magistrate, and the vehemence of his public denunciations of Catholicism and Irish convicts. 9284: 8687: 5734:

The Australian economy stood in sharp contrast to war-ravaged Europe, and newly arrived migrants found employment in a booming manufacturing industry and government assisted programmes such as the

3038:

to support the arrested men and demanded manhood suffrage, reform of the mining licence and administration, and land reform to promote small farms. Further protests followed and protesters built a

2662:

Geraldton). According to Josphine Flood, the estimated Aboriginal mortality rate from smallpox was 60 per cent on first exposure, 50 per cent in the tropics, and 25 per cent in the arid interior.

1511:

He noted in his journal that he could "land no more upon this Eastern coast of New Holland, and on the Western side I can make no new discovery the honour of which belongs to the Dutch Navigators

7510:

which endorsed respect for cultural diversity and the need for settlement services, but indicated that pluralism was limited by the need for "an overriding and unifying commitment to Australia".

5751:, to many it denoted the birth of multicultural Australia. Some 4.2 million immigrants arrived between 1945 and 1985, about 40 per cent of whom came from Britain and Ireland. The 1957 novel 6164:

was reduced to two battalions and in November 1971, 1ATF was withdrawn from Vietnam. The last military advisers of the AATTV were withdrawn by the Whitlam Labor government in mid-December 1972.

6262:

delayed passage of the government's money bills in the Senate, until the government would promise a new election. Whitlam refused and the deadlock ended when his government was controversially

6136:

had stated that a Labor government might maintain regular army troops there. Arthur Calwell, who had been leader of the Labor Party since 1960, retired in favour of Whitlam a few months later.

1091:

in New South Wales, which have been dated to around 41,000 years ago. The site suggests one of the world's oldest known cremations, indicating early evidence for religious ritual among humans.

4210:

pushed the new flying machines to the limit, completing a round Australia circuit in 1927 and in 1928 traversed the Pacific Ocean, via Hawaii and Fiji from the US to Australia in the aircraft

7961:(1964) is a critique of a "dull and provincial" Australia that gets by on its abundance of natural resources. The book's title has been constantly misinterpreted since the book was published. 5299:(of whom 557,800 served overseas), 216,900 in the RAAF and 48,900 in the RAN. More than 39,700 were killed or died as prisoners of war, about 8,000 of whom died as prisoners of the Japanese. 1915:, staged the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history, deposing Bligh and instigating a brief period of military rule prior to the arrival from Britain of Governor 18835:

Gerritsen, Rupert (2009), 'The Batavia Mutiny: Australia's first military conflict in 1629,'. Sabretache: Journal and Proceedings of the Military Historical Society of Australia 50(4): 5–10

7032: 3317:, campaigned for an Australian federation within the British Empire, promoted Australian literature and history, and successfully lobbied for the 26 January to be Australia's national day. 3101:

rural land use. The expansion of the railways from the 1860s allowed wheat to be cheaply transported in bulk, stimulating the development of a wheat belt from South Australia to Queensland.

2855:, a Kuringgai man, joined Matthew Flinders in his circumnavigation of Australia from 1801 to 1803, playing an important role as emissary to the various Indigenous peoples they encountered. 2783:

in which some 15 to 30 Aboriginal people were killed. According to Neville Green, 30 settlers and 121 Aboriginal people died in violent conflict in Western Australia between 1826 and 1852.

7120:. On 16 September 2021, the government announced that Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States had agreed to the creation of an enhanced trilateral security partnership, dubbed 5567:, first by legislation in 1950 and later by referendum, in 1951. While both attempts were unsuccessful, further international events such as the defection of minor Soviet Embassy official 4794:

battle fleet "which, it was hoped, would use it in time of need". Defence spending in the inter-war years reflected this priority. In the period 1921–1936 totalled £40 million on the

17340: 7071: 6728:

to reduce the national debt. Income inequality and private debt increased as the economy expanded, with the biggest increase in incomes accruing to the top 10 per cent of income earners.

6511: 16067:

SCRGSP (Steering Committee for the Review of Government Service Provision) 2020, Overcoming Indigenous Disadvantage: Key Indicators 2020, Productivity Commission, Canberra. Section 1.11

7989: 7819: 5355: 5117:, before surrendering on 15 February 1942. Around 15,000 Australian soldiers became prisoners of war. Curtin predicted that the "battle for Australia" would now follow. On 19 February, 3488:

that the future Commonwealth capital would be located in that state), and in 1899 further referendums were held in all the colonies except Western Australia. All resulted in yes votes.

16613:

SCRGSP (Steering Committee for the Review of Government Service Provision) 2020, Overcoming Indigenous Disadvantage: Key Indicators 2020, Productivity Commission, Canberra. Section 1.7

3643:

based upon the maintenance of racial purity" and "the collective ownership of monopolies". In the same year, the Queensland branch of the party adopted an overtly socialist objective.

2981: 2349:

of 1804. Only two Catholic priests operated temporarily in the colony before Governor Macquarie appointed official Catholic chaplains in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land in 1820.

7795:(1974–87) helped promote Australian music while radio station 2JJ (later JJJ) in Sydney promoted live performances and recordings by Australian independent artists and record labels. 4182:

In Australia, the costs of major investment had traditionally been met by state and Federal governments and heavy borrowing from overseas was made by the governments in the 1920s. A

4084:

was formed in 1920 and, though remaining electorally insignificant, it obtained some influence in the trade union movement and was banned during World War II for its support for the

9603: 4912:

Thus began Australia's involvement in the six-year global conflict. Australians were to fight in an extraordinary variety of locations, including withstanding the advance of German

19027:

Australia's Women, a Documentary History: From a Selection of Personal Letters, Diary Entries, Pamphlets, Official Records, Government and Police Reports, Speeches, and Radio Talks

6859:

would not be settled in Australia. The opposition, promising to "stop the boats," abolish the carbon tax and mining tax, and reduce the Budget deficit and government debt, won the

6672:

to help establish democracy and independence for that nation, following political violence. Australia also committed to other peacekeeping and stabilisation operations: notably in

20296: 6617:

in order to create a safe environment for Indigenous children. The government's response was criticised by the co-chairs of the report, but was supported by the Labor opposition.

4717:

The 1937 Native Welfare conference of state and Commonwealth officials endorsed a policy of biological absorption of mixed-descent Aboriginal Australians into the white community.

2345:

About a quarter of convicts were Catholics. The lack of official recognition of Catholicism was combined with suspicion of Irish convicts which only increased after the Irish-led

1433:

Following Tasman's voyages, the Dutch were able to make almost complete maps of Australia's northern and western coasts and much of its southern and south-eastern Tasmanian coasts

6547:

from 1996 until 2007, winning re-election in 1998, 2001 and 2004 to become the second-longest serving prime minister after Menzies. The Howard government introduced a nationwide

4806:(established in 1921, the "youngest" of the three services). In 1939, the Navy, which included two heavy cruisers and four light cruisers, was the service best equipped for war. 4480:

was already facing significant difficulties. As the economy slowed in 1927, so did manufacturing and the country slipped into recession as profits slumped and unemployment rose.

2217:

Convicts initially worked on government farms and public works such as land clearing and building. After 1792, the majority were assigned to work for private employers including

1999:

By 1850 the settler population of New South Wales had grown to 180,000, not including the 70–75 thousand living in the area which became the separate colony of Victoria in 1851.

1169:. The extent to which some groups engaged in agriculture is controversial. Some Anthropologists describe traditional Aboriginal Australia as a "complex hunter-gatherer" society. 968:

population and the disruption of their cultures due to introduced diseases, violent conflict and dispossession of their traditional lands. From 1871, the Torres Strait Islanders

16704: 6910: 6362:

formation of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) group. Australia contributed naval ships and troops to UN forces in the Gulf War after Iraq had invaded Kuwait in 1990.

2794:

consisted of native troopers under the command of white officers that was largely responsible for the 'dispersal' of Aboriginal tribes in eastern Australia, but particularly in

2139:. Convict labour was banned in the hope of making the colony more attractive to "respectable" families and promote an even balance between male and female settlers. The city of 1083:, in the north of the continent, is perhaps the oldest site of human occupation in Australia. From the north, the population spread into a range of very different environments. 18828:

Gerritsen, Rupert (2008), 'The landing site debate: Where were Australia's first European residents marooned in 1629?', pp. 105–129; in P. Hornsby & J. Maschke (eds.)

