Nuclear weapon - Knowledge

3514: 1563:. This is an intense flash of electromagnetic energy produced by a rain of high-energy electrons which in turn are produced by a nuclear bomb's gamma rays. This flash of energy can permanently destroy or disrupt electronic equipment if insufficiently shielded. It has been proposed to use this effect to disable an enemy's military and civilian infrastructure as an adjunct to other nuclear or conventional military operations. By itself it could as well be useful to terrorists for crippling a nation's economic electronics-based infrastructure. Because the effect is most effectively produced by high altitude nuclear detonations (by military weapons delivered by air, though ground bursts also produce EMP effects over a localized area), it can produce damage to electronics over a wide, even continental, geographical area. 152: 3917: 2213: 2398: 2889: 3200: 2104: 1697:. This is a nuclear bomb that is man-portable, or at least truck-portable, and though of a relatively small yield (one or two kilotons) is sufficient to destroy important tactical targets such as bridges, dams, tunnels, important military or commercial installations, etc. either behind enemy lines or pre-emptively on friendly territory soon to be overtaken by invading enemy forces. These weapons require plutonium fuel and are particularly "dirty". They also demand especially stringent security precautions in their storage and deployment. 2651: 1179: 1443: 209: 1148: 2005: 3526: 1643: 3311: 3213: 1786: 1314: 12226: 11713: 781: 1857: 2505: 1118: 3740: 53: 3434: 8142: 2736: 474: 2319: 12250: 12216: 11701: 1673:. Such a weapon could, according to tacticians, be used to cause massive biological casualties while leaving inanimate infrastructure mostly intact and creating minimal fallout. Because high energy neutrons are capable of penetrating dense matter, such as tank armor, neutron warheads were procured in the 1980s (though not deployed in Europe) for use as tactical payloads for US Army artillery shells (200 mm 11725: 8176: 3864: 1570:: nuclear weapons that consist of fusion reactions without requiring a fission bomb to initiate them. Such a device might provide a simpler path to thermonuclear weapons than one that required the development of fission weapons first, and pure fusion weapons would create significantly less nuclear fallout than other thermonuclear weapons because they would not disperse fission products. In 1998, the 1762: 2044:(see above) allow for different types of nuclear strategies. The goals of any strategy are generally to make it difficult for an enemy to launch a pre-emptive strike against the weapon system and difficult to defend against the delivery of the weapon during a potential conflict. This can mean keeping weapon locations hidden, such as deploying them on 2617:. The two years with the highest likelihood had previously been 1953, when the Clock was set to two minutes until midnight after the U.S. and the Soviet Union began testing hydrogen bombs, and 2018, following the failure of world leaders to address tensions relating to nuclear weapons and climate change issues. In 2023, following the 2170:, especially in troubled regions of the world where there exists a single nuclear-weapon state. Aside from the public opinion that opposes proliferation in any form, there are two schools of thought on the matter: those, like Mearsheimer, who favored selective proliferation, and Waltz, who was somewhat more non- 2441:, which prohibits all testing of nuclear weapons. A testing ban imposes a significant hindrance to nuclear arms development by any complying country. The Treaty requires the ratification by 44 specific states before it can go into force; as of 2012, the ratification of eight of these states is still required. 1611:, has been considered as a trigger mechanism for nuclear weapons. A major obstacle is the difficulty of producing antimatter in large enough quantities, and there is no evidence that it is feasible beyond the military domain. However, the U.S. Air Force funded studies of the physics of antimatter in the 2628:

As of 2024, Russia has intensified nuclear threats in Ukraine and is reportedly planning to place nuclear weapons in orbit, breaching the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. China is significantly expanding its nuclear arsenal, with projections of over 1,000 warheads by 2030 and up to 1,500 by 2035. North Korea

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argues that although traditional deterrence is not an effective approach toward terrorist groups bent on causing a nuclear catastrophe, Gallucci believes that "the United States should instead consider a policy of expanded deterrence, which focuses not solely on the would-be nuclear terrorists but on

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in 1996, the use of (or threat of use of) such weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict, but the court did not reach an opinion as to whether or not the threat or use would be lawful in specific extreme circumstances such as if the survival of

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is a fission bomb that increases its explosive yield through a small number of fusion reactions, but it is not a fusion bomb. In the boosted bomb, the neutrons produced by the fusion reactions serve primarily to increase the efficiency of the fission bomb. There are two types of boosted fission bomb:

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stage, and many high-yield thermonuclear devices have a final fission stage, thermonuclear weapons can generate at least as much nuclear fallout as fission-only weapons. Furthermore, high yield thermonuclear explosions (most dangerously ground bursts) have the force to lift radioactive debris upwards

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into two new cells. Even before it was published, news of Meitner's and Frisch's interpretation crossed the Atlantic. In their second publication on nuclear fission in February 1939, Hahn and Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process, opening

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Virtually all thermonuclear weapons deployed today use the "two-stage" design described to the right, but it is possible to add additional fusion stages—each stage igniting a larger amount of fusion fuel in the next stage. This technique can be used to construct thermonuclear weapons of arbitrarily

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they stated that: "The energy liberated in the explosion of such a super-bomb...will, for an instant, produce a temperature comparable to that of the interior of the sun. The blast from such an explosion would destroy life in a wide area. The size of this area is difficult to estimate, but it will

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By the start of the war in September 1939, many scientists likely to be persecuted by the Nazis had already escaped. Physicists on both sides were well aware of the possibility of utilizing nuclear fission as a weapon, but no one was quite sure how it could be engineered. In August 1939, concerned

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of radiation, it is coupled with infertility, sub-fertility and blood disorders. Furthermore, ionizing radiation above a dose of around 50–100 millisievert exposure has been shown to statistically begin increasing one's chance of dying of cancer sometime in their lifetime over the normal unexposed

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or evacuate perpendicular to the direction of the wind, and therefore avoid contact with the fallout plume, and stay there for the days and weeks after the nuclear explosion, their exposure to fallout, and therefore their total dose, will vary. With those who do shelter in place, and or evacuate,

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study claims that fallout from atmospheric nuclear tests would lead to perhaps 11,000 excess deaths among people alive during atmospheric testing in the United States from all forms of cancer, including leukemia, from 1951 to well into the 21st century. As of March 2009, the U.S. is the only

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Over 2,000 nuclear tests have been conducted in over a dozen different sites around the world. Red Russia/Soviet Union, blue France, light blue United States, violet Britain, yellow China, orange India, brown Pakistan, green North Korea and light green (territories exposed to nuclear bombs). The

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claims to have tested a fusion weapon as of January 2016, though this claim is disputed. Thermonuclear weapons are considered much more difficult to successfully design and execute than primitive fission weapons. Almost all of the nuclear weapons deployed today use the thermonuclear design

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might kill 400–450 million directly, mostly in the United States, Europe and Russia, and maybe several hundred million more through follow-up consequences in those same areas. Many scholars have posited that a global thermonuclear war with Cold War-era stockpiles, or even with the current

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cops would collect debris samples and send them to a laboratory for radiological analysis. By identifying unique attributes of the fissile material, including its impurities and contaminants, one could trace the path back to its origin." The process is analogous to identifying a criminal by

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Additionally, there have been other, specific actions meant to discourage countries from developing nuclear arms. In the wake of the tests by India and Pakistan in 1998, economic sanctions were (temporarily) levied against both countries, though neither were signatories with the Nuclear

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said that governments of France, India, North Korea, Pakistan, UK, and South Africa have used nuclear power or research reactors to assist nuclear weapons development or to contribute to their supplies of nuclear explosives from military reactors. In 2017, 122 countries mainly in the

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divulged that the United States had, "...made a substantial investment" in the past to develop pure fusion weapons, but that, "The U.S. does not have and is not developing a pure fusion weapon", and that, "No credible design for a pure fusion weapon resulted from the DOE investment".

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Critics of nuclear war strategy often suggest that a nuclear war between two nations would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the significance of nuclear weapons is to deter war because any nuclear war would escalate out of mutual distrust and fear, resulting in

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of the USSR, which released an energy equivalent of over 50 megatons of TNT (210 PJ), was a three-stage weapon. Most thermonuclear weapons are considerably smaller than this, due to practical constraints from missile warhead space and weight requirements. In the early 1950s the

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says there is a new danger, which cannot be addressed by deterrence: "The classical notion of deterrence was that there was some consequences before which aggressors and evildoers would recoil. In a world of suicide bombers, that calculation doesn't operate in any comparable way".

1537:. It has been conjectured that such a device could serve as a "doomsday weapon" because such a large quantity of radioactivities with half-lives of decades, lifted into the stratosphere where winds would distribute it around the globe, would make all life on the planet extinct. 1509:

internally boosted, in which a deuterium-tritium mixture is injected into the bomb core, and externally boosted, in which concentric shells of lithium-deuteride and depleted uranium are layered on the outside of the fission bomb core. The external method of boosting enabled the

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in 1945. This method places few restrictions on the size of the weapon. It does, however, limit attack range, response time to an impending attack, and the number of weapons that a country can field at the same time. With miniaturization, nuclear bombs can be delivered by both

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A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons (500

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fingerprints. "The goal would be twofold: first, to deter leaders of nuclear states from selling weapons to terrorists by holding them accountable for any use of their weapons; second, to give leaders every incentive to tightly secure their nuclear weapons and materials."

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publicly proposed a three-stage program for abolishing the world's nuclear weapons by the end of the 20th century. In the years after the end of the Cold War, there have been numerous campaigns to urge the abolition of nuclear weapons, such as that organized by the

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in the Congo which produced by far the highest quality uranium ore in the world, had become aware of uranium's possible use in a bomb. In late 1940, fearing that it might be seized by the Germans, he shipped the mine's entire stockpile of ore to a warehouse in New

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has as one of its explicit conditions that all signatories must "pursue negotiations in good faith" towards the long-term goal of "complete disarmament". The nuclear-weapon states have largely treated that aspect of the agreement as "decorative" and without force.

1276:. Another source of radioactivity is the burst of free neutrons produced by the weapon. When they collide with other nuclei in the surrounding material, the neutrons transmute those nuclei into other isotopes, altering their stability and making them radioactive. 2205:, that this complication calls for a new nuclear strategy, one that is distinct from that which gave relative stability during the Cold War. Since 1996, the United States has had a policy of allowing the targeting of its nuclear weapons at terrorists armed with 2521: 2092: 1825:. The design, development, and maintenance of delivery systems are among the most expensive parts of a nuclear weapons program; they account, for example, for 57% of the financial resources spent by the United States on nuclear weapons projects since 1940. 2354:

in the midst of the Cold War. It highlighted the dangers posed by nuclear weapons and called for world leaders to seek peaceful resolutions to international conflict. The signatories included eleven pre-eminent intellectuals and scientists, including

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Additional treaties and agreements have governed nuclear weapons stockpiles between the countries with the two largest stockpiles, the United States and the Soviet Union, and later between the United States and Russia. These include treaties such as

1422:. Each of these components is known as a "stage", with the fission bomb as the "primary" and the fusion capsule as the "secondary". In large, megaton-range hydrogen bombs, about half of the yield comes from the final fissioning of depleted uranium. 3893:. When the nucleus of uranium-235 absorbs a neutron, it undergoes nuclear fission, releasing energy and, on average, 2.5 neutrons. Because uranium-235 releases more neutrons than it absorbs, it can support a chain reaction and so is described as 1987:

Nuclear warfare strategy is a set of policies that deal with preventing or fighting a nuclear war. The policy of trying to prevent an attack by a nuclear weapon from another country by threatening nuclear retaliation is known as the strategy of

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Because they are weapons of mass destruction, the proliferation and possible use of nuclear weapons are important issues in international relations and diplomacy. In most countries, the use of nuclear force can only be authorized by the

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those states that may deliberately transfer or inadvertently leak nuclear weapons and materials to them. By threatening retaliation against those states, the United States may be able to deter that which it cannot physically prevent.".