19021:

v.1. Colonial Australia, 1788–1840 – v.2. Colonial Australia, 1841–1874 -v.3. Colonial Australia, 1875–1900 -v.4. Modern Australia, 1901–1939 -v.5. Modern Australia, 1939–1970

15965:

Bongiorno, Frank (2019). "A tale of two leaders: Malcolm Turnbull and Scott Morrison in Historical perspective". In Evans, Mark; Grattan, Michelle; McCaffrie, Brendan (eds.).

10139: 3194:

of the Northern Territory and the Kimberley region of Western Australia in the 1870s and 1880s. Sugar plantations also expanded in northern Queensland during the same period.

16017: 15692: 12471: 7304:

to include all Aboriginal Australians in the national census and allow the Federal parliament to legislate on their behalf. A Council for Aboriginal Affairs was established.

3927:, Hughes and 23 of his supporters left the parliamentary Labor party and formed a new Nationalist government with the former opposition. The Nationalists comfortably won the 5265: 4684:, following an assassination attempt and carrying 9 stone 12 pounds weight. Phar Lap sailed for the United States in 1931, going on to win North America's richest race, the 18921:

Schilder, Günter (1984), 'The Dutch Conception of New Holland in the Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries,'. The Globe: Journal of the Australian Map Circle 22: 38–46

18780:

Broomhall, Susan (2017), 'Shipwrecks, Sorrow, Shame and the Great Southland: The Use of Emotions in Seventeenth-Century Dutch East India Company Communicative Ritual,'. In

10325:

Haines, Robin, and Ralph Shlomowitz. "Nineteenth century government-assisted and total immigration from the United Kingdom to Australia: quinquennial estimates by colony."

8019:(1976) analysed the role of women in Australian history. Others explored the history of those marginalised because of their sexuality or ethnicity. Oral histories, such as 6476:

to examine options for Australia becoming a republic. The government also introduced family payments and a superannuation guarantee with compulsory employer contributions.

3694:

became prime minister. The Cook government's attempt to pass legislation abolishing preferential treatment for union members in the Commonwealth Public Service triggered a

1489:. Unable to find this continent, Cook decided to survey the east coast of New Holland, the only major part of that continent that had not been charted by Dutch navigators. 15598: 8785: 6125:"...I hope there is corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend, a staunch friend, that will be all the way with LBJ." 3346:

A minority of nationalists saw a distinctive Australian identity rather than shared "Britishness" as the basis for a unified Australia. Some, such as the radical magazine

2811:

the Gulf Country of northern Australia five settlers and 300 Aboriginal people were killed before 1886. The last recorded massacre of Aboriginal people by settlers was at

4558:, had been examining Lang's instruction not to pay money into the Federal Treasury. Game judged it was illegal. Lang refused to withdraw his order and, on 13 May, he was 3751:

Public enthusiasm for the war was high, and the initial quota for the AIF was quickly filled. The troops left for Egypt on 1 November 1914, one of the escort ships, HMAS

1670:

in 1784, Matra amended his proposal to include convicts as settlers, considering that this would benefit both "Economy to the Publick, & Humanity to the Individual".

18808:

Gentelli, Liesel (2016), 'Provenance Determination of Silver Artefacts from the 1629 VOC Wreck Batavia using LA-ICP-MS,'. Journal of Archaeological Science 9: 536–542.

8164: 4948:. Menzies called for "all-out war", increasing federal powers and introducing conscription. Menzies' minority government came to rely on just two independents after the 4905:, made a national radio broadcast: "My fellow Australians. It is my melancholy duty to inform you, officially, that, in consequence of the persistence by Germany in her 4752: 4328: 3560:(ALP) polling third. Labor declared it would support the party which offered concessions to its program, and Barton's Protectionists formed a government, with Deakin as 18848:

Green, Jeremy N. (1975), 'The VOC ship Batavia wrecked in 1629 on the Houtman Abrolhos, Western Australia,'. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 4(1): 43–63.

18805:

Gaastra, Femme (1997), 'The Dutch East India Company: A Reluctant Discoverer,'. Great Circle – Journal of the Australian Association for Maritime History 19(2): 109–123

7062:

enforcing the border closure between Queensland and New South Wales in April 2020 that was implemented by the Queensland Government in response to the COVID-19 pandemic

6464:

as a major forum for strategic and economic co-operation. A Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation was established and, following the High Court of Australia's historic

6132:, fought over national security issues including Vietnam. The opposition Labor Party had advocated the withdrawal of all conscripts from Vietnam, but its deputy leader 5730:

for ten British immigrants for each one from other countries; however, the numbers of British migrants fell short of what was expected, despite government assistance.

5532:. After fighting to a bitter standstill, the UN and North Korea signed a ceasefire agreement in July 1953. Australian forces had participated in such major battles as 4268: 7265:

The official policy of the Australian government and most state governments, however, was the assimilation of Aboriginal people into mainstream culture. In 1962, the

2556:. Lacking bushcraft and unwilling to learn from the local Aboriginal people, Burke and Wills died in 1861, having returned from the Gulf to their rendezvous point at 1903:

to relieve the marines who had accompanied the First Fleet. Officers of the Corps soon became involved in the corrupt and lucrative rum trade in the colony. Governor

19143: 8530: 8491: 8452: 7918: 7822:" which had influenced Australian arts and culture. Overseas cultural works could be more readily accessed in person or virtually. Australian performers such as the 6242:

In 1974–75 the government began negotiations for US$ 4 billion in foreign loans to fund state development of Australia's mineral and energy resources. Minister

16955: 15756: 8578: 17137: 16427: 3313:

By the late 1880s, a majority of people living in the Australian colonies were native born, although more than 90 per cent were of British and Irish heritage. The

2863:

instruction in Christianity, and occupational training. However, by 1857 the protection offices had been closed due to their cost and failure to meets their goals.

2747:

led a group of 50-100 Aboriginal men in raids which resulted in the death of 15-20 colonists. Estimates of Aboriginal deaths in the conflict range from 15 to 100.

6278: 18841:

Gibbs, Martin (2002), 'Maritime Archaeology and Behavior during Crisis: The Wreck of the VOC Ship Batavia (1629),'; in John Grattan & Robin Torrence (eds.),

18548:

The Dutch Explorations, 1605–1756, of the North and Northwest Coast of Australia. Extracts from Journals, Log-books and Other Documents Relating to These Voyages

15943: 8762: 6092:(AATTV), and in April the Government made a sudden announcement that "after close consultation with the United States", a battalion of troops was to be sent to 5317:

Australian women were encouraged to contribute to the war effort by joining one of the female branches of the armed forces or participating in the labour force.

4828:

Fearing Japanese intentions in the Pacific, Menzies established independent embassies in Tokyo and Washington to receive independent advice about developments.

4605:

is chaired off the cricket pitch after scoring a world record 452 runs not out in 1930. Sporting success lifted Australian spirits through the Depression years.

3423:

ambitions in the region also led to British pressure for a federated Australian defence force and a unified, single-gauge railway network for defence purposes.

1173:

seasonal foods. As all natural features of the land were created by ancestral beings, a group's particular country provided physical and spiritual nourishment.

1133:

Around 4,000 years ago the first phase of occupation of the Torres Strait Islands began. By 2,500 years ago more of the islands were occupied and a distinctive

3823:, 23,000 Australians were killed or wounded in seven weeks of attacks on German positions. In Spring 1917, Australian troops suffered 10,000 casualties at the 2728:

people from 1794 to 1800 in which 26 settlers and up to 200 Darug were killed. Conflict also erupted in Dharawal country from 1814 to 1816, culminating in the

18907:

Schilder, Günter (1976), 'Organisation and Evolution of the Dutch East India Company's Hydrographic Office in the Seventeenth Century,'. Imago Mundi 28: 61–78

17315: 8271:"Identifying disturbance in archaeological sites in tropical northern Australia: Implications for previously proposed 65,000-year continental occupation date" 7983:(1964) was scathing in its observations of a complacent, dull, anti-intellectual and provincial Australia, with a swollen suburbia and absence of innovation. 4693:

were held in Sydney from 5–12 February, timed to coincide with Sydney's sesqui-centenary (150 years since the foundation of British settlement in Australia).

3367:

The growing nationalist sentiment in the 1880s and 1890s was associated with the development of a distinctively Australian art and literature. Artists of the

7273:

gave Indigenous people the right to vote at federal elections. In 1965, Queensland became the last state to confer state voting rights on Aboriginal people.

6712:

in 2004. Trade agreements with Singapore and Thailand were also secured and relations with China improved. Australia joined the US in refusing to ratify the

6235:

As the Whitlam government did not control the Senate, much of its legislation was rejected or amended. After Labor was re-elected with a reduced majority at

5000: 1812:

appalled Phillip. From 1791, however, the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of isolation and improved supplies.

18865:

Guy, Richard (2015), 'Calamitous Voyages: the social space of shipwreck and mutiny narratives in the Dutch East India Company,'. Itinerario 39(1): 117–140.

6582:

by publicly criticising elites and political correctness and emphasising Australian values. The coalition initially cut immigration intakes, abolished the

2721:

settlers, the burning of crops and the mass killing of livestock were more obviously acts of resistance to the loss of traditional land and food resources.

20313: 16482: 15910: 9269: 7818:

In the new millennium, the globalisation of the Australian economy and society, and developments in jet travel and the internet have largely overcome the "

6801:, the government decided to postpone its ETS until 2013, a decision which saw Labor lose some electoral support to the Greens. The government's proposed a 6067: 5588: 5382:

introduced a degree of austerity and government control previously unknown, to such an extent that he was nicknamed "the man who killed Father Christmas".

4849:

fight Japan and Germany at the same time." But "this was never discussed candidly at...meeting(s) of Australian and British defence planners", such as the

2360:

also promoted sectarian divisions in the 1840s. State support, however, led to a growth in church activities. Charitable associations such as the Catholic

1157:

small animals, shellfish, vegetables, fruits, seeds and nuts. Food was shared within groups and exchanged across groups. Some Aboriginal groups engaged in

18773:

Broomhall, Susan (2017), 'Fire, Smoke and Ashes: Communications of Power and Emotions by Dutch East India Company Crews on the Australian Continent,'. In

18752:(2015), " 'Quite indifferent to these things': The Role of Emotions and Conversion in the Dutch East India Company's Interactions with the South Lands,". 18541:. Extracts from Two Log-Books Concerning the Voyage to and Explorations on the Coast of Western Australia and from Other Documents Relating to this Voyage 8684: 4533:, a representative of the English banks who visited in mid-1930, proposed a deflationary plan, involving cuts to government spending and wages. Treasurer 11010: 4964: 4459:

accounted for almost half of Australia's accumulated debt by December 1927. The situation caused alarm amongst a few politicians and economists, notably

2156: 2135:

The Province of South Australia was established in 1836 as a privately financed settlement based on the theory of "systematic colonisation" developed by

7070:

committed to remaining in the Paris Agreement, but promised a greater focus on reduction of energy prices. In foreign affairs the government signed the

1087:

in the extreme south-west of the continent was occupied around 47,000 years ago and Tasmania by 39,000 years ago. The oldest human remains found are at

7254:

The 1960s proved a key decade for Indigenous rights in Australia, with the demand for change led by Indigenous activists and organisations such as the

7008:

saw the government returned with a majority on only one and a minority in the Senate. Following a national postal plebiscite, the government legalised

6947: 5947:

The 1951 Native Welfare Conference of state and Commonwealth officials had agreed on a policy of cultural assimilation for all Aboriginal Australians.

3356:, were republicans, while others were prepared to accept a fully independent country of Australia with only a ceremonial role for the British monarch. 1946:, whom he considered should be treated as social equals to free-settlers in the colony. He appointed emancipists to key government positions including 1533:, became the first Europeans to formally claim sovereignty over the west coast of Australia, but no attempt was made to follow this with colonisation. 18052: 5959:

1968, while the figure for Victoria was about 10 per cent. Robert Manne estimates that the figure for Australia as a whole was closer to 10 per cent.

3667:

became the second Labor prime minister. In response, opposition parties formed an anti-Labor coalition and Deakin became prime minister in June 1909.

2202: 21046: 15826: 15350: 7117: 4744: 4315:, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to 3939:

was also defeated in December. Enlistments in 1918 were the lowest for the war, leading to the disbandment of 12 battalions and mutinies in the AIF.

1792: 15396: 15272: 13665: 3182:

Economic growth was accompanied by expansion into northern Australia. Gold was discovered in northern Queensland in the 1860s and 1870s, and in the

1709: 221: 18215:

Mirror of the Australian Navigation by Jacob Le Maire: A Facsimile of the 'Spieghel der Australische Navigatie.' Being an Account of the Voyage of

17111: 15425: 15327:

Walter, James (2013). "Growth resumed, 1983–2000". In Bashford and MacIntyre (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2. pp. 167–8, 179.

15114: 13816: 6951: 6716:

on greenhouse gas emissions, arguing that it would harm Australia's economy and would be ineffective without the participation of China and India.

6709: 5584: 3715: 2069:

and others negotiated the transfer of 100,000 acres of land from the Kulin people. However, the treaty was annulled the same year when the British

1141:

or nations and 250 distinct languages with various dialects. Estimates of the Aboriginal population at this time range from 300,000 to one million.

15165: 7608:

In 1966, a television drama quota was introduced requiring broadcasters to show 30 minutes of locally produced drama each week. The police series

7004:

The new Turnbull government announced a National Innovation and Science Agenda and delivered a Budget featuring cuts to company tax. However, the

6629: 1098:

was used in many parts of Australia to clear vegetation, make travel easier, and create open grasslands rich in animal and vegetable food sources.

20694: 20194: 9441:

Matra to Fox, 2 April 1784. British Library, Add. Ms 47568; an abridgement of this second version of Matra's proposal was published in issues of

2859:

to live on vacant waterfront land and on the fringes of the Sydney settlement, adapting traditional practices to the new semi-urban environment.

2113:, formally annexed the western third of the continent as a British colony. In 1829, the Swan River colony was established at the sites of modern 19149: 17348: 13739:

John Robertson (1984) p. 20. Thus Australian battalions of World War II carried the prefix 2/ to distinguish them from battalions of World War I

10526: 19361: 18679: 16357: 7399: 6685: 6654: 6614: 4198:, established in 1853, finally closed in 1924. In 1920, the Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Service (to become the Australian airline 869: 556: 13169: 5276:

on 2,000 Australian and British prisoners of war—only 6 survived. This was the single worst war crime perpetrated against Australians in war.

2633:

open an Intercourse with the Natives and to conciliate their affections, enjoining all Our Subjects to live in amity and kindness with them."

1515:

but the Eastern Coast from the Latitude of 38 South down to this place I am confident was never seen or viseted by any European before us and

21960: 20199: 19485: 19290: 19103: 16928: 16158: 14605: 13585:"Bringing them Home Report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from Their Families" 6798: 4967:

for the duration of his visit. Returning to Australia, with the threat of Japan imminent and with the Australian army suffering badly in the

4137:

The consumerism, entertainment culture, and new technologies that characterised the 1920s in the United States were also found in Australia.

1651: 18821:(2006), 'The evidence for cohabitation between Indigenous Australians, marooned Dutch mariners and VOC passengers,'; in Nonja Peters (ed.), 2618:

trekked from the north coast of Western Australia to the overland telegraph, discovering land suitable for grazing in the Kimberley region.

1759:

in January 1788. It consisted of more than a thousand settlers, including 778 convicts (192 women and 586 men). A few days after arrival at

21837: 21741: 20464: 19457: 19310: 18040:(Oxford History of the British Empire Companion Series) (2008) excerpt and text search DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199563739.001.0001 online 17045: 15536: 1500:. Cook charted the coast to its northern extent and formally took possession of the east coast of New Holland on 21/22 August 1770 when on 16295: 16043: 14357: 11227: 9607: 917:

traditions they established are among the longest surviving in human history. The ancestors of today's ethnically and culturally distinct

22272: 19255: 18742:

Broomhall, Susan (2014), "Emotional Encounters: Indigenous Peoples in the Dutch East India Company's Interactions with the South Lands,"

15991: 13418: 2545:

led an expedition into what is now far-western Queensland in 1847 before being speared by Aborigines in the Cape York Peninsula in 1848.

405: 18893:

McCarthy, M. (2006), 'The Dutch on Australian shores: The Zuytdorp tragedy – unfinished business,'. In L. Shaw & W. Wilkins (eds.),

18208:

The Discovery of Tasmania: Journal Extracts from the Expeditions of Abel Janszoon Tasman and Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne 1642 & 1772

19720: 19285: 18943: 16993:

Multiculturalism: a review of Australian policy statements and recent debates in Australia and overseas: Research Paper No. 6, 2010–11:

13877: 10019: 7942: 7835: 6023: 6022:

1950s the Australian Army began to re-equip using US military equipment. In 1962, the US established a naval communications station at

5713:

After World War II and by the 1950s, Australia had a population of 10 million, and the most populous urban centre was its oldest city,

5279:

MacArthur largely excluded Australian forces from the main push north into the Philippines and Japan. It was left to Australia to lead

3042:

at Ballarat. On 3 December troops overran the stockade, killing about 20 protesters. Five troops were killed and 12 seriously wounded.