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forces. Soviet authorities announced similar intentions for neutron warhead deployment in Europe; indeed, they claimed to have originally invented the neutron bomb, but their deployment on USSR tactical nuclear forces is unverifiable.

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and the Presidential Nuclear Initiatives of 1991. Even when they did not enter into force, these agreements helped limit and later reduce the numbers and types of nuclear weapons between the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia.

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to field the first partially thermonuclear weapons, but it is now obsolete because it demands a spherical bomb geometry, which was adequate during the 1950s arms race when bomber aircraft were the only available delivery vehicles.

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equipped with a nuclear warhead exploded. The accident was caused by a maintenance man who dropped a socket from a socket wrench down an 80-foot (24 m) shaft, puncturing a fuel tank on the rocket. Leaking fuel resulted in a

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identified that atoms were breaking down and turning into different elements. Hopes were raised among scientists and laymen that the elements around us could contain tremendous amounts of unseen energy, waiting to be harnessed.

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status (the ability to destroy an enemy's nuclear forces before they could retaliate). During the Cold War, policy and military theorists considered the sorts of policies that might prevent a nuclear attack, and they developed

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but, with little initial funding ($ 6,000), progress was slow. It was not until the U.S. entered the war in December 1941 that Washington decided to commit the necessary resources to a top-secret high priority bomb project.

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justification for them has been the subject of scholarly and popular debate for decades. The question of whether nations should have nuclear weapons, or test them, has been continually and nearly universally controversial.

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Some scientists estimate that a nuclear war with 100 Hiroshima-size nuclear explosions on cities could cost the lives of tens of millions of people from long-term climatic effects alone. The climatology hypothesis is that

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to encourage development of peaceful applications of nuclear technology, provide international safeguards against its misuse, and facilitate the application of safety measures in its use. In 1996, many nations signed the

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has argued that nuclear weapons have helped keep an uneasy peace, and further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoid the large scale conventional wars that were so common before their invention at the end of

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7 hour rule: At 7 hours after detonation the fission product activity will have decreased to about 1/10 (10%) of its amount at 1 hour. At about 2 days (49 hours-7X7) the activity will have decreased to 1% of the 1-hour

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correctly interpreted these results as being due to the splitting of the uranium atom. Frisch confirmed this experimentally on January 13, 1939. They gave the process the name "fission" because of its similarity to the

3771:. Around the turn of the 20th century, it was discovered by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden and then Ernest Rutherford, that atoms had a highly dense, very small, charged central core called an atomic nucleus. In 1898, 3606:

prohibiting atmospheric nuclear testing. Radioactive fallout became less of an issue and the anti-nuclear weapons movement went into decline for some years. A resurgence of interest occurred amid European and American

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is progressing in intercontinental ballistic missile tests and has a mutual-defense treaty with Russia, exchanging artillery for possible missile technology. Iran is currently viewed as a nuclear "threshold" state.

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accidentally fell from a bomber near Albuquerque, New Mexico. The detonation of the device's conventional explosives destroyed it on impact and formed a crater 25 feet (7.6 m) in diameter on land owned by the

9524: 6175: 2262:" of the Joint Chiefs of Staffs website Publication, "Integration of nuclear weapons employment with conventional and special operations forces is essential to the success of any mission or operation." 1615:, and began considering its possible use in weapons, not just as a trigger, but as the explosive itself. A fourth generation nuclear weapon design is related to, and relies upon, the same principle as 1474:, where the calm non-turbulent winds permit the debris to travel great distances from the burst, eventually settling and unpredictably contaminating areas far removed from the target of the explosion. 6265: 6018: 3362:

Delayed period—from 20+ weeks. Characterized by numerous complications, mostly related to healing of thermal and mechanical injuries, and if the individual was exposed to a few hundred to a thousand

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makes a similar case, arguing that the key to expanded deterrence is coming up with ways of tracing nuclear material to the country that forged the fissile material. "After a nuclear bomb detonates,

4687: 1351:). All such weapons derive a significant portion of their energy from fission reactions used to "trigger" fusion reactions, and fusion reactions can themselves trigger additional fission reactions. 8132: 1190:

All existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as

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or NPIHP is a global network of individuals and institutions engaged in the study of international nuclear history through archival documents, oral history interviews and other empirical sources.

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possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them. The only countries known to have detonated nuclear weapons—and acknowledge possessing them—are (chronologically by date of first test) the

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Xia, Lili; Robock, Alan; Scherrer, Kim; Harrison, Cheryl S.; Bodirsky, Benjamin Leon; Weindl, Isabelle; Jägermeyr, Jonas; Bardeen, Charles G.; Toon, Owen B.; Heneghan, Ryan (August 15, 2022).

5852: 3541:." Japanese opposition to nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific Ocean was widespread, and "an estimated 35 million signatures were collected on petitions calling for bans on nuclear weapons". 3338:

People near the Hiroshima explosion and who managed to survive the explosion subsequently suffered a variety of horrible medical effects. Some of these effects are still present to this day:

3331:, a great deal of soot could be thrown up into the atmosphere which could blanket the earth, cutting out sunlight for years on end, causing the disruption of food chains, in what is termed a 3102:, Spain. The non-nuclear explosives in two of the weapons detonated upon impact with the ground, resulting in the contamination of a 2-square-kilometer (490-acre) (0.78 square mile) area by 5596: 1552:

but this did not result in a working weapon. The concept involves the tapping of the energy of an exploding nuclear bomb to power a single-shot laser that is directed at a distant target.

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led to a temporary boycotting of the popular staple in Japan. The incident caused widespread concern around the world, especially regarding the effects of nuclear fallout and atmospheric

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Proponents of nuclear disarmament say that it would lessen the probability of nuclear war, especially accidentally. Critics of nuclear disarmament say that it would undermine the present

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As public awareness and concern mounted over the possible health hazards associated with exposure to the nuclear fallout, various studies were done to assess the extent of the hazard. A

1237:—either by shooting one piece of sub-critical material into another (the "gun" method) or by compression of a sub-critical sphere or cylinder of fissile material using chemically fueled 5693: 5249: 3572:, England, to demonstrate their opposition to nuclear weapons. The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four-day marches. 6799: 10476: 9543: 1992:. The goal in deterrence is to always maintain a second strike capability (the ability of a country to respond to a nuclear attack with one of its own) and potentially to strive for 8130: 4565: 3090:. The KC-135 was completely destroyed when its fuel load ignited, killing all four crew members. The B-52G broke apart, killing three of the seven crew members aboard. Of the four 1241:. The latter approach, the "implosion" method, is more sophisticated and more efficient (smaller, less massive, and requiring less of the expensive fissile fuel) than the former. 1143:: "If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the mighty one "... "I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds". 2732:

stated that "no issue carries more importance to the long-term health and security of humanity than the effort to reduce, and perhaps one day, rid the world of nuclear weapons".

9510: 7999:... Unless Washington and Moscow confront these problems now, a major international conflict or nuclear escalation is disturbingly plausible—perhaps even likely." (p. 161.) 6763: 2746:

to dismantle a Soviet-era missile silo. After the end of the Cold War, Ukraine and the other non-Russian, post-Soviet republics relinquished Soviet nuclear stockpiles to Russia.

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who calculated uranium-235's critical mass and found it to be much smaller than previously thought which meant that a deliverable bomb should be possible. In the February 1940

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can be desirable. In this case, it is argued that, unlike conventional weapons, nuclear weapons deter all-out war between states, and they succeeded in doing this during the

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rate of ~25%, in the long term, a heightened rate of cancer, proportional to the dose received, would begin to be observed after ~5+ years, with lesser problems such as eye

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Nuclear disarmament refers to both the act of reducing or eliminating nuclear weapons and to the end state of a nuclear-free world, in which nuclear weapons are eliminated.

3751:) absorbs a thermal neutron, becomes unstable and splits into two new atoms, releasing some energy and between one and three new neutrons, which can perpetuate the process. 3687:. During the 1960s and 1970s, both the United States and the Soviet Union conducted a number of PNEs. The United States created plans for several uses of PNEs, including 1299:

may be usable for nuclear explosives as well, but it is not clear that this has ever been implemented, and their plausible use in nuclear weapons is a matter of dispute.

11756: 5516: 5279: 4912: 1905:. Today, missiles are most common among systems designed for delivery of nuclear weapons. Making a warhead small enough to fit onto a missile, though, can be difficult. 5209: 4831: 7937:. Missile defenses will not allow us to escape our vulnerability to nuclear weapons. Instead large-scale developments will create barriers to taking real steps toward 7915:

and David Wright, "Broken Shield: Missiles designed to destroy incoming nuclear warheads fail frequently in tests and could increase global risk of mass destruction",

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The United States and the Soviet Union later halted their programs. Definitions and limits are covered in the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty of 1976. The stalled

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Critics from the peace movement and within the military establishment have questioned the usefulness of such weapons in the current military climate. According to an

11256: 8131: 3449:. Detonating large numbers of nuclear weapons would have an immediate, short term and long-term effects on the climate, potentially causing cold weather known as a " 994: 11859: 1886:

trajectory to deliver the warhead over the horizon. Although even short-range missiles allow for a faster and less vulnerable attack, the development of long-range

6729: 7646:. Fidlar Doubleday, 2004 (Two volumes, both accessible on Google Book Search) (Content of both volumes is now available in the 2009 trilogy by Alexander DeVolpi: 7361:"Gerald R. Ford: "Message to the Senate Transmitting United States-Soviet Treaty and Protocol on the Limitation of Underground Nuclear Explosions", July 29, 1976" 6582: 4657: 2339:. Despite controls and regulations governing nuclear weapons, there is an inherent danger of "accidents, mistakes, false alarms, blackmail, theft, and sabotage". 8345: 5574: 767: 6954: 5791: 2999:"—an accident involving a nuclear weapon, but which does not present a risk of war. Experts believe that up to 50 nuclear weapons were lost during the Cold War. 11749: 8062:

episode, likewise titled "Command and Control". Nuclear weapons continue to be equally hazardous to their owners as to their potential targets. Under the 1970

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has said, "If you think of the people who are doing suicide attacks, and people like that get a nuclear weapon, they are almost by definition not deterrable".

2618: 2390:(1968) attempted to place restrictions on the types of activities signatories could participate in, with the goal of allowing the transference of non-military 1325:

The other basic type of nuclear weapon produces a large proportion of its energy in nuclear fusion reactions. Such fusion weapons are generally referred to as

5756: 5671: 4761: 11819: 10664: 6463: 5885: 5408: 810: 6257: 6010: 4469: 1849:. This method is the primary means of nuclear weapons delivery; the majority of U.S. nuclear warheads, for example, are free-fall gravity bombs, namely the 12080: 11780: 11772: 4679: 3513: 3342:

Initial stage—the first 1–9 weeks, in which are the greatest number of deaths, with 90% due to thermal injury or blast effects and 10% due to super-lethal

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total number of deaths is not known precisely ... acute (within two to four months) deaths ... Hiroshima ... 90,000–166,000 ... Nagasaki ... 60,000–80,000

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in August 2022, a full-scale nuclear war between the U.S. and Russia would directly kill 360 million people and more than 5 billion people would die from

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How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda

6288: 5988: 2992: 6978:"Global food insecurity and famine from reduced crop, marine fishery and livestock production due to climate disruption from nuclear war soot injection" 5720: 4801:

Gsponer, Andre; Hurni, Jean-Pierre (1987). "The physics of antimatter induced fusion and thermonuclear explosions". In Velarde, G.; Minguez, E. (eds.).