1210: 296: 216: 144: 18766:

Broomhall, Susan (2016), 'Dishes, Coins and Pipes: The Epistemological and Emotional Power of VOC Material Culture in Australia,'. In

17467: 7597:

The 1960s and 1970s saw increased government support for the arts and the flourishing of distinctively Australian artistic works. The

7192:

that began in 2021, continued. The Australian inflation rate peaked at 7.5% at the end of 2022: a 32 year high. By November 2023, the

4786:

government emphasised co-operation with Britain in "a policy of imperial defence". The lynchpin of this was the British naval base at

3961:

and a full member of the League of Nations, Australia took an important step towards international recognition as a sovereign nation.

2179:

west of the town. Frontier violence between settlers and the Indigenous population became severe as pastoralism expanded north of the

21167: 21127: 19967: 19664: 19187: 18289:', Western Australia 1656. An Historical Background and Excavation Report With an Appendix On Similar Loss of the Fluit 'Lastdrager' 16382: 7297: 7088:

and the subsequent recession, Australia's first in 29 years. The government banned foreign nationals entering Australia and formed a

6965:– which had not been approved by cabinet and which were widely criticised in the media. By September 2015 the government had lost 30 6149: 5308: 2851:

led the survivors of several clans into Sydney, 18 months after the smallpox epidemic that had devastated the Aboriginal population.

1926:, from 1810 to 1821, and had a leading role in the social and economic development of New South Wales which saw it transition from a 1808:

which finally arrived in June 1790 had lost a quarter of its passengers through sickness, while the condition of the convicts of the

830: 366: 19127: 13499: 10143: 8075:

historians regularly outsell work by academic historians. Local histories and family histories have proliferated in recent decades.

6827:

In June 2010, with the government behind the opposition in polls and Rudd's popularity falling, the Labor caucus replaced Rudd with

6096:. In parliament, Menzies emphasised the argument that "our alliances made demands on us". The alliance involved was presumably, the 4134:(ACTU) in 1927 in response to the Nationalist government's efforts to change working conditions and reduce the power of the unions. 21797: 21757: 19157:

History of European settlement and relations with Aboriginal people of South Eastern Australia, Australian Broadcasting Corporation

15700: 13445: 12572:

Garton, Stephen; Stanley, Peter (2013). "The Great War and its aftermath, 1914-22". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.).

12479: 8406:

Veth, Peter; O'Connor, Sue (2013). "The past 50,000 years: an archaeological view". In Bashford, Alison; MacIntyre, Stuart (eds.).

8314: 8055:

Post-structuralist ideas on the relationship between language and meaning were influential in the 1980s and 1990s, for example, in

7374: 7343: 6939: 6919: 6649: 6100:(SEATO), and Australia was providing military assistance because South Vietnam, a signatory to SEATO, had apparently requested it. 5920: 5896: 5576: 5343: 5334: 4748: 4331:, this was because Australians had little interest in redefining their relationship with Britain until the crisis of World War II. 3819:, the AIF suffered 5,533 casualties in 24 hours, the most costly single encounter in Australian military history. Elsewhere on the 2568:

succeeded in traversing central Australia from south to north. His expedition mapped out the route which was later followed by the

2365: 5268:

were at this time suffering severe ill-treatment in the Pacific Theatre. In 1943, 2,815 Australian Pows died constructing Japan's

1201:. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land. 21893: 20998: 19636: 14312: 9196:

Cook, James, Journal of the HMS Endeavour, 1768–1771, National Library of Australia, Manuscripts Collection, MS 1, 22 August 1770

5844: 3936: 3924: 3263: 1039: 172: 16132: 15606: 13851: 13472: 9411:

Harold B. Carter, "Banks, Cook and the Eighteenth Century Natural History Tradition", in Tony Delamotte and Carl Bridge (eds.),

6609:, in 1996, the government amended native title legislation to limit native title claims. In 2007, following the release of the " 5402:, designed and built in four months of 1942, emphasised the desperate state Australia found itself in as the Japanese advanced. 21241: 20821: 20241: 20051: 19859: 19773: 19601: 19300: 19006: 17884: 17713: 16460: 6736:

with a swing of more than 5 per cent and Howard became only the second sitting prime minister to lose his seat in an election.

6692:. Following the September 2001 terrorist attacks on the US and the subsequent War on Terror, Australia committed troops to the 4495: 3949: 3251: 2966: 2523: 961: 301: 149: 10781: 7296:

In 1966, the Australian government gave Aboriginal people the same rights to social security benefits as other Australians. A

6563:

legislation, which made it easier for small businesses to terminate employment. After the 1996 election, Howard and treasurer

5641:

produced little of its own content in the 1950s, but British and Hollywood studios produced a string of successful epics from

4995:

saw an Australian garrison halt the advance of Hitler's Panzer divisions for the first time since the commencement of the war.

21968: 20137: 19977: 18446: 18168: 17789: 16689: 15057: 14888: 14580: 14547: 14424: 14168: 13757: 11543: 11110: 10113: 10087: 9387: 8572: 8524: 8485: 8446: 8419: 7926: 7278: 6889:

to power after six years in opposition initially failed to restore stability to the office of prime minister. Prime Minister

6693: 6529: 6263: 6197: 6089: 6027: 5122: 4080:

in Russia posed a threat in the eyes of many Australians, although to a small group of socialists it was an inspiration. The

3776: 3729: 3545: 1667: 1426:. On his second voyage of 1644, he also contributed significantly to the mapping of the Australian mainland (which he called 17085: 16102: 12949: 10011: 7423:

cities, the period from 1965 to 1980 also saw a movement of Indigenous Australians away from towns and settlements to small

6704:

and other terrorist incidents, led to the creation of a National Security Committee and further anti-terrorist legislation.

6389:

in 1988 was the focus of year-long celebrations with multicultural themes. The World Expo 88 was held in Brisbane and a new

5113:

British Malaya quickly collapsed, shocking the Australian nation. British, Indian and Australian troops made a disorganised

2302:

Between 1830 and 1850 the female proportion of the Australian settler population increased from 24 per cent to 41 per cent.

22008: 21231: 21107: 20743: 20253: 19793: 19788: 19783: 18979:

of Human Skeletal Remains Associated with the Batavia Mutiny of 1629,'. Records of the Western Australian Museum 26: 98–108

18587:

Sailing for the East: History and Catalogue of Manuscript Charts on Vellum of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), 1602–1799

13386:

Spearritt cited in Henry Pook (1993) pp. 211–12. See Also Drew Cottle (1979) "The Sydney Rich and the Great Depression" in

10343:

Richards, Eric (July 1993). "How Did Poor People Emigrate from the British Isles to Australia in the Nineteenth Century?".

6943: 6852: 6355: 5618:, who would become the musical embodiment of rural Australia, had Australia's first international music chart hit with his 5572: 4276: 4069: 3723: 3508: 3348: 2909: 1699: 256: 167: 162: 157: 18924:

Schilder, Günter (1989), 'From Secret to Common Knowledge – The Dutch Discoveries,'; in John Hardy and Alan Frost (eds.),

16243: 7456:

1972, the introduction of paid maternity leave in the Australian public service in 1973, and the enactment of the federal

7038:

The government lost five by-elections in July 2018. When, in August, the government made a commitment to meet Australia's

4660:

Extraordinary sporting successes did something to alleviate the spirits of Australians during the economic downturn. In a

21246: 21087: 20687: 20640: 20584: 20479: 19985: 19819: 19733: 19276: 19260: 19246: 19202: 19075: 14260: 9252:

Objects & History of the Voyage of Mm. Yves de Kerguelen and François Alesne de Saint Allouarn in the Australian Seas

8870:

Gammage, Bill (October 2011). The Biggest Estate on Earth: How Aborigines made Australia. Allen & Unwin. pp. 281–304.