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emitted first compress the fusion fuel, then heat it to thermonuclear temperatures. The ensuing fusion reaction creates enormous numbers of high-speed

1100: 1093: 341: 8104:, vol. 325, no. 2 (August 2021), pp. 64–71. "Failure to fully assess is a recipe for wasteful spending and increased global risk." (p. 71.) 11864: 9435: 9250: 8227:– contains resources related to nuclear weapons, including a historical and technical overview and searchable bibliography of web and print resources 3224:

in the background. Scenes such as this were typical during the 1950s. From 1951 to 1962 the government conducted 100 atmospheric tests at the nearby

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Some nuclear weapons are designed for special purposes; most of these are for non-strategic (decisively war-winning) purposes and are referred to as

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danger (premature nuclear chain reaction caused by too-large amounts of pre-assembled fissile fuel). The largest nuclear weapon ever detonated, the

894:). A thermonuclear weapon weighing as little as 600 pounds (270 kg) can release energy equal to more than 1.2 megatonnes of TNT (5.0 PJ). 11367: 7995:

has been "destabilized" by "clashing national interests, insufficient dialogue, eroding arms control structures, advanced missile systems, and new

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was created in 1957 to encourage peaceful development of nuclear technology while providing international safeguards against nuclear proliferation.

7660: 6921: 6235: 6048: 5606: 4904: 4267: 3870:, pictured in about 1960, invented the electron microscope, linear accelerator, cyclotron, nuclear chain reaction and patented the nuclear reactor 3645:, between 1940 and 1996, the U.S. spent $ 11.3 trillion in present-day terms on nuclear weapons programs. 57% of which was spent on building 3274:

of 1990, more than $ 1.38 billion in compensation has been approved. The money is going to people who took part in the tests, notably at the

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in the United States had plans for the testing of two massive bombs, Gnomon and Sundial, 1 gigaton of TNT and 10 gigatons of TNT respectively.

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In the late 1940s, lack of mutual trust prevented the United States and the Soviet Union from making progress on arms control agreements. The

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being a prominent example) which exist in an elevated energy state. Mechanisms to release this energy as bursts of gamma radiation (as in the

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instead of a sovereign nation, there might not be a nation or specific target to retaliate against. It has been argued, especially after the

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bunkers. Other components of nuclear strategies included using missile defenses to destroy the missiles before they land or implementing

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Only one country—South Africa—has ever fully renounced nuclear weapons they had independently developed. The former Soviet republics of

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Committee to Review the CDC-NCI Feasibility Study of the Health Consequences Nuclear Weapons Tests, National Research Council (2003).

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believe that nuclear war could indirectly contribute to human extinction via secondary effects, including environmental consequences,

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By the 1960s, steps were taken to limit both the proliferation of nuclear weapons to other countries and the environmental effects of

12109: 12086: 12006: 10762: 5127: 3479: 1837: 1001: 922: 803: 536: 531: 449: 12018: 11001: 4615: 2625:, the doomsday clock was set to 90 seconds, the highest likelihood of global catastrophe since the existence of the Doomsday Clock. 11947: 4887: 2545: 2454: 2279: 1041: 646: 631: 546: 392: 7169:

How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States

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have been of great strategic importance for the United States, Russia, and other nuclear powers since they entered service in the

1894:(SLBMs) has given some nations the ability to plausibly deliver missiles anywhere on the globe with a high likelihood of success. 12146: 11839: 11794: 11212: 11052: 10991: 4857: 3508: 1720:

also used small nuclear warheads (optimized to produce neutron or X-ray flux) but were for use against enemy strategic warheads.

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In addition, leakage of byproducts of nuclear weapon production into groundwater has been an ongoing issue, particularly at the

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and deterrence and would lead to increased global instability. Various American elder statesmen, who were in office during the

2498: 1436: 1049: 1029: 1021: 701: 686: 656: 641: 611: 591: 566: 551: 541: 362: 352: 6465: 5508: 5271: 11741: 10186: 9893: 9243: 9139: 8659: 8265: 7838: 7752: 7706: 7599: 7568: 7537: 7508: 7471: 7452: 7431: 6483: 6344: 6214: 5650: 5368: 5217: 5086: 4984: 4945: 4441: 4366: 4234: 4036: 3725: 3695: 3162: 2674: 2541: 2438: 2295: 2291: 2259: 1943:, have been developed, although the difficulty of combining sufficient yield with portability limits their military utility. 1674: 1394:, which accounts for all multi-megaton yield hydrogen bombs, this is accomplished by placing a fission bomb and fusion fuel ( 1037: 1033: 696: 606: 601: 576: 561: 556: 378: 367: 357: 117: 7786: 5475: 12141: 11936: 11008: 4712: 4046: 2872: 2155: 1891: 1756: 796: 784: 586: 581: 282: 89: 7655: 5170:

Gallucci, Robert (September 2006). "Averting Nuclear Catastrophe: Contemplating Extreme Responses to U.S. Vulnerability".

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of France; the book also contains about ten chapters on true historical incidents involving nuclear weapons and strategy.

7360: 6947:"World Nuclear war between the U.S. and Russia would kill more than 5 billion people – just from starvation, study finds" 6718: 5307: 4230: 4016: 3271: 3011:. According to a researcher at the Natural Resources Defense Council, it was one of the most powerful bombs made to date. 2644: 1009: 331: 8686: 8212: 7057: 6668: 6442: 3142:

when a cabin fire forced the crew to abandon the aircraft. Six crew members ejected safely, but one who did not have an

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calls on States to ensure that these weapons are never used, irrespective of whether they consider them lawful or not.

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experiencing a total dose that would be negligible in comparison to someone who just went about their life as normal.

2088:. This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism. 96: 12135: 12104: 11964: 11893: 10287: 10166: 8701: 8022: 7869: 7855: 7821: 7805: 7721: 7637: 6946: 6794: 6076: 5814: 5316: 2779: 2614: 2562:

was an accusation by the United States that Iraq was actively pursuing nuclear arms (though this was soon discovered

2533: 2509: 2166:, have argued, along the lines of Gallois, that some forms of nuclear proliferation would decrease the likelihood of 1935:

has been tested by the United States. Small, two-man portable tactical weapons (somewhat misleadingly referred to as

660: 136: 6850: 6361: 5667: 3897:. Uranium-238, on the other hand, is not fissile as it does not normally undergo fission when it absorbs a neutron. 11996: 11517: 11382: 9917: 9486: 9236: 5760: 4753: 3549: 2980: 2822: 2678: 9460: 7525:

Technology and International Transformation: The Railroad, the Atom Bomb, and the Politics of Technological Change

5874: 5419: 3732: 2972:, and died nine days later on May 30, 1946. After the death of Daghlian and Slotin, the mass became known as the " 2197:

might not deter an enemy who expects to die in the confrontation. Further, if the initial act is from a stateless

11898: 11460: 11294: 10896: 10774: 10431: 10292: 8289: 7882: 7701:" (CD-ROM & download available). PDF. 2,600 pages, Sunnyvale, California, Chucklea Publications, 1995, 2007. 5879: 4458: 3454: 2956:

May 21, 1946: While conducting further experiments on the same core at Los Alamos National Laboratory, physicist

2829: 2743: 2379: 2275: 2233: 1901:(MIRVs), can launch multiple warheads at different targets from one missile, reducing the chance of a successful 596: 151: 70: 8965: 8313: 4803:

Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Emerging Nuclear Energy Systems, Madrid, June 30/July 4, 1986

4436:" (CD-ROM & download available). PDF. 2,600 pages, Sunnyvale, California, Chuklea Publications, 1995, 2007. 103: 12196: 11450: 11299: 10757: 9810: 9739: 9455: 8696: 8354: 8052: 7334: 5384: 3902: 3232:

Over 500 atmospheric nuclear weapons tests were conducted at various sites around the world from 1945 to 1980.

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As of early 2019, more than 90% of world's 13,865 nuclear weapons were owned by Russia and the United States.

2517: 2343: 2096: 1053: 74: 12034: 5984: 4592: 3910: 3691:. Six of the explosions by the Soviet Union are considered to have been of an applied nature, not just tests. 3258:, and "provided a decisive impetus for the emergence of the anti-nuclear weapons movement in many countries". 11829: 11224: 11057: 10481: 10409: 9667: 8629: 8624: 7812: 5731: 4827: 3961: 3628: 3294: 3048: 2175: 1560: 1387:

because it results in an explosion hundreds of times stronger than that of a fission bomb of similar weight.

950: 737: 442: 260: 17: 5107:"Should We Let the Bomb Spread? Edited by Mr. Henry D. Sokolski. Strategic studies institute. November 2016" 5106: 3698:

of 1996 would prohibit all nuclear explosions, regardless of whether they are for peaceful purposes or not.

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is a thermonuclear weapon that yields a relatively small explosion but a relatively large amount of neutron

12275: 11990: 11804: 11567: 11304: 11013: 10767: 10264: 9647: 9616: 9065: 8243: 8027: 7176: 7156: 4732:

Gsponer, Andre (2005). "Fourth Generation Nuclear Weapons: Military effectiveness and collateral effects".

4057: 3916: 3561: 3475: 3023: 3015: 2359:, who signed it just days before his death on April 18, 1955. A few days after the release, philanthropist 2194: 2085: 2049: 1541: 85: 8274: 7901: 1700:

Small "tactical" nuclear weapons were deployed for use as antiaircraft weapons. Examples include the USAF

1321:

for a hydrogen bomb: a fission bomb uses radiation to compress and heat a separate section of fusion fuel.

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for his work to stop the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, and the "Ban the Bomb" movement spread.

2931: 2622: 2481:, areas where nuclear weapons production and deployment are prohibited, through the use of treaties. The 2383: 2206: 2107: 1911:

have involved the most variety of delivery types, including not only gravity bombs and missiles but also

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Some analysts have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer, with peace through

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Nuclear weapons have also been opposed by agreements between countries. Many nations have been declared

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Thermonuclear bombs work by using the energy of a fission bomb to compress and heat fusion fuel. In the

878:

released energy approximately equal to 10 million tons of TNT (42 PJ). Nuclear bombs have had

12240: 12002: 11930: 11551: 11410: 11089: 10607: 10564: 10416: 9756: 9621: 9191: 8676: 7694: 6908: 5333: 4429: 3812: 3713: 3707: 3670: 3038: 2818: 2171: 1993: 1962: 1427: 465: 383: 228: 31: 7941:—by blocking further cuts in nuclear arsenals and potentially spurring new deployments." (p. 67.) 3474:, and economic collapse. It has been estimated that a relatively small-scale nuclear exchange between 2524:". The court ruled that the use or threat of use of nuclear weapons would violate various articles of 2052:

whose locations are difficult to track, or it can mean protecting weapons by burying them in hardened

1268:(but short-lived) or moderately radioactive (but long-lived), and as such, they are a serious form of 12254: 12220: 12156: 12065: 11799: 11705: 11387: 10996: 10779: 9186: 8166: 6693: 3650: 3620: 3266: 3155: 3067: 3034: 3030: 2759:

movement, and the goal of a "world without nuclear weapons" was advocated by United States President

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large yield. This is in contrast to fission bombs, which are limited in their explosive power due to

1406:) in proximity within a special, radiation-reflecting container. When the fission bomb is detonated, 1269: 9349: 9344: 4263: 3495:. More than 2 billion people could die from a smaller-scale nuclear war between India and Pakistan. 2677:, there have been many treaties to limit or reduce nuclear weapons testing and stockpiles. The 1968 12270: 11635: 11477: 11377: 11289: 10498: 10384: 10344: 10156: 9827: 9181: 9176: 8451: 8299: 8220: 8074: 7974: 7967:, "The Return of Doomsday: The New Nuclear Arms Race – and How Washington and Moscow Can Stop It", 7485: 3816: 3654: 3646: 3624: 3008: 2950: 2610: 2478: 2212: 2115: 2076: 2041: 1814: 1740: 435: 248: 8542: 7079: 4828:"Air Force pursuing antimatter weapons: Program was touted publicly, then came official gag order" 3359:

Late period—lasting from 13 to 20 weeks. This period has some improvement in survivors' condition.

2839:

and the strengthening of the disarmament regimes in respect to other weapons of mass destruction,

1162:

There are two basic types of nuclear weapons: those that derive the majority of their energy from

1103:

aims to reduce the spread of nuclear weapons, but there are different views of its effectiveness.

12181: 12171: 11540: 11507: 11482: 11096: 10873: 10679: 10602: 10559: 10542: 10503: 10426: 9166: 8389: 8180: 8147: 6550:"Radiation Exposure Compensation System: Claims to Date Summary of Claims Received by 06/11/2009" 6549: 6133: 4011: 3603: 3241: 3131: 3075: 2670: 2563: 1794: 1694: 1655: 1453:

Fusion reactions do not create fission products, and thus contribute far less to the creation of

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Elemental Germans: Klaus Fuchs, Rudolf Peierls and the Making of British Nuclear Culture 1939–59

7235: 4776:"Page discussing the possibility of using antimatter as a trigger for a thermonuclear explosion" 4535: 1868: 12285: 12176: 11977: 11372: 10659: 10203: 9207: 9171: 8087: 7167: 7147: 4494: 4021: 3929: 3857: 3636: 3482:

yield (15 kilotons) weapons, could cause a nuclear winter and kill more than a billion people.

3371:

and other more minor effects in other organs and tissue also being observed over the long term.

3095: 2996: 2903:

were divided over the use of the weapon. The role of the two atomic bombings of the country in

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until 2015, with a precipitous drop in total numbers following the end of the Cold War in 1991.

2578:, in what it called an attempt to halt Iraq's previous nuclear arms ambitions; in 2007, Israel 2501:

was established among the former Soviet republics of Central Asia prohibiting nuclear weapons.

2397: 1928: 1505: 1495: 1483: 1318: 1234: 1122: 863: 11771: 8200: 7523: 5954: 4976: 4970: 2771:

poll from April 2010 indicated that the American public was nearly evenly split on the issue.

1378:—have conducted thermonuclear weapon tests. Whether India has detonated a "true" multi-staged 11666: 11402: 11357: 10819: 10747: 10674: 10669: 10634: 10421: 10389: 10176: 10103: 9691: 9476: 9117: 9112: 9107: 9102: 9035: 9025: 9010: 8985: 8980: 8975: 8960: 8940: 8930: 8925: 8895: 8885: 8654: 8649: 8634: 8547: 8537: 8532: 8522: 8512: 8507: 8067: 7666: 7585: 7554: 7421: 6630: 6103: 4935: 4514: 4381: 4161: 4031: 4006: 3642: 2313: 2127: 1818: 1723:

Other small, or tactical, nuclear weapons were deployed by naval forces for use primarily as

1623: 1151: 1130: 1112: 910: 742: 317: 302: 238: 183: 39: 7767: 7213: 6519: 5354:

Spying on the bomb: American nuclear intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea.

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or nuclear armed torpedoes. Nuclear mines for use on land or at sea are also possibilities.

110: 12166: 12028: 11577: 11352: 11337: 10654: 10612: 10448: 10354: 10282: 9876: 9594: 8900: 8875: 8870: 8798: 8793: 8783: 8778: 8773: 8768: 8763: 8758: 8753: 8748: 8743: 8728: 8619: 8588: 8502: 8497: 8446: 8441: 8436: 8431: 8426: 8162: 6324: 6320: 6312: 5332:

Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (2010). "

5124: 4347: 3996: 3991: 3680: 3166: 3042: 3019: 3003: 2698: 2482: 2364: 2202: 2178:

that it generates continues to this day, with ongoing debate about indigenous Japanese and

2139: 1982: 1920: 1545: 1491: 1458: 1379: 1327: 1308: 879: 844: 503: 265: 253: 4308: 3661:, and 7% of the total$ , 795 billion was spent on making nuclear weapons themselves. 3055:

attack aircraft with a nuclear weapon fell into the sea. The pilot, the aircraft, and the

2520:, the highest court of the United Nations, issued an Advisory Opinion concerned with the " 2060:

measures using early-warning systems to evacuate citizens to safe areas before an attack.

8: 12151: 11676: 11487: 11272: 10866: 10734: 10712: 10537: 10394: 10161: 10123: 9956: 9578: 9259: 8492: 8487: 8482: 8477: 8421: 8416: 8411: 8406: 8401: 8100: 8059: 7938: 7917: 7328:"Announcement of Treaty on Underground Nuclear Explosions Peaceful Purposes (PNE Treaty)" 6313:"Command and Control: Nuclear Weapons, the Damascus Accident, and the Illusion of Safety" 6155: 5601: 3545: 3504: 3446: 3233: 3135: 3079: 3071: 3052: 2988: 2892: 2848: 2712:

period, have been advocating the elimination of nuclear weapons. These officials include

2638: 2494: 2009: 1590: 1586: 307: 187: 11953: 7782: – the first declassified report by the US government on nuclear weapons) 6328: 5721:"The Stability-Instability Paradox, Misperception, and Escalation Control in South Asia" 4883: 2888: 1559:

high-altitude nuclear test in 1962, an unexpected effect was produced which is called a

866:

of a fission ("atomic") bomb released an amount of energy approximately equal to 20,000

12059: 12022: 11959: 11656: 11392: 11229: 11156: 10967: 10617: 10587: 10571: 10554: 10198: 10088: 10036: 9986: 9933: 9856: 8040:

Command and Control: Nuclear Weapons, the Damascus Accident, and the Illusion of Safety

7762: 7560: 7084: 7019: 6889: 6842: 5187: 5032: 5002:"Conversations in International Relations: Interview with John J. Mearsheimer (Part I)" 4806: 4733: 3941: 3925: 3847: 3403:

or escaping completely from this substance depending on the actions of the individual.

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Even before the first nuclear weapons had been developed, scientists involved with the

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DeVolpi, Alexander, Minkov, Vladimir E., Simonenko, Vadim A., and Stanford, George S.

5875:"Global Nuclear Arsenal Declines, But Future Cuts Uncertain Amid U.S.-Russia Tensions" 4853: 3250:. One of the fishermen died in Japan seven months later, and the fear of contaminated 1581:

provide a possible pathway to fissionless fusion bombs. These are naturally occurring

981:. These bombings caused injuries that resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 12161: 12124: 10724: 10517: 10404: 10379: 10317: 10274: 10118: 10113: 10108: 9951: 8095: 8048: 8018: 7896: 7865: 7851: 7834: 7817: 7801: 7748: 7717: 7702: 7633: 7595: 7564: 7533: 7427: 7307: 7261: 7023: 7011: 6893: 6846: 6489: 6479: 6467:

Exposure of the American Population to Radioactive Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests

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1958, when, according to the CND, several thousand people marched for four days from

3518: 3471: 3458: 3412: 3110: 3103: 2969: 2900: 2836: 2775: 2751: 2579: 2525: 2251: 2190: 2143: 2123: 2017: 1989: 1956: 1916: 1912: 1549: 1518: 1499: 1403: 1265: 1155: 1126: 848: 312: 297: 292: 287: 223: 7727: 7281: 5191: 5040: 4775: 4289: 3154:, causing the nuclear payload to rupture and disperse, which resulted in widespread 2189:

The threat of potentially suicidal terrorists possessing nuclear weapons (a form of

1593:) have been proposed as possible triggers for conventional thermonuclear reactions. 1279:

The most commonly used fissile materials for nuclear weapons applications have been

12047: 11572: 10627: 10592: 10349: 10339: 10227: 10215: 10056: 10051: 10041: 10031: 10026: 9334: 8935: 8910: 8905: 8880: 8854: 8838: 8833: 8828: 8823: 8818: 8813: 8808: 8803: 8788: 8603: 8461: 8190: 7944: 7667:

NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Operations (Part I – Nuclear)

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The Presidential Nuclear Initiatives (PNIs) on Tactical Nuclear Weapons At a Glance

5179: 5016: 4645: 4121: 4026: 3882:

would be the element which can realize his 1933 idea about nuclear chain reaction.

3835: 3748: 3557: 3463: 3376: 3275: 3225: 3091: 3083: 3056: 2984: 2840: 2725: 2351: 2217: 2163: 2103: 1952: 1908: 1850: 1842: 1748: 1713: 1689:

A type of nuclear explosive most suitable for use by ground special forces was the

1419: 1218: 1214: 832: 828: 488: 171: 6885: 5365: 5082: 4054:(Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean) 3649:

systems. 6.3% of the total$ , 709 billion in present-day terms, was spent on

3236:

from nuclear weapons testing was first drawn to public attention in 1954 when the

3212: 2497:(1964) prohibits nuclear weapons in many African countries. As recently as 2006 a 1805:. Upon its first fielding in the late 1960s, the SS-18 remains the single highest 1264:, the remains of the split atomic nuclei. Many fission products are either highly 11470: 11430: 10884: 10698: 10622: 10597: 10443: 10236: 10138: 10128: 10093: 9971: 9961: 9568: 8598: 8456: 8317: 8293: 8278: 8260: 8247: 8224: 8204: 8006: 7969: 7960: 7922: 7774: 7756: 7734: 7698: 7673: 6412: 6140: 6071: 5937: 5578: 5404: 5391: 5372: 5340: 5311: 5244: 5156: 5149: 5131: 5090: 4891: 4716: 4521: 4501: 4433: 3906: 3800: 3744: 3420: 3255: 3188: 2792: 2713: 2650: 2590: 2567: 2508:

The number of nuclear warheads by country in 2024, based on an estimation by the

2375: 2356: 2240: 2033: 1978: 1932: 1924: 1902: 1861: 1822: 1666: 1608: 1578: 1462: 1454: 1273: 1250: 1183: 1163: 1081: 942: 836: 493: 233: 175: 10962: 8323: 4379: 4132:

In the United States, the President and the Secretary of Defense, acting as the

2063:

Weapons designed to threaten large populations or to deter attacks are known as

1178: 12280: 12186: 12053: 12012: 11425: 11420: 11415: 11165: 11072: 11041: 11023: 10547: 10453: 10399: 10297: 10244: 10098: 9991: 9976: 9966: 9775: 9599: 9534: 8305:

The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project

8034: 7793: 7132:(Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988), chapters 16 and 19. 6996: 6977: 6838: 5805: 5300: 4454: 3957: 3953: 3820: 3537:

Peace movements emerged in Japan and in 1954 they converged to form a unified "

3450: 3428: 3416: 3400: 3332: 3221: 2976:". It was ultimately used to construct a bomb for use on the Nevada Test Range. 2942: 2883: 2606: 2433: 2360: 2247: 1846: 1790: 1717: 1556: 1418:, which can then induce fission in materials not normally prone to it, such as 1363: 1238: 1207: 1167: 891: 867: 840: 681: 322: 270: 191: 11445: 7426:. Great Discoveries in Science. Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC. p. 33. 7368: 7206:"Estimated Minimum Incurred Costs of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Programs, 1940–1996" 6790:"Nowhere to hide: How a nuclear war would kill you — and almost everyone else" 6438: 5304: 4238: 2697:

returned Soviet nuclear arms stationed in their countries to Russia after the

12264: 11610: 10901: 10307: 10148: 9709: 9657: 9318: 9308: 9283: 8375: 8081:, Simon and Schuster, 2021, 384 pp.; and Keir A. Lieber and Daryl G. Press, 8044: 8002: 7988: 7844: 7826: 7591: 7053: 6660: 5550: 5183: 5065:

Kenneth Waltz, "More May Be Better", in Scott Sagan and Kenneth Waltz, eds.,

5028: 5020: 4709: 4495:

Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions: 4.5.2 "Dirty" and "Clean" Weapons

4393: 4323:. Nuclear Threat Initiatives, South Africa (NTI South Africa). Archived from 3967: 3921: 3764: 3592: 3424: 3205: 3143: 3139: 2961: 2937:

August 21, 1945: While conducting experiments on a plutonium-gallium core at

2797: 2783: 2717: 2705: 2486: 2336: 2159: 2151: 2057: 1966: 1936: 1744: 1724: 1709: 1705: 1650:

missile. Capable of firing a 100-kiloton nuclear warhead a distance of 185 km

1647: 1446: 1355: 1292: 1284: 1226: 1139: 938: 5444: 4884:

Estimated Minimum Incurred Costs of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Programs, 1940–1996

4880:

Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940.