7177:

was sworn in as Australia's new prime minister. His Labor Party defeated Scott Morrison's conservative government in the

6961:

The Prime Minister announced a number of decisions – most notably the reintroduction of knighthoods and a knighthood for

6334: 6303: 6302:

in Tasmania in 1982 and the resulting grassroots campaign against the dam contributed to the emergence of an influential

5867: 5696: 5602:

Menzies presided during a period of sustained economic boom and the beginnings of sweeping social change, which included

5415: 5330: 5126: 4156:

in 1927 failed to assist and the industry that had begun so brightly with the release of the world's first feature film,

708: 494: 231: 196: 18791:, edited by Stephanie Downes, Sally Holloway and Sarah Randles. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), pp. 175–91 14256: 4856:

By September 1939 the Australian Army numbered 3,000 regulars. A recruiting campaign in late 1938, led by Major-General

4680:

dominated Australia's racing industry, at one stage winning fourteen races in a row. Famous victories included the 1930

2512:

in 1839 and, led by two Aboriginal guides, became the first European to ascend Australia's highest peak, which he named

22262: 21936: 21056: 20647: 19778: 19758: 19354: 19051: 18900:

Mutch, T. D. (1942), 'The First Discovery of Australia with an Account of the Voyages of the Duyfken and the Career of

18883: 18404: 18316:. (Published by the Royal Dutch Geographical Society in Commemoration of the XXVth Anniversary of Its Foundation, 1899) 14903:

Bridge, Carl (2013). "Australia, Britain and the British Commonwealth". In Bashford, Alison; MacIntyre, Stuart (eds.).

13361:. Vol. 24, No. 7, p. 378. Also see David Potts (2006) "The Myth of the Great Depression." Scribe Press, Carlton North. 12835:

Bridge, Carl (2013). "Australia, Britain and the British Commonwealth". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.).

9084: 8174: 7266: 7100: 6813: 6669: 6568: 6426: 6398: 6097: 6055: 5981: 4131: 3719: 3601: 3314: 2604: 2569: 2490: 862: 549: 17: 19062: 13712:

John Robertson "The Distant War: Australia and Imperial defence 1919–1914." In M. McKernan and M. Browne (1988) p. 225

7638:

From the late 1960s a "new wave" of Australian theatre emerged, initially centred on small theatre groups such as the

6797:(ETS) to address climate change, but the legislation was twice rejected in the Senate. After the failed December 2009 6644: 6270:

on 11 November 1975. Opposition leader Malcolm Fraser was installed as caretaker prime minister, pending an election.

5882:

being a major driving force behind the introduction of television to Australia. Colour TV began broadcasting in 1975.

4216:. He went on to global fame and a series of aviation records before vanishing on a night flight to Singapore in 1935. 3831:. In the summer and autumn of 1917, Australian troops also sustained heavy losses during the British offensive around 2847:

In the first two years of settlement the Aboriginal people of Sydney mostly avoided the newcomers. In November 1790,

2636: 1958:

to conduct an inquiry into the colony, and Macquarie resigned shortly before the report of the inquiry was published.

20764: 20189: 20090: 19990: 19910: 19844: 19265: 18955: 18709: 18594: 18153: 17999: 17841: 17746: 17566: 17508: 17298: 16534: 16191: 15974: 15493: 15383: 15303: 15245:

David Lowe (2013) "Security". In Bashford and Macintyre (eds) The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2, pp 511–12

15217: 14912: 14842: 14804: 14784: 14755: 14648: 14488: 14465: 14336: 14240: 14056: 13650: 13630: 13366: 13346: 13244: 13203: 13000: 12844: 12650: 12581: 12295: 12021: 11590: 10971:"The view from Marege': Australian knowledge of Makassar and the impact of the trepang industry across two centuries" 10940: 10849: 10225: 9862: 9754: 9690: 9579: 9164: 9104: 8968: 8917: 8892: 8754: 8728: 8669: 7477: 7424: 7389: 7353:

was appointed Liberal Senator for QLD in 1971, becoming the first federal parliamentarian to identify as Aboriginal.

6794: 6783: 6673: 6221: 5748: 5692: 5634: 4836:

opposition urged greater national self-reliance through a buildup of manufacturing and more emphasis on the Army and

4542: 4523: 4435: 4393: 4152:

declined through the decade, despite more than 2 million Australians attending cinemas weekly at 1250 venues. A

3780: 3764: 3267: 3207: 2592: 2381: 2207:

Black-eyed Sue and Sweet Poll of Plymouth, England mourning their lovers who are soon to be transported to Botany Bay

1547: 1029: 1012: 429: 346: 13115: 7780:

was established in Sydney in the early 1970s. The Aboriginal Islander Dance Theatre was established in 1976 and the

6472:

was introduced to regulate claims and provide compensation for loss of native title. In 1993, Keating established a

4955:

In January 1941, Menzies flew to Britain to discuss the weakness of Singapore's defences. Arriving in London during

4175:"on the land" were generally not a success. "The new irrigation areas in Western Australia and the Dawson Valley of 3910:

which gave it the power to make regulations "for securing the public safety and defence of the Commonwealth". After

3343:

stated in 1890, "The crimson thread of kinship runs through us all...we must unite as one great Australian people."

2973:

Australia and the newly created colony of Victoria semi-elected Legislative Councils on the New South Wales model.

1589:

Although various proposals for the colonisation of Australia were made prior to 1788, none were attempted. In 1717,

22282: 22040: 21723: 21122: 21031: 20847: 19917: 19854: 19839: 19450: 19305: 17915: 17696: 14972:

Ashley Elkins, Australian War Memorial: Overview of Australian military involvement in the Vietnam War, 1962–1975.

14134: 8149: 8144: 7684: 7178: 7166: 7005: 6962: 6860: 6836: 6733: 6724:

budget surpluses in most years which, along with the proceeds of government asset sales, were partly invested in a

6552: 6484: 6432: 6422: 6311: 6294: 6236: 6145: 6129: 5484:

in 1949, in part because of a Labor proposal to nationalise banks and following a crippling coal strike led by the

4949: 4779: 4578: 4503: 4339: 3928: 3699: 3687: 3671: 3659: 3568: 3553: 3243: 2939: 2927: 1932: 1617:(1744–1748, 1764) recommended exploration of the east coast of New Holland, with a view to a British colonisation. 371: 351: 306: 286: 266: 191: 18939:, edited by Michael Richards & Maura O'Connor. (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1993), pp. 10–16 18838:

Gerritsen, Rupert (2011), 'Australia's First Criminal Prosecutions in 1629'. (Canberra: Batavia Online Publishing)

18794:

Donaldson, Bruce (2006), 'The Dutch Contribution to the European Discovery of Australia,'. In Nonja Peters (ed.),

13669: 6017:

in Washington, D.C., 1963. By the 1960s, Australian defence policy had shifted from Britain to the US as key ally.

2823:

Australia, has reached a preliminary estimate of 8,270 Aboriginal deaths in frontier massacres from 1788 to 1930.

2372:

in 1866, continued their educational activities after the provision of secular state schools grew from the 1850s.

1459:, an English buccaneer and explorer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688 and again in 1699, and 21036: 20920: 20817: 20358: 20157: 20147: 20083: 19824: 19798: 19641: 19500: 18333: 14204: 12070:

The federal government of Australasia : speeches delivered on various occasions (November, 1889 – May, 1890)

11097:

Karskens, Grace (2013). "The early colonial presence, 1788–1822". In Bashford, Alison; MacIntyre, Stuart (eds.).

9874: 9780: 9681:

Karskens, Grace (2013). "The early colonial presence, 1788-1822". In Bashford, Alison; MacIntyre, Stuart (eds.).

7602: 7393: 7162: 7024: 6774: 6745: 6583: 6229: 5521: 5439: 5012: 4464: 3768: 3761:

along the way. Meanwhile, in September, a separate Australian expeditionary force had captured German New Guinea.

3745: 3401: 2361: 1880: 1182: 1118:

Guinea and Tasmania were connected to the Australian continent, which was more than a quarter larger than today.

933: 236: 211: 6326: 3134:. The resurgence of bushranging from the 1850s drew on the grievances of the rural poor (several members of the 3076:

Van Diemen's Land would cease and invited the eastern colonies to draft constitutions enabling self-government.

21853: 21805: 21067: 20680: 20444: 20343: 20063: 20041: 19947: 19753: 19713: 19137: 18692: 18422: 17940: 17764: 17439: 17388: 17225: 17178: 16622:

Geoffrey Bolton (1990) pp. 190–94. The vote represented a record in terms of support for constitutional change.