1442: 12129: 12075: 12070: 11176: 10312: 10254: 10181: 10133: 10003: 9881: 9662: 9313: 9303: 9298: 9293: 9278: 9273: 9085: 8253: 8150:

was created from a revision of this article dated 1 December 2005

7981: 7977: 7779: 7680: 7015: 6493: 5847: 5819: 4459:"Neptunium 237 and Americium: World Inventories and Proliferation Concerns" 3843: 3824: 3772: 3759:

was revolutionized with developments in the understanding of the nature of

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Intermediate stage—from 10 to 12 weeks. The deaths in this period are from

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Preferable from a strategic point of view is a nuclear weapon mounted on a

1829: 1806: 1778: 1766: 1728: 1682: 1662: 1634:

or requirements for special materials, especially fissile fuel or tritium.

1627: 1487: 1471: 1085: 1017: 958: 946: 926: 11773:

Nuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sites

9532: 9228: 6872:

Tonn, Bruce & MacGregor, Donald (2009). "A singular chain of events".

5942:

Profiles in Power: The Anti-nuclear Movement and the Dawn of the Solar Age

5272:"Nuclear weapons: experts alarmed by new Pentagon 'war-fighting' doctrine" 3525: 3310: 1785: 1642: 1630:, and in manipulating design elements to attempt to minimize weapon size, 12201: 11587: 11234: 10824: 10331: 10302: 9652: 9573: 8593: 8012: 7996: 7912: 7006: 6982: 3986: 3971: 3949: 3890: 3886: 3875: 3867: 3776: 3768: 3608: 3565: 3487: 3194: 2735: 2554: 2183: 2179: 2025: 1998: 1802: 1701: 1530: 1383: 1288: 1280: 1073: 167: 6822: 6756:"You're More Likely to Die in a Human Extinction Event Than a Car Crash" 6041:"Accident Revealed After 29 Years: H-Bomb Fell Near Albuquerque in 1957" 5096:, no. 171 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1981). 4811: 4738: 2544:. Given the unique, destructive characteristics of nuclear weapons, the 1313: 1147: 937:

Nuclear weapons have only twice been used in warfare, both times by the

12191: 10940: 9380: 9375: 9370: 8383: 7953: 7948: 7926: 7625: 7529: 4710:

Restricted Data Declassification Decisions, 1946 to the Present (RDD-8)

4001: 3492: 3171: 2973: 2856: 2825: 2690: 2537: 1883: 1596: 1533:. This device can produce exceptionally large quantities of long-lived 1467: 1431: 962: 887: 179: 8284: 7973:, vol. 98, no. 5 (September / October 2019), pp. 150–161. Former 7677:. Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force: Washington, D.C., 1996 7577: 6616:

Alan Robock and Owen Brian Toon. Local Nuclear War, Global Suffering,

6414:

Anti-nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy

6336: 5843:"Here's how many nuclear warheads exist, and which countries own them" 3099: 2504: 1856: 11983: 11582: 10945: 10935: 10063: 10016: 9981: 9902: 9796: 8310: 8079:

The Bomb: Presidents, Generals, and the Secret History of Nuclear War

6391:

Stumpf, David K. (2000). Christ, Mark K.; Slater, Cathryn H. (eds.).

5160:, November/December 1998, page 4. Fetched from URL on April 18, 2011. 4825: 4425:

San Antonio, TX: Aerofax, 1988; and the more-updated Hansen, Chuck, "

3831: 3792: 3780: 3569: 3392: 3343: 3328: 3217: 3151: 3106: 2965: 2945:

received a lethal dose of radiation when an error caused it to enter

2852: 2817:

The UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) is a department of the

2490: 2485:(1967) prohibited any production or deployment of nuclear weapons in 2466: 2303: 2198: 2167: 2045: 1817:

a nuclear weapon to its target is an important factor affecting both

1670: 1600: 1407: 1399: 1344: 1296: 1222: 1117: 970: 966: 902: 871: 30:"Atom bomb", "A-bomb", and "Nuke" redirect here. For other uses, see 11440: 8300:

Recordings of recollections of the victims of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

8241:

The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History (United States)

8083:

The Myth of the Nuclear Revolution: Power Politics in the Atomic Age

6631:"Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Long Term Health Effects | K=1 Project" 5240:"The Pentagon Revealed Its Nuclear War Strategy and It's Terrifying" 3948:

Organized research first began in Britain and Canada as part of the

3318:'s back injuries taken in January 1946 by a U.S. Marine photographer 52: 11854: 11671: 11314: 11309: 11249: 10918: 10846: 10829: 10814: 10789: 10532: 10021: 9725: 9672: 9551: 9217: 9212: 8186: 8094:

David Wright and Cameron Tracy, "Over-hyped: Physics dictates that

7984: 7964: 7930: 6475: 4588: 4566:"Nuclear Testing and Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) Timeline" 4264:"Federation of American Scientists: Status of World Nuclear Forces" 3913:

to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt warning him of the threat.

3721: 3679:

conducted for non-military purposes, such as activities related to

3433: 3368: 2859:, which are often the weapons of choice in contemporary conflicts. 2721: 2709: 2659: 2559: 2458: 2287: 2232:

are considered destabilizing because they tend to put a premium on

2131: 2111: 1833: 1612: 1582: 1340: 1203: 982: 978: 875: 9339: 4380:

Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. (February 1954).

3739: 1517:

The detonation of any nuclear weapon is accompanied by a blast of

1170:

reactions that produce a large amount of the total energy output.

11640: 11592: 11455: 11435: 10834: 10809: 10249: 10080: 10068: 10046: 10011: 9288: 8395: 8189:: reliable source, has links to other sources and an informative 7921:, vol. 320, no. no. 6 (June 2019), pp. 62–67. "Current U.S. 7692:

Swords of Armageddon: U.S. nuclear weapons development since 1945

7644:

Nuclear Shadowboxing: Contemporary Threats from Cold War Weaponry

7333:. Gerald R. Ford Museum and Library. May 28, 1976. Archived from 6160: 4427:

Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945

3894: 3879: 3784: 3756: 3384: 3147: 3045:

broke up in mid-air, dropping its nuclear payload in the process.

2739: 2694: 2686: 2450: 2446: 2367:, Eaton's birthplace. This conference was to be the first of the 2283: 1879: 1770: 1504:

There are other types of nuclear weapons as well. For example, a

1415: 1395: 1348: 1246: 1077: 1069: 1057: 974: 954: 8320:– a 3D nuclear weapons effects simulator powered by Google Maps. 8240: 3827:

reported similar results when bombarding uranium with neutrons.

3299: 1521:. Surrounding a nuclear weapon with suitable materials (such as 473: 11244: 11239: 11219: 11199: 11184: 11067: 10804: 10784: 10752: 9791: 9677: 9631: 8271: 8175: 7992: 7182: 6232:"Jan. 17, 1966: H-Bombs Rain Down on a Spanish Fishing Village" 5696:. Politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com. April 12, 2010. Archived from 4051: 3839: 3788: 3588: 3553: 2908: 2764: 2571: 2470: 2363:

offered to sponsor a conference—called for in the manifesto—in

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reactions alone, and those that use fission reactions to begin

1065: 856: 852: 8207:

provide information on weapons of mass destruction, including

8070:

are obliged to work toward the elimination of nuclear weapons.

6107:(Navy.mil weblist of Aug 2003 compilation from cruise reports) 5912: 5172:

Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science

4882:

Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998. See also

3863: 1867:(submarine launched ballistic missile), from submerged to the 1272:. Fission products are the principal radioactive component of 11661: 11618: 11281: 11137: 10930: 10794: 9450: 9445: 9440: 9430: 9425: 9420: 9415: 9410: 9405: 9400: 9390: 9385: 9354: 8890: 5694:"CNN Poll: Public divided on eliminating all nuclear weapons" 5509:"PRESS RELEASE: Doomsday Clock set at 90 seconds to midnight" 4386:

Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists: Science and Public Affairs

3684: 3632: 3396: 3388: 3244:

contaminated the crew and catch of the Japanese fishing boat

3146:

was killed while trying to bail out. The bomber crashed onto

3087: 2583: 2386:, to prevent contamination from nuclear fallout, whereas the 1411: 1375: 1367: 1134: 1061: 208: 8235: 8098:

cannot live up to the grand promises made on their behalf",

7864:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2012. 7850:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988. 7691: 6871: 4426: 3819:

could be induced in stable elements by bombarding them with

3485:

According to a peer-reviewed study published in the journal

3445:

Nuclear war could yield unprecedented human death tolls and

3375:

Fallout exposure—depending on if further afield individuals

12040: 11142: 11031: 10841: 10799: 7934: 7440: 4826:

Keay Davidson; Chronicle Science Writer (October 4, 2004).

4513:

On India's alleged hydrogen bomb test, see Carey Sublette,

3760: 3530: 3441:, the largest nuclear weapon detonated by the U.S., in 1954 3399:

case, would make the difference between likely contracting

3354: 3251: 2828:'s plan to reform the UN as presented in his report to the 2658:

and United States nuclear weapon stockpiles throughout the

2655: 2575: 2566:

as the program had been discontinued). In 1981, Israel had

2462: 2229: 2029: 2013: 1864: 1798: 1526: 1510: 1004:, nuclear weapons have been detonated over 2,000 times for 898: 7496: 7397:. CTBT Organization Preparatory Commission. Archived from 7367:. University of California – Santa Barbara. Archived from 6917:

International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War

6153:"U.S. Confirms '65 Loss of H-Bomb Near Japanese Islands". 3468:

International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War

1761: 1607:

particles in most of their properties but having opposite

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US, Soviet, UK, Chinese and French Nuclear Weapon Testing

8056: 7659:

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977.

6975: 6122:

deck logs for aircraft carriers for the Vietnam Conflict.

5480: 4905:"US to introduce new nuclear gravity bomb design: B61-13" 4388:. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.: 61–. 2768: 1828:

The simplest method for delivering a nuclear weapon is a

1678: 918: 883: 8217: 8208: 3952:

project: the world's first nuclear weapons project. The

3270:

nation that compensates nuclear test victims. Since the

2001:

models that could lead to stable deterrence conditions.

1777:, Japan. They were large and could only be delivered by 1449:, often referred to as the "father of the hydrogen bomb" 1339:), as they rely on fusion reactions between isotopes of 1129:

was the first detonation of a nuclear weapon, which led

8250:– located in New Mexico; a Smithsonian Affiliate Museum 7072: 6395:. Fayetteville, Arkansas: University of Arkansas Press. 5476:"'Doomsday clock' ticks closer to apocalyptic midnight" 5147:

Daniel Plesch & Stephen Young, "Senseless policy",

3383:

Staying indoors until after the most hazardous fallout

1158:, often referred to as the "father of the atomic bomb". 969:; three days later, on August 9, the USAAF detonated a 7587:

Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project

7459: 4650:"The untold story of the world's biggest nuclear bomb" 3391:

decays away to 0.1% of its initial quantity after ten

2847:. It also promotes disarmament efforts in the area of 12238: 8031:, vol. LXV, no. 1 (January 18, 2018), pp. 13–15. 5985:"The Nuclear 'Demon Core' That Killed Two Scientists" 5409:"Book review: Contesting the future of nuclear power" 4616:"Nuclear overkill: The quest for the 10 gigaton bomb" 3885:

Uranium appears in nature primarily in two isotopes:

2949:. He died 25 days later, on September 15, 1945, from 2118:

and fire their nuclear weapons with virtual impunity.

1052:

is believed to possess nuclear weapons, though, in a

923:

against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

6520:"What governments offer to victims of nuclear tests" 5757:"Michael Krepon • The Stability-Instability Paradox" 5627:

Lawrence M. Krauss. The Doomsday Clock Still Ticks,

4354: 2915: 2193:) complicates the decision process. The prospect of 917:

policy. Nuclear weapons have been deployed twice in

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at www.atomicarchive.com. Accessed August 24, 2007.

5909:"Renewing the United Nations: A Program for Reform" 4680:"Why the U.S. once set off a nuclear bomb in space" 3579:was the start of a successful campaign to stop the 2394:to member countries without fear of proliferation. 2148:

The Balance of Terror: Strategy for the Nuclear Age

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October 1945. pp. 18–19. 3874:After learning about the German fission in 1939, 3614: 3098:the B-52G carried, three were found on land near 3059:were never recovered. It was not until 1989 that 3022:nuclear missile and shelter and contaminated the 2643:For statistics on possession and deployment, see 989:. The ethics of these bombings and their role in 901:can devastate an entire city by blast, fire, and 12262: 6783: 6781: 6726:Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry 6719:"Public Health Assessment – Iodine-131 Releases" 5083:"The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May Better" 4466:Institute for Science and International Security 3288: 2522:Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons 2432:(IAEA) was established under the mandate of the 2369:Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs 27:Explosive weapon that utilizes nuclear reactions 7656:The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (third edition). 6728:. U.S. Center for Disease Control. March 2008. 6289:"US left nuclear weapon under ice in Greenland" 6069: 5403: 5320:, November/December 2015, vol. 71 no. 6, 11–17. 3747:, the nucleus of a fissile atom (in this case, 3539:Japan Council against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs 3521:between the U.S./NATO and the Warsaw Pact, 1981 2960:accidentally caused the core to become briefly 2835:Its goal is to promote nuclear disarmament and 2602:, which eventually entered into force in 2021. 2265: 1566:Research has been done into the possibility of 839:(fission bomb) or a combination of fission and 12019:Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll 8055:. The book became the basis for a 2-hour 2017 7987:write that "the old equilibrium" between the 5804: 5539:"America prepares for a new nuclear-arms race" 4754:"Details on antimatter triggered fusion bombs" 4719:(January 1, 2002), accessed November 20, 2011. 4453: 4256: 3182: 3002:May 22, 1957: a 42,000-pound (19,000 kg) 1202:). This has long been noted as something of a 851:. Both bomb types release large quantities of 161:National Museum of the United States Air Force 11820:Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll 11815:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents 11757: 11368:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 9918: 9518: 9244: 8339: 8266:The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb 7728:The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 7135: 7117:Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power 7104:Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power 7041:Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power 6909:"Nuclear Famine: Two Billion People at Risk?" 6778: 6207:America's Lost H-Bomb: Palomares, Spain, 1966 4975:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 4314: 3306:Effects of nuclear explosions on human health 3300:Effects of nuclear explosions on human health 2922:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents 2813:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 1617:antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion 874:). The first thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb 804: 443: 7790:. Office of Technology Assessment, May 1979. 6092: 5594: 4800: 4727: 4725: 4154: 3956:was set up following the work of Frisch and 3838:reported that they had detected the element 2600:Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons 2552:Non-Proliferation Treaty. One of the stated 2469:, as well as non-binding agreements such as 2403:Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons 2308:Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons 1860:Montage of an inert test of a United States 1853:, which is being improved upon to this day. 11942:1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident 11825:Nuclear and radiation fatalities by country 9258: 7419: 6787: 6566: 5781: 4999: 4644: 4181:"Complete List of All U.S. Nuclear Weapons" 2995:in history. The accident was designated a " 2821:established in January 1998 as part of the 2742:workers use equipment provided by the U.S. 1637: 11764: 11750: 9925: 9911: 9525: 9511: 9251: 9237: 8346: 8332: 8296:, PBS website on the history of the H-bomb 8187:Nuclear Weapon Archive from Carey Sublette 7716:. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994. 7080:"Early defections in march to Aldermaston" 6788:Diaz-Maurin, François (October 20, 2022). 6368:. Arkansas Historic Preservation Program. 5911:. United Nations. A/51/950. Archived from 5906: 5203: 5201: 4927: 4614:Simha, Rakesh Krishnan (January 5, 2016). 3965:probably cover the centre of a big city." 3755:In the first decades of the 20th century, 3278:, and to others exposed to the radiation. 3263:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 3063:revealed the loss of the one-megaton bomb. 2138:. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Gen. 2020:in the late 1980s. Each missile, like the 1693:, or SADM, sometimes popularly known as a 811: 797: 472: 450: 436: 207: 12291:Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1945 12110:Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack 12087:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 12007:Three Mile Island accident health effects 8254:Nuclear Emergency and Radiation Resources 7798:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb 7685:U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History. 7507:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRhodes1986 ( 7470:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRhodes1986 ( 7451:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRhodes1986 ( 7358: 7035: 7033: 7005: 6995: 6406: 6404: 6402: 6310: 6176:"H-bomb incident crippled pilot's career" 5840: 5346: 5328: 5326: 4810: 4737: 4722: 4515:What Are the Real Yields of India's Test? 4423:U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History. 4417: 4415: 4413: 4411: 4409: 4407: 4206:"The U S Army Air Forces in World War II" 3787:, contained a substance—which they named 3701: 3529:Demonstration against nuclear testing in 3406: 2382:(1963) restricted all nuclear testing to 1801:; also known by the NATO reporting name: 1628:different yields for different situations 1002:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 932: 137:Learn how and when to remove this message 12105:International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) 11948:Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident 11280: 9533:Strategic nuclear weapon systems of the 8218:Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues 8158:, and does not reflect subsequent edits. 8141: 7162: 7142: 6575:"US nuclear dump is leaking toxic waste" 5932: 5930: 5668:"Obama Prague Speech On Nuclear Weapons" 5506: 5394:International Committee of the Red Cross 5169: 5125:Islam, Terror and the Second Nuclear Age 5077: 5075: 4580: 4373: 4365:sfn error: no target: CITEREFJungk1958 ( 4178: 3915: 3862: 3842:after bombarding uranium with neutrons. 3738: 3524: 3512: 3432: 3309: 3211: 3204:Black dot indicates the location of the 3198: 3165:occurred in Damascus, Arkansas, where a 2887: 2734: 2649: 2609:measures the likelihood of a human-made 2546:International Committee of the Red Cross 2503: 2396: 2317: 2280:Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty 2211: 2102: 2003: 1855: 1784: 1760: 1641: 1457:than fission reactions, but because all 1441: 1312: 1177: 1146: 1116: 831:that derives its destructive force from 150: 12147:International Day against Nuclear Tests 11795:Crimes involving radioactive substances 8272:Los Alamos National Laboratory: History 8073:Tom Stevenson, "A Tiny Sun" (review of 8011:The Doomsday Machine: Confessions of a 7653:Glasstone, Samuel and Dolan, Philip J. 7521: 7185:"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–" 6562:from the original on September 7, 2009. 6372:from the original on September 12, 2014 6051:from the original on September 10, 2014 5794:from the original on February 13, 2014. 5640: 5397: 5375:, Fact Sheet, Arms Control Association. 5210:"How to Keep the Bomb From Terrorist s" 5207: 5198: 5117: 5113:from the original on November 23, 2016. 4967:"Technology and War II:Postmodern War?" 4964: 4934:Michael I. Handel (November 12, 2012). 4731: 4533: 4345:Ian Lowe, "Three minutes to midnight", 3733:History of nuclear weapons § Background 3509:International Day against Nuclear Tests 2258:According to the Pentagon's June 2019 " 1056:, it does not acknowledge having them. 973:implosion-type fission bomb nicknamed " 14: 12263: 11937:Instituto Oncológico Nacional#Accident 11295:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 9932: 9492:France and weapons of mass destruction 7800:. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995. 7632:. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991. 7583: 7552: 7502: 7465: 7446: 7391:"Status of Signature and Ratification" 7312:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 7266:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 7030: 6820: 6671:from the original on August 31, 2011. 6399: 6390: 6300:from the original on January 10, 2022. 6204: 5665: 5323: 4915:from the original on December 17, 2023 4690:from the original on November 29, 2023 4626:from the original on November 29, 2023 4457:; Kramer, Kimberly (August 22, 2005). 4404: 4172: 3936:Roosevelt responded by setting up the 2499:Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone 2008:The now decommissioned United States' 1971:Essentials of Post–Cold War Deterrence 11745: 11537: 11300:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 10709: 10696: 9906: 9894:Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom 9506: 9232: 8327: 7816:. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986 7648:Nuclear Insights: The Cold War Legacy 7183:Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. 7092:from the original on October 8, 2006. 7043:, Oxford University Press, pp. 96–97. 6957:from the original on October 26, 2022 6802:from the original on October 26, 2022 6753: 6530:from the original on January 18, 2023 6512: 6445:from the original on December 4, 2013 6410: 6238:from the original on December 3, 2008 6173: 6167: 6047:. Associated Press. August 27, 1986. 5965:from the original on October 12, 2023 5927: 5519:from the original on January 24, 2023 5488:from the original on November 3, 2019 5473: 5252:from the original on December 7, 2019 5072: 4902: 4613: 4360: 4296:from the original on December 7, 2010 4235:Radiation Effects Research Foundation 4210:Air Force Historical Support Division 4140:authorize the use of nuclear weapons. 