16217: 12320: 12042: 9986: 9354:, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2005, pp. 3–20. Also through APAFT at: search.informit.com.au/fullText;dn=200600250;res=APAFT 8179: 8159: 8119: 8044: 7759:

There was also a growing recognition of Indigenous cultural movements. In the early 1970s Aboriginal elders at

7200: 7085: 7078: 7009: 6633: 6224:

in the Northern Territory under Justice Woodward. Legislation based on its findings was passed into law by the

4574: 4374: 4260: 4236: 4172: 4018: 4005:

was one of the most expensive buildings and the second largest construction of the Inter-war period, after the

3427: 3212: 2949: 2709: 2032: 1984: 1501: 731: 339: 226: 130: 18787:

Broomhall, Susan (2018), 'Dirk Hartog's Sea Chest: An Affective Archaeology of VOC Objects in Australia,'; in

15194:

Tim Battin, "A Break from the Past: The Labor Party and the Political Economy of Keynesian Social Democracy",

12921: 7074:(IA-CEPA) in March 2019. The government was returned at the elections of May 2019 with a three-seat majority. 6401:

and by late 1991 the unemployment rate had risen above 10 per cent. With the government's popularity falling,

6152:

held across Australia in mid-1970 attracted large crowds—the Melbourne march of 100,000 being led by Labor MP

6046:

treaty, signed only three years later, clearly demonstrated Australia's position as a US ally in the emerging

5701: 5287:. Curtin suffered from ill health from the strains of office and died weeks before the war ended, replaced by 5169:. On 8 June 1942, two Japanese submarines briefly shelled Sydney's eastern suburbs and the city of Newcastle. 5125:, the first time the Australian mainland had ever been attacked by enemy forces. For the following 19 months, 3175:

London financial markets, but land-rich governments also sold land to finance expenditure and keep taxes low.

2109:

to deter the French from establishing a settlement in Western Australia. In 1827, the head of the expedition,

1935:

was completed, opening the way for large scale farming and grazing in the lightly wooded pastures west of the

22343: 22193: 22128: 21944: 21407: 20890: 20594: 20511: 20387: 20236: 20229: 20100: 20046: 19849: 19829: 19347: 19180: 19118: 13777:

David Littlewood, "Conscription in Britain, New Zealand, Australia and Canada during the Second World War,"

9707: 9535:

Robert J. King, "Terra Australis, New Holland and New South Wales: the Treaty of Tordesillas and Australia",

9522:

Robert J. King, "Terra Australis, New Holland and New South Wales: the Treaty of Tordesillas and Australia",

8880: 8169: 8124: 7690: 7307:

Popular acclaim for Aboriginal artists, sportspeople and musicians also grew over the period. In 1968, boxer

7185: 6787: 6410: 5374:

Although the peak of army enlistments occurred in June–July 1940, when more than 70,000 enlisted, it was the

5054:, the siege saw the advance of the German army halted for the first time and provided a morale boost for the 4936: 4673: 4654: 4421: 4350: 4244: 3993: 3561: 3541: 3190:

regions of Western Australia in the 1880s. Sheep and cattle runs spread to northern Queensland and on to the

3183: 3060: 2180: 1912: 1137:

maritime culture emerged. Agriculture also developed on some islands and by 700 years ago villages appeared.

855: 819: 637: 575: 542: 356: 291: 281: 241: 18430:. (Sydney, 1942) Reprinted from the Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society, Vol. XXVIII., Part V 15537:"Official History of Peacekeeping, Humanitarian and Post–Cold War Operations | Australian War Memorial" 12068: 11729: 10665: 6030:

were sent to help train South Vietnamese forces, in a developing conflict in which the British had no part.

5725:

Labor government instigated a massive programme of European immigration. In 1945, Minister for Immigration,

4396:(FCT) was formed from New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of 2779:

The growth of the Swan River Colony in the 1830s led to conflict with Aboriginal people, culminating in the

22242: 22237: 21984: 21468: 20579: 20373: 20110: 20073: 19952: 19942: 19814: 19651: 19596: 19235: 19090: 14308:

House of Representatives Hansard, 2 August 1945, pp. 4911–15. Arthur Calwell – White Paper on Immigration.

11414:"'A Halo of Protection': Colonial Protectors and the Principle of Aboriginal Protection through Punishment" 8786:"Friday essay: traps, rites and kurrajong twine – the incredible ingenuity of Indigenous fishing knowledge" 8139: 7902: 7875: 7827: 6556: 6267: 5955:

deemed to be wards of the state under Northern Territory welfare laws doubled to 11,000 from 1950 to 1965.

5866:

formally announced the introduction of the new two-tiered TV system—a government-funded service run by the

5564: 4492: 4405: 4127: 4081: 4025:

and breakaway elements of Labor (of which he was the most prominent), after the deep and bitter split over

3987: 2168: 2090: 2016: 1523: 1460: 1166: 969: 688: 489: 334: 18111:. (Australian National Centre of Excellence for Maritime Archaeology, Department of Maritime Archaeology, 10728: 9506:

Christopher, Emma; Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish (2013). "Convict transportation in global context c. 1700–88".

9493:

Christopher, Emma; Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish (2013). "Convict transportation in global context c. 1700–88".

9467:

Christopher, Emma; Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish (2013). "Convict transportation in global context c. 1700–88".

9454:

Christopher, Emma; Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish (2013). "Convict transportation in global context c. 1700–88".

9398:

Christopher, Emma; Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish (2013). "Convict transportation in global context c. 1700–88".

9364:

Christopher, Emma; Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish (2013). "Convict transportation in global context c. 1700–88".

7807:

were complaining that the large increase in artistic works had led to the celebration of mediocrity. Poet

7016:

in domestic politics, and a ban, on national security grounds, on Chinese companies supplying Australia's

2986:

Mr E.H. Hargraves, The Gold Discoverer of Australia, Feb 12th 1851 returning the salute of the gold miners

1629:

had ambitions to establish a colony for his country at the Swan River in 1786 but the plan was stillborn.

1530: 22002: 21909: 21901: 21307: 21147: 20911: 20348: 20306: 20301: 20248: 19995: 19962: 19890: 19611: 19591: 19563: 19520: 19443: 19295: 18580:

In the Steps of Tasman and De Vlamingh. An Important Cartographic Document for the Discovery of Australia

18459:. Edited and translated by Marit van Huystee. (Fremantle, W.A.: Western Australian Maritime Museum, 1998) 16716: 15400: 15264: 14287: 14232: 10446: 9633: 7892: 7647: 7643: 7457: 7366: 7158: 6935: 6658: 6544: 6518: 6473: 6449: 6144:

of early 1968 and compulsory national service (selected by ballot) became increasingly unpopular. In the

5529: 5493: 5461: 5237: 5024: 4646: 4551: 4346: 4324: 4296: 4292: 4280: 4252: 4203: 4157: 4104: 4085: 4044: 3525: 2356:

Many Anglicans saw state support of the Catholic Church as a threat. The prominent Presbyterian minister

1923: 1786: 1621:

put forward a proposal in 1766 for Britain to found a colony of banished convicts in the South Sea or in

1552: 261: 17115: 15429: 15118: 13820: 13357:

David Potts. "A Reassessment of the extent of Unemployment in Australia during the Great Depression" in

12260: 9079: 5984:

after 1952. Australia was also the only Commonwealth country to offer support to the British during the

2322:, with improving "public morality" in the colony and was also heavily involved in health and education. 1682:

into their plan, with its attractions of timber and flax, proposed by Banks's Royal Society colleagues,

22312: 22297: 22267: 21392: 20754: 20414: 20318: 20172: 20127: 20031: 19530: 19220: 19210: 18932: 18664:

The Journal of Abel Jansz Tasman, 1642; with Documents Relating to His Exploration of Australia in 1644

18651: 18520: 16077: 15173: 13998:, Australia in the War of 1939–1945, Series 1, Volume 7, pp. 622–37. Australian War Memorial, Canberra. 8039: 7035:

trade agreement with 10 other nations in March 2018 after the US withdrew from the original agreement.

6954:

and Syria, joining the air campaign, sending special forces and providing training for the Iraqi army.

6886: 6844: 6802: 6610: 6390: 6370: 5757:

was a popular account of an Italian migrating to Australia, although written by Australian-born author

5485: 5477: 5457: 5419: 5233: 5118: 5020: 4929: 4837: 4803: 4639: 4538: 4467:, but most political, union and business leaders were reluctant to admit to serious problems. In 1926, 4450:

of the 1930s, particularly due to its heavy dependence on exports, especially primary products such as

4120: 4022: 3824: 3683: 3639: 3400:, Miles Franklin, and Joseph Furphy helped forge a distinctive national literature. Paterson's ballad " 3291: 2688:

Mounted police engaging Indigenous people during the Slaughterhouse Creek Massacre of 1838, during the

2497: 2315: 2022: 1633: 1380: 514: 453: 417: 271: 20881: 18253:: Betrayal, Shipwreck, Murder, Sexual Slavery, Courage: A Spine-Chilling Chapter in Australian History 18181:. Edited by Günter Schilder. 2 vols. "WLV," Vols. LXXVIII, LXXIX. (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976) 7116:

In June 2021, Australia and the United Kingdom announced that they had struck a preliminary deal on a

2532:

Arrival of Burke, Wills and King at the deserted camp at Cooper's Creek, Sunday evening, 21 April 1861

2386: 1144: 928:

Dutch navigators explored the western and southern coasts in the 17th century and named the continent

22287: 22277: 21377: 21352: 21041: 20837: 20831: 20777: 20534: 20491: 20439: 20338: 20184: 20152: 20068: 20058: 20026: 19706: 19631: 19586: 19315: 18942:

Sheehan, Colin (2008), 'Strangers and Servants of the company: The United East India Company and the

18436: 18228: 18112: 17472: 16640: 16327:"Australia to pursue nuclear-powered submarines through new trilateral enhanced security partnership" 15561:

Goot, Murray (2013), In Bashford and MacIntye (eds) Cambridge History of Australia, Vol 2. pp. 200–02

13951: 13088: 10530: 9254:, Paris, 1934. Walter R. Bloom, "The role of a French ecu in the colonization of Western Australia", 8154: 8031: 7847: 7193: 6689: 6637: 6588: 6161: 6105: 5540:. 17,000 Australians had served and casualties amounted to more than 1,500, of whom 339 were killed. 4690: 4473: 4212: 4077: 4026: 3998: 2997: 2440: 1900: 1861: 1748: 1177: 887: 809: 788: 665: 361: 276: 201: 69: 14879:

See discussion on the role of ANZUS in Australia's commitment to the Vietnam War in Paul Ham (2007)

14682: 13973: 13924: 13275: 12801: 6989: 6805:

adversely affected Labor's support in the resource-rich states of Queensland and Western Australia.

1230: 22232: 22207: 21639: 21433: 21347: 21021: 20869: 20449: 20434: 20281: 20117: 20078: 19905: 19626: 19606: 19393: 19388: 19173: 18654:: The Epic Story of Seafarers, Adventurers, and Cartographers Who Mapped the Earth's Greatest Ocean 15508:

Bashford and MacIntyre (eds) The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2. (2013). pp. 182, 207–09.

13584: 9582: 9122:, Canberra, National Library of Australia, 2007, p. 32; this map is reproduced in Gunter Schilder, 8269:

Williams, Martin A. J.; Spooner, Nigel A.; McDonnell, Kathryn; O'Connell, James F. (January 2021).

7614: 7416: 7282: 7207:

called for a week of silence "to grieve this outcome and reflect on its meaning and significance".

6605: 5758: 5611: 5229: 5166: 5081: 4850: 4488: 4300: 4284: 3906: 3114: 2993: 2807: 2791: 2756: 2689: 2679: 2596: 2149: 1857: 1805: 1724: 1347: 983: 941: 632: 17500: 16166: 15827:"ony Abbott under fire from Cabinet colleagues over decision to grant knighthood to Prince Philip" 15208:

Walter, James (2013). "Growth resumed, 1983-2000". In Bashford, Alison; MacIntyre, Stuart (eds.).

14609: 7788:, which drew on traditional Aboriginal music and dance, achieved commercial and critical success. 6613:" report detailing widespread abuse in Aboriginal communities, the Howard government launched the 6160:

of the war and began the withdrawal of troops, so did the Australian Government. In November 1970

4873:

Australian troops at Milne Bay, Papua. The Australian army was the first to inflict defeat on the

4126:

Other significant after-effects of the war included ongoing industrial unrest, which included the

3556:

and resulted in a narrow plurality for the Protectionist Party over the Free Trade Party with the

3430:

was formed in 1885 but it had few powers and New South Wales and South Australia declined to join.

3270:. The world's first Labor government was formed in Queensland in 1899, but it lasted only a week. 2467:(which they named the Hume) and many of its tributaries, and good agricultural and grazing lands. 1907:(1806 – 1808) tried to suppress the rum trade and the illegal use of Crown Land, resulting in the 22252: 22227: 22104: 21773: 21716: 21624: 21566: 21504: 21236: 21097: 21026: 20875: 20749: 20599: 20474: 20454: 20429: 20409: 20162: 20132: 19957: 19834: 19763: 19384: 18911: 18684: 18233: 15679:

Wallace, Chris (2016) "Julia Eileen Gillard". In Grattan (ed) Australian Prime Ministers. p 498.

13318: 13173: 9051: 7769: 7381: 7328: 7301: 6848: 5901: 5743: 5661: 5543: 5505: 5363: 5248: 5185: 5177: 4611: 4412:

was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911.

4320: 4207: 4123:(since the 1940s), becoming a major party of government in Australia—particularly in Queensland. 4055: 3865: 3850: 3832: 3594: 3572: 3512: 3457: 3417: 3286: 3123: 3108: 2655: 2410: 2136: 1865: 1809: 1427: 1190: 1134: 1035: 1000: 992: 929: 918: 899: 766: 751: 251: 139: 61: 18260:

The Batavia Legacy: The Location of the First European Settlement in Australia, Hutt River, 1629

18109:(1727): An Analysis of the Potential for Finding the Dutch Castaways' Human Remains in Australia 16729:

Indigenous Australian parliamentarians in federal and state/territory parliaments: a quick guide

16133:"Australia blocks arrival of all non-citizens, non-residents in expanded coronavirus travel ban" 15540: 14973: 14188: 12860: 11011:"Was Sydney's smallpox outbreak of 1789 an act of biological warfare against Aboriginal tribes?" 7925:

Radical nationalist interpretations of Australian history became more prominent from the 1930s.

4935:

The recruitment of a volunteer military force for service at home and abroad was announced, the

972:, and the islands were later annexed by Queensland, choosing to remain a part of Australia when 936:

visited Australia's northern coasts from around 1720, and possibly earlier. In 1770, Lieutenant

925:

around 2,500 years ago, and settled the islands on the northern tip of the Australian landmass.

894:. The human history of Australia, however, commences with the arrival of the first ancestors of 22120: 22056: 21928: 21696: 21561: 21397: 20734: 20506: 20484: 20459: 20424: 20404: 20368: 20206: 20177: 20167: 20142: 20105: 20036: 19873: 19768: 19510: 18238:. Originally published in 1966. (New York: William Morrow & Co., 1966; HarperCollins, 2000) 18210:. (Hobart: St David's Park Publishing/Tasmanian Government Printing Office, 1992, pp. 106) 18144: 16303: 14572: 14361: 14222: 12286:

Hirst, John (2013). "Nation building, 1901-14". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.).

11218: 10905: 8114: 8003:(1970) attacked radical nationalist historical narratives from a Marxist New Left perspective. 7781: 7777: 7773: 7733: 7651: 7312: 7248: 7233: 7150: 7125: 7054: 6753: 6386: 6374: 6205: 5827: 5793: 5774: 5753: 5735: 5465: 5284: 5269: 5069: 4981: 4921: 4874: 4833: 4821: 4783: 4685: 4582: 4570: 4566: 4507: 4487:

In 1931, more than 1,000 unemployed men marched from the Esplanade to the Treasury Building in

3876: 3869: 3828: 3606: 3557: 3549: 3480:, endorsed the "Corowa plan" and in 1895 convinced the majority of other premiers to adopt it. 3448:

Another major barrier was the free trade policies of New South Wales which conflicted with the

3035: 2871: 2505: 1061: 1017: 979: 965: 902:

between 50,000 and 65,000 years ago, and continues to the present day multicultural democracy.

895: 825: 814: 778: 621: 45: 18784:, edited by M. Bailey and K. Barclay. (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), pp. 83–103 17488: 15048:

Strangio, Paul (2013). "Instability, 1966-82". In Bashford, Alison; MacIntyre, Stuart (eds.).