4037:Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom 3696:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty 3602:In 1963, many countries ratified the 3562:Atomic Weapons Research Establishment 3437:Mushroom cloud from the explosion of 2991:atomic bomb. This was the first such 2675:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty 2542:Universal Declaration of Human Rights 2439:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty 2296:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty 2292:Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty 2260:Doctrine for Joint Nuclear Operations 1892:submarine-launched ballistic missiles 12142:History of the anti-nuclear movement 11724: 10697: 7768:Atomic Energy for Military Purposes. 7046: 6229: 6223: 6063: 5507:Spinazze, Gayle (January 24, 2023). 5334:Status of Signature and Ratification 4954:from the original on March 31, 2017. 4764:from the original on April 22, 2017. 4660:from the original on August 27, 2023 4586: 4546:from the original on January 7, 2016 4475:from the original on January 3, 2012 4400:from the original on March 31, 2017. 4270:from the original on January 2, 2013 4047:Nuclear weapons of the United States 3498: 3462:smaller stockpiles, may lead to the 3395:—which is represented by 80 days in 2873:History of the anti-nuclear movement 2174:. Interest in proliferation and the 1757:Submarine-launched ballistic missile 1548:was conducted under the DOD program 75:adding citations to reliable sources 46: 11800:Criticality accidents and incidents 11305:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 8714:Tactical Atomic Demolition Munition 8005:, "The Nuclear Worrier" (review of 7947:, "Missile Mania: The death of the 7755:). The book is a fiction about the 7747:, Éditions Payot et rivages, 2007 ( 6906: 6585:from the original on April 13, 2016 6572: 6258:"The Cold War's Missing Atom Bombs" 6011:"The Cold War's Missing Atom Bombs" 5991:from the original on April 24, 2018 5955:"Atomic Accidents – Nuclear Museum" 5841:Reichmann, Kelsey (June 16, 2019). 4860:from the original on March 23, 2016 4854:"Fourth Generation Nuclear Weapons" 4782:from the original on April 24, 2013 4382:"Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists" 4017:List of states with nuclear weapons 3664: 3272:Radiation Exposure Compensation Act 2645:List of states with nuclear weapons 1946: 1888:intercontinental ballistic missiles 1809:missile delivery system ever built. 1734: 1712:. Missile interceptors such as the 190:, LGM-30A/B/F Minuteman I or II, 157:intercontinental ballistic missiles 24: 11904:Nuclear power accidents by country 11114: 10265:Positron-emission tomography (PET) 8708:Special Atomic Demolition Munition 8128: 7925:plans are being driven largely by 7876: 7726:The Manhattan Engineer District, " 7619:List of books about nuclear issues 7359:Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John T. 7294:from the original on April 3, 2024 7060:from the original on June 17, 2004 6927:from the original on April 5, 2016 6853:from the original on April 4, 2020 6754:Meyer, Robinson (April 29, 2016). 6641:from the original on June 20, 2017 6359: 6268:from the original on June 27, 2019 6021:from the original on June 27, 2019 5855:from the original on July 28, 2020 5718: 5282:from the original on June 19, 2019 5208:Allison, Graham (March 13, 2009). 5123:See, for example: Feldman, Noah. " 4595:from the original on March 1, 2007 4042:Nuclear weapons in popular culture 3905:to develop fission-based weapons, 3109:. The fourth, which fell into the 2926:List of military nuclear accidents 2430:International Atomic Energy Agency 2324:International Atomic Energy Agency 2074:in military situations are called 1975:Single Integrated Operational Plan 1941:Special Atomic Demolition Munition 1836:; this was the method used by the 1753:Intercontinental ballistic missile 1691:Special Atomic Demolition Munition 1572:United States Department of Energy 1173: 897:A nuclear device no larger than a 155:An assortment of American nuclear 25: 12302: 12136:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 10288:Neutron capture therapy of cancer 10187:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG) 8702:Medium Atomic Demolition Munition 8198:Federation of American Scientists 8109: 7848:Nuclear Fear: A History of Images 7831:The War that Must Never be Fought 7248:from the original on May 14, 2024 7130:Nuclear Fear: A History of Images 7119:, Oxford University Press, p. 98. 7106:, Oxford University Press, p. 93. 6795:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 6735:from the original on May 11, 2016 6077:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 5944:, Twayne Publishers, pp. 191–192. 5888:from the original on July 2, 2019 5815:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 5583:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 5513:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 5474:Koran, Laura (January 25, 2018). 5455:from the original on June 5, 2023 5317:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 5150:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 4903:Mehta, Aaron (October 27, 2023). 4834:from the original on June 9, 2012 4654:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 4534:McKirdy, Euan (January 6, 2016). 4179:Sublette, Carey (June 12, 2020). 3726:History of the Teller–Ulam design 3577:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 3138:. The aircraft was carrying four 2916:Notable nuclear weapons accidents 2806: 2615:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 2613:and is published annually by the 2510:Federation of American Scientists 1302: 1206:, as their energy comes from the 1020:(succeeded as a nuclear power by 855:from relatively small amounts of 12248: 12225: 12224: 12214: 11997:Kramatorsk radiological accident 11723: 11712: 11711: 11699: 11388:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 8174: 8140: 7546: 7522:Herrera, Geoffrey Lucas (2006). 7515: 7486:"Leo Szilard | Biographies" 7478: 7413: 7383: 7352: 7320: 7274: 7228: 7198: 7122: 7109: 7096: 6969: 6939: 6900: 6865: 6823:"Critique of nuclear extinction" 6766:from the original on May 1, 2016 5782:Ben Goddard (January 27, 2010). 5674:from the original on May 9, 2013 5597:"Nuclear energy after Fukushima" 5595:Jim Hoagland (October 6, 2011). 4972:The Oxford History of Modern War 4162:"Atomic Power for War and Peace" 3731:This section is an excerpt from 3675:Peaceful nuclear explosions are 3550:Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament 3174:fuel explosion, jettisoning the 3158:. One of the bombs remains lost. 3113:, was recovered intact after a 2 2823:United Nations Secretary-General 2679:Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 2673:and continuing through the 1996 1727:weapons. These included nuclear 1626:is for the purpose of achieving 911:proliferation of nuclear weapons 780: 779: 51: 11899:List of orphan source incidents 10477:Historical stockpiles and tests 7612: 7365:The American Presidency Project 6814: 6747: 6711: 6679: 6653: 6623: 6610: 6597: 6542: 6457: 6431: 6384: 6353: 6304: 6280: 6250: 6230:Long, Tony (January 17, 2008). 6198: 6174:Hayes, Ron (January 17, 2007). 6146: 6127: 6033: 6003: 5977: 5947: 5900: 5880:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 5867: 5834: 5798: 5775: 5749: 5712: 5686: 5659: 5634: 5621: 5588: 5564: 5531: 5500: 5467: 5437: 5378: 5359: 5294: 5264: 5232: 5163: 5141: 5099: 5059: 4993: 4958: 4896: 4872: 4846: 4819: 4794: 4768: 4746: 4702: 4672: 4638: 4607: 4558: 4527: 4507: 4487: 4447: 4339: 4231:"Frequently Asked Questions #1" 4126: 3791:—that emitted large amounts of 2964:. He received a lethal dose of 2750:In January 1986, Soviet leader 2744:Defense Threat Reduction Agency 2598:voted in favor of adopting the 2558:for the initiation of the 2003 2380:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 2276:Strategic Arms Limitation Talks 2036:difficult for an enemy country. 1897:More advanced systems, such as 1765:The first nuclear weapons were 1260:All fission reactions generate 62:needs additional citations for 11378:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 10260:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 8017:, New York, Bloomsbury, 2017, 7951:has escalated the arms race", 6603:Philip Yam. Nuclear Exchange, 6209:. Sunflower University Press. 5666:Graham, Nick (April 5, 2009). 4969:. In Charles Townshend (ed.). 4937:War, Strategy and Intelligence 4282: 4223: 4198: 4114: 4082: 3657:, for example cleaning up the 3615:Costs and technology spin-offs 3587:in the sea 19 kilometres from 3128:1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash 2939:Los Alamos National Laboratory 2862: 2632: 2518:International Court of Justice 2097:International Court of Justice 1529:) creates a weapon known as a 1477: 1287:. Less commonly used has been 1213:In fission weapons, a mass of 1054:policy of deliberate ambiguity 13: 1: 12221:Nuclear technology portal 11706:Nuclear technology portal 9882:Blue Peacock nuclear landmine 8355:United States nuclear devices 7813:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 6886:10.1016/j.futures.2009.07.009 6072:"Big Bangs from Little Bombs" 5643:Gorbachev: His Life and Times 5067:The Spread of Nuclear Weapons 4065: 3763:including the discoveries in 3641:According to an audit by the 3629:History of computing hardware 3353:in the median lethal range – 3295:Effects of nuclear explosions 3289:Effects of nuclear explosions 3049:1965 Philippine Sea A-4 crash 2895:protest march in Oxford, 1980 2780:stability–instability paradox 2619:escalation of nuclear threats 2176:stability-instability paradox 2070:Nuclear weapons for use on a 2050:transporter erector launchers 1561:nuclear electromagnetic pulse 951:United States Army Air Forces 11991:Andreev Bay nuclear accident 11978:Chazhma Bay nuclear accident 11568:Field-reversed configuration 11178:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 9066:Reliable Replacement Warhead 8028:The New York Review of Books 7902:Resources in other libraries 7687:Arlington, TX: Aerofax, 1988 7177:American Antiquarian Society 7157:American Antiquarian Society 6692:. p. 22. Archived from 6362:"Titan II Missile Explosion" 6163:. May 9, 1989. p. A–27. 6100:"Ticonderoga Cruise Reports" 6070:Barry Schneider (May 1975). 5907:Kofi Annan (July 14, 1997). 5784:"Cold Warriors say no nukes" 4965:Creveld, Martin Van (2000). 4886:, an excerpt from the book. 4589:"The Nuclear Weapon Archive" 4317:"South African nuclear bomb" 4292:. Fas.org. January 8, 2007. 4058:Three Non-Nuclear Principles 3517:Protest in Bonn against the 3464:extinction of the human race 3024:BOMARC Missile Accident Site 3016:1960 Fort Dix IM-99 accident 2266:Governance, control, and law 2195:mutually assured destruction 2108:Ballistic missile submarines 2086:mutually assured destruction 1871:, or re-entry phase, of the 1542:Strategic Defense Initiative 1088:is the only country to have 977:" over the Japanese city of 965:" over the Japanese city of 921:, both by the United States 7: 11925:Nyonoksa radiation accident 11525:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 10710: 10472:States with nuclear weapons 8085:, Cornell, 2020, 180 pp.), 6417:. Longman. pp. 54–55. 6205:Maydew, Randall C. (1997). 5577:September 17, 2008, at the 5155:September 19, 2015, at the 4940:. Routledge. pp. 85–. 4715:September 24, 2015, at the 4708:U.S. Department of Energy, 4520:September 27, 2011, at the 3979: 3544:In the United Kingdom, the 3183:Nuclear testing and fallout 3161:September 18–19, 1980: the 2932:List of nuclear close calls 2782:, including in south Asia. 2763:in an April 2009 speech in 2623:Russian invasion of Ukraine 2401:UN vote on adoption of the 2384:underground nuclear testing 2207:weapons of mass destruction 2203:September 11, 2001, attacks 1838:United States against Japan 907:weapons of mass destruction 466:Weapons of mass destruction 10: 12307: 12197:Russell–Einstein Manifesto 12120:Films about nuclear issues 12115:Books about nuclear issues 12003:Three Mile Island accident 11931:Fukushima nuclear accident 11810:Military nuclear accidents 11805:Nuclear meltdown accidents 11538: 11363:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 10487:Tests in the United States 8292:November 10, 2016, at the 7787:The Effects of Nuclear War 7697:December 30, 2016, at the 7616: 7584:Groves, Leslie R. (1983). 