14537: 14441: 13422: 8514: 8475: 8436: 7912:

Military history received government support after the First World War, most prominently with

7342:

became the first indigenous Australian to head a state or territory government when he became

4991:

A patrol from the 2/13th Infantry Battalion at Tobruk in North Africa, (AWM 020779). The 1941

3339:

Many nationalists spoke of Australians sharing common blood as members of the British "race".

1064:

moved into what is now the Australian continent about 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, during the

22292: 22155: 21789: 21634: 21609: 21478: 20802: 20792: 20703: 20569: 20501: 20399: 20353: 20216: 20122: 20009: 19895: 19399: 19215: 15911:"What is the Quad, and how will it impact US-China relations under the Biden administration?" 15757:"Boat arrivals and boat 'turnbacks' in Australia since 1976: a quick guide to the statistics" 14669: 14029:

Bolton cited in John Close "Australians in Wartime" in Ray Willis et al. (eds.) (1982) p. 209

14018: 13300:

See for example John Close "The Depression Decade" in R. Willis, et al. (eds.) (1982), p. 318

9126:, Amsterdam, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1976, p. 402; and in William Eisler and Bernard Smith, 8562: 8106: 7823: 7708: 6681: 6548: 6469: 6414: 6259: 5996: 5657: 5642: 5537: 5489: 5241: 5194: 5150: 4909:, Great Britain has declared war upon her, and that, as a result, Australia is also at war." 4795: 4665: 4559: 4546: 4431: 4232: 4186:

was set up in 1928 to co-ordinate loans, three-quarters of which came from overseas. Despite

4116: 4040: 4006: 3983: 3815:

In 1916, five infantry divisions of the AIF were sent to the Western Front. In July 1916, at

3651: 3055: 2713: 2627: 2575:

The completion of this telegraph line in 1872 was associated with further exploration of the

2346: 2334: 2314:

was the only recognised church before 1820 and its clergy worked closely with the governors.

2225:

small business. Emancipists employed about half of the convicts assigned to private masters.

2197: 2026: 1896: 1106: 960:. In the century that followed, the British established other colonies on the continent, and 905:

Aboriginal Australians settled throughout continental Australia and many nearby islands. The

771: 675: 649: 644: 441: 17985: 16876:. Canberra: Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. 1962. Table 9: Occupational Status 14414: 13881: 8408: 7077:

In 2017, a convention of 250 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander delegates had issued the

6483:

With foreign debt, inflation and unemployment still stubbornly high, Keating lost the March

4483: 3452:

policies dominant in Victoria and most of the other colonies. Nevertheless, the NSW premier

2716:. Tasmania suffered a higher level of conflict than the other British colonies in Australia. 2517: 1605:

It is impossible to conceive a Country that promises fairer from its Situation than this of

1361: 22178: 21976: 21781: 21749: 21453: 20986: 20633: 20604: 20526: 20363: 20333: 20269: 20224: 19937: 19932: 19900: 19885: 19154: 19110: 18858:

Green, Jeremy N. (2006), 'The Dutch Down Under: Sailing Blunders,'. In Nonja Peters (ed.),

18770:, edited by Anne Gerritsen & Giorgio Riello. (London: Routledge, 2016), pp. 145–61 18718: 13141: 9120:

Australia in Maps: Great Maps in Australia's History from the National Library's Collection

9118:

National Library of Australia, Maura O'Connor, Terry Birtles, Martin Woods and John Clark,

9089: 9023: 8346: 8282: 8222: 8184: 8129: 7838:, have increased the exposure of Australian art in the region and the wider global market. 7808: 7578: 7518: 6808: 6571:(GST) which they successfully took to the electorate in 1998 and implemented in July 2000. 6533: 6525: 6077: 5875: 5761:. The Australian population reached 10 million in 1959–with Sydney its most populous city. 5273: 5162: 5055: 4787: 4650: 4358: 3958: 3491:

In March 1900, delegates were dispatched to London, including leading federation advocates

2736: 2705: 2565: 2369: 2040: 1936: 1736: 1714:

The perilous situation of The Guardian Frigate as she appeared striking on the rocks of ice

1626: 1415: 1336: 1267: 1049: 987: 703: 585: 482: 311: 18623:

Dutch Discoveries of Australia: Shipwrecks, Treasures and Early Voyages off the West Coast

16565: 16358:"China condemns AUKUS pact, Tony Abbott flags a 'common danger', Kevin Rudd urges caution" 15318:

Bashford and MacIntyre (eds). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2. pp. 182, 353–4

12945:

Rae Wear, "Countrymindedness Revisited", (Australian Political Science Association, 1990)

9315:

Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibilotheca or A Complete Collection of Voyages and Travels

7993:(1966) argued that Australia's distance from Britain had shaped its history and identity. 6559:

which promoted individual contracts and enterprise bargaining. In 2006, it introduced the

5796:(1949–1974). Construction necessitated the expansion of Australia's immigration programme. 5251:, between November 1942 and January 1943, set the tone for the bitter final stages of the 3974: 3548:

on 1 January 1901, and Barton was sworn in as Australia's first prime minister. The first

2866: 1397: 1328: 1105:

Kolaia man wearing a headdress worn in a fire ceremony, Forrest River, Western Australia.

8: 22307: 22080: 21885: 21614: 21499: 21448: 21204: 20554: 20496: 20328: 20291: 20021: 19495: 19230: 19225: 18768:

The Global Lives of Things: The Material Culture of Connections in the Early Modern World

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Batavia's Graveyard: The True Story of the Mad Heretic Who Led History's Bloodiest Mutiny

18102: 17444: 16018:"Scott Morrison contradicts energy advice, saying Paris targets can be met 'at a canter'" 15484:

Goot, Murray (2013). "The new millenium". In Bashford, Alison; MacIntyre, Stuart (eds.).

14695: 13903: 13503: 9430:"In the Beginning..." The Story of the Creation of Australia, From the Original Writings, 9270:"A Useless Discovery? Australia and its People in the Eyes of Others from Tasman to Cook" 9183:, Cambridge University Press for the Hakluyt Society, 1955, pp. 288–91; J.C. Beaglehole, 7831: 7696: 7464: 7358: 7203:

was held on the 14 October 2023 and was rejected nationally. The Yes23 campaign co-chair

7181:. Prime Minister Albanese formed Australia's first Labor government in almost a decade. 7145: 7067: 6880: 6876: 6453: 6440: 6418: 6350: 5252: 5202: 4925: 4878: 4354: 4187: 4161: 4149: 3820: 3816: 3461: 3353: 3259: 3152: 3119: 2553: 2295:. One-third of the shareholders of the first colonial bank (founded in 1817) were women. 2292: 2279: 2095: 2012: 2008: 1732: 1505: 1405: 1249: 1065: 761: 736: 680: 477: 465: 458: 446: 410: 329: 57: 18564:. Translated from the German by Olaf Richter. (Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1976) 18325:

and New Zealand in 1642: With Documents Relating to His Exploration of Australia in 1644

18132:. Translated from the Dutch by C.B. Bodde-Hodgkinson, with an introduction and notes by 15254:

Bashford and MacIntyre (eds) The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2, pp 178–9, 532

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of 12, 13, 17 and 14October 1786, accessible at: www.nla.gov.au/app/eresources/item/3304

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the coalition government was comfortably defeated by Labor under its popular new leader

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misled parliament about the issue. Arguing the government was incompetent following the

5935:, the first federal parliamentarian to identify as Aboriginal, joined the Senate in 1971 5488:. Menzies became the country's longest-serving prime minister and the Liberal party, in 4610:

New South Wales, Jack Lang, to default on overseas debt repayments. According to author

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of the British empire in the following way: "They are autonomous Communities within the

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Climate, Clothing, and Agriculture in Prehistory: Linking Evidence, Causes, and Effects

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frequently toured abroad. The growing number of international art exhibitions, such as

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successfully challenged for the leadership and became prime minister in December 1991.

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derided the defenders as 'rats', a term the soldiers adopted as an ironic compliment: "

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was not implemented in Australia, though anti-alcohol forces were successful in having

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delivering the first resolution at the federation conference in Melbourne, 1 March 1890

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The origins of a distinctly Australian style of painting are often associated with the

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Aboriginal Australians developed a unique artistic and spiritual culture. The earliest

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Patrick White: In 1973, became the first Australian to win a Nobel Prize in Literature

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with the French company Naval Group. The decision drew rebukes from China and France.

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When Menzies retired in 1965, he was replaced as Liberal leader and prime minister by

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Grattan, Michelle (2013). "Kevin Michael Rudd". In Australian Prime Ministers. p 488.

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