7553:Laucht, Christoph (2012). 7423:Nuclear Fusion and Fission 6997:10.1038/s43016-022-00573-0 6839:10.1177/002234338201900401 6620:, January 2010, pp. 74–81. 6139:September 1, 2013, at the 6119:The National Archives hold 5130:February 19, 2016, at the 5000:Mearsheimer, John (2006). 4890:November 21, 2008, at the 4878:Stephen I. Schwartz, ed., 4432:December 30, 2016, at the 4321:Nuclear Threat Initiatives 4290:"Nuclear Weapons – Israel" 4134:National Command Authority 3730: 3714:Soviet atomic bomb project 3711: 3708:History of nuclear weapons 3705: 3683:including the creation of 3671:Peaceful nuclear explosion 3668: 3618: 3502: 3459:US–Soviet nuclear exchange 3410: 3303: 3292: 3240:hydrogen bomb test at the 3192: 3186: 3039:Boeing B-52 Stratofortress 2929: 2919: 2881: 2866: 2819:United Nations Secretariat 2810: 2642: 2636: 2344:Russell–Einstein Manifesto 2311: 2269: 2182:nuclear deterrent against 1963:Pre-emptive nuclear strike 1960: 1950: 1738: 1481: 1306: 1154:, principal leader of the 1133:to recall verses from the 1110: 886:) and 50 megatons for the 32:Atom bomb (disambiguation) 29: 12210: 12157:Nuclear-Free Future Award 12095: 12066:Totskoye nuclear exercise 11912: 11894:Sunken nuclear submarines 11779: 11693: 11649: 11601: 11558: 11548: 11500: 11488:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 11401: 11383:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 11348: 11331: 11271: 11198: 11190:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 11164: 11155: 11107: 11087: 11040: 11022: 10978: 10883: 10865: 10733: 10720: 10705: 10692: 10647: 10580: 10525: 10516: 10464: 10372: 10363: 10330: 10273: 10235: 10226: 10147: 10079: 10002: 9944: 9940: 9890: 9869: 9849: 9820: 9809: 9784: 9768: 9749: 9738: 9718: 9701: 9690: 9640: 9609: 9587: 9561: 9550: 9541: 9477:French nuclear deterrence 9469: 9363: 9327: 9266: 9200: 9159: 9132: 9095: 9084: 8863: 8847: 8736: 8727: 8675: 8612: 8581: 8470: 8374: 8361: 8277:January 15, 2009, at the 8203:October 18, 1996, at the 7897:Resources in your library 7733:February 4, 2012, at the 7088:. London. April 5, 1958. 6827:Journal of Peace Research 6319:. Vol. 67. pp. 5641:Taubman, William (2017). 5371:January 19, 2011, at the 5089:December 1, 2010, at the 5069:(New York: Norton, 1995). 4104:, and colloquially as an 3962:Frisch–Peierls memorandum 3651:environmental remediation 3621:Global Positioning System 3575:In 1959, a letter in the 3267:National Cancer Institute 3156:radioactive contamination 3068:1966 Palomares B-52 crash 3035:Goldsboro, North Carolina 3031:1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash 2877: 2479:Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones 2222:Vandenberg Air Force Base 2142:of France, an adviser to 2134:between the U.S. and the 2116:reconnaissance satellites 2100:the state were at stake. 2016:developed to replace the 1665:purportedly conceived by 1535:radioactive contamination 1270:radioactive contamination 949:. On August 6, 1945, the 882:between 10 tons TNT (the 11393:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 11009:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 10345:Electron-beam processing 9870:Other cancelled projects 8316:August 28, 2015, at the 7975:U.S. Secretary of Energy 7862:The Rise of Nuclear Fear 7630:The Road from Los Alamos 7420:Young-Brown, F. (2016). 7054:"A brief history of CND" 6411:Rudig, Wolfgang (1990). 6311:Schlosser, Eric (2013). 5310:January 1, 2016, at the 5184:10.1177/0002716206290457 5021:10.1177/0047117806060939 4570:Arms control association 4504:, accessed May 10, 2011. 4070: 3901:that Germany might have 3856:up the possibility of a 3817:artificial radioactivity 3655:nuclear waste management 3647:nuclear weapons delivery 3625:Nuclear weapons delivery 3581:Atomic Energy Commission 3009:University of New Mexico 2669:Beginning with the 1963 2568:bombed a nuclear reactor 2114:, as they can hide from 2042:nuclear weapons delivery 1741:Nuclear weapons delivery 1656:tactical nuclear weapons 1638:Tactical nuclear weapons 1331:or more colloquially as 1106: 1094:renounced and dismantled 1008:and demonstration. Only 165:Clockwise from top left: 12172:Nuclear power phase-out 11508:Organic nuclear reactor 10680:Nuclear power phase-out 10603:Nuclear decommissioning 10543:Reactor-grade plutonium 10293:Targeted alpha-particle 10172:Accidents and incidents 9260:French nuclear armament 8246:March 27, 2021, at the 7773:April 21, 2017, at the 7661:Available online (PDF). 5810:"The new abolitionists" 5390:April 21, 2010, at the 5356:New York: Norton, 2006. 5305:Today's nuclear dilemma 5136:New York Times Magazine 5009:International Relations 4012:List of nuclear weapons 3604:Partial Test Ban Treaty 3533:, France, in the 1980s. 3242:Pacific Proving Grounds 3178:beyond the launch site. 3132:United States Air Force 2791:. But former Secretary 2671:Partial Test Ban Treaty 2152:international stability 2146:, argued in books like 1795:Strategic Rocket Forces 1540:In connection with the 1354:Only six countries—the 1235:nuclear chain reactions 1090:independently developed 1082:nuclear weapons sharing 993:are to this day, still 915:international relations 36:A-bomb (disambiguation) 12177:Nuclear weapons debate 9328:Pre-strategic missiles 8286:Race for the Superbomb 8281:(U.S. nuclear history) 8223:March 2, 2001, at the 8136: 8116:Listen to this article 8088:London Review of Books 7939:reducing nuclear risks 7833:, Hoover Press, 2015, 7745:Réveillez le président 7672:April 8, 2015, at the 6821:Martin, Brian (1982). 6635:k1project.columbia.edu 5959:ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ 5670:. Huffingtonpost.com. 5631:, January 2010, p. 26. 5339:April 6, 2011, at the 4760:. September 22, 2015. 4500:March 3, 2016, at the 4185:Nuclear weapon archive 4022:Nth Country Experiment 3933: 3871: 3858:nuclear chain reaction 3752: 3702:History of development 3637:Swords to ploughshares 3534: 3522: 3442: 3407:Effects of nuclear war 3319: 3229: 3216:This view of downtown 3209: 3126:January 21, 1968: the 3066:January 17, 1966: the 3029:January 24, 1961: the 2896: 2869:Nuclear weapons debate 2747: 2663: 2580:bombed another reactor 2513: 2425: 2327: 2237: 2220:ICBM test launch from 2119: 2037: 1929:anti-submarine warfare 1875: 1810: 1782: 1651: 1506:boosted fission weapon 1496:Induced gamma emission 1484:Boosted fission weapon 1450: 1322: 1187: 1159: 1144: 933:Testing and deployment 194: 12035:K-19 nuclear accident 11830:Nuclear weapons tests 10670:Anti-nuclear movement 8259:May 15, 2021, at the 8135: 8068:nuclear-weapon states 7829:and Goodby, James E. 7490:www.atomicarchive.com 7210:Brookings Institution 6665:Fallout Radiation.com 6296:. November 11, 2008. 6264:. November 14, 2008. 6017:. November 14, 2008. 5737:on September 24, 2015 5445:"History of the TPNW" 5425:on September 27, 2013 4327:on September 28, 2012 4241:on September 19, 2007 4032:Nuclear bunker buster 4007:List of global issues 3919: 3866: 3813:Frédéric Joliot-Curie 3742: 3643:Brookings Institution 3528: 3516: 3436: 3313: 3215: 3202: 3043:Mark 39 nuclear bombs 3004:Mark-17 hydrogen bomb 2981:Convair B-36B crashed 2979:February 13, 1950: a 2891: 2738: 2653: 2582:being constructed in 2570:being constructed in 2507: 2400: 2371:, held in July 1957. 2321: 2314:Anti-nuclear movement 2215: 2128:nuclear proliferation 2106: 2032:was to make complete 2007: 1921:nuclear depth charges 1859: 1819:nuclear weapon design 1788: 1764: 1645: 1624:nuclear weapon design 1461:contain at least one 1459:thermonuclear weapons 1445: 1328:thermonuclear weapons 1316: 1295:and some isotopes of 1181: 1152:J. Robert Oppenheimer 1150: 1131:J. Robert Oppenheimer 1120: 1113:Nuclear weapon design 1096:its nuclear weapons. 184:LGM-30G Minuteman III 154: 40:Nuke (disambiguation) 12167:Nuclear power debate 12029:Cuban Missile Crisis 11880:in the United States 11578:Reversed field pinch 11373:Traveling-wave (TWR) 10857:Supercritical (SCWR) 10355:Gemstone irradiation 9776:Polaris A3T and A3TK 8268:at AtomicArchive.com 8183:at Wikimedia Commons 8167:More spoken articles 7626:Bethe, Hans Albrecht 7449:, pp. 263, 268. 7401:on December 28, 2016 6699:on November 26, 2013 6500:on September 7, 2014 6109:on September 7, 2004 5822:on February 17, 2014 5352:Richelson, Jeffrey. 4648:(October 29, 2021). 4351:, March 2016, p. 49. 4348:Australasian Science 3997:Cuban Missile Crisis 3992:Cosmic bomb (phrase) 3681:economic development 3609:fears of nuclear war 3552:(CND) took place at 3020:Boeing CIM-10 Bomarc 2987:after jettisoning a 2893:Anti-nuclear weapons 2849:conventional weapons 2699:collapse of the USSR 2483:Treaty of Tlatelolco 2365:Pugwash, Nova Scotia 2350:on July 9, 1955, by 2140:Pierre Marie Gallois 1983:On Thermonuclear War 1773:" weapon dropped on 1603:resembling ordinary 1599:, which consists of 1546:nuclear pumped laser 1544:, research into the 1492:Radiological warfare 1437:Livermore Laboratory 1380:thermonuclear weapon 1309:Thermonuclear weapon 953:(USAAF) detonated a 332:Nuclear-armed states 71:improve this article 12276:American inventions 12152:Nuclear close calls 10743:Aqueous homogeneous 10538:Reprocessed uranium 10211:Safety and security 9579:Handley Page Victor 8101:Scientific American 8060:American Experience 7918:Scientific American 7763:Smyth, Henry DeWolf 7743:Jean-Hugues Oppel, 7714:Stalin and the Bomb 7532:. pp. 179–80. 7505:, pp. 305–312. 6953:. August 16, 2022. 6661:"Decay Information" 6618:Scientific American 6607:, June 2010, p. 24. 6605:Scientific American 6329:2014PhT....67d..48W 6294:The Daily Telegraph 6156:The Washington Post 5763:on January 12, 2015 5629:Scientific American 5602:The Washington Post 5545:. August 12, 2024. 5138:(October 29, 2006). 4315:Executive release. 3853:splitting of a cell 3689:Operation Plowshare 3546:Aldermaston Marches 3505:Nuclear disarmament 3447:habitat destruction 3234:Radioactive fallout 3123:-month-long search. 2993:nuclear weapon loss 2951:radiation poisoning 2728:. In January 2010, 2639:Nuclear disarmament 2495:Treaty of Pelindaba 2461:(never in effect), 2040:Different forms of 2010:Peacekeeper missile 1813:The system used to 1683:short range missile 1591:hafnium controversy 188:LGM-118 Peacekeeper 12255:Nuclear technology 12060:Operation Plumbbob 12023:Operation Fishbowl 11960:Chernobyl disaster 11657:Dense plasma focus 10572:Actinide chemistry 10037:Isotope separation 9934:Nuclear technology 9877:Blue Water missile 9267:Strategic missiles 8137: 8096:hypersonic weapons 7860:Weart, Spencer R. 7563:. pp. 31–33. 7561:Palgrave Macmillan 7085:Guardian Unlimited 5987:. April 23, 2018. 5808:(March 30, 2012). 5609:on October 1, 2013 5585:(January 8, 2007). 5572:Finding Article VI 5570:Gusterson, Hugh, " 4576:on April 21, 2020. 3942:Lyman James Briggs 3934: 3926:Robert Oppenheimer 3872: 3848:Otto Robert Frisch 3830:In December 1938, 3807:In Paris in 1934, 3753: 3677:nuclear explosions 3535: 3523: 3476:India and Pakistan 3472:societal breakdown 3443: 3351:ionizing radiation 3320: 3316:Sumiteru Taniguchi 3230: 3210: 3084:mid-air refuelling 3014:June 7, 1960: the 2947:prompt criticality 2897: 2845:biological weapons 2748: 2730:Lawrence M. Krauss 2664: 2611:global catastrophe 2564:not to be the case 2530:Geneva Conventions 2514: 2449:(never ratified), 2426: 2423: Did not vote 2392:nuclear technology 2333:head of government 2328: 2300:Lahore Declaration 2238: 2158:scholars, such as 2120: 2038: 1990:nuclear deterrence 1882:, which can use a 1876: 1811: 1783: 1652: 1632:radiation hardness 1622:Most variation in 1451: 1392:Teller-Ulam design 1382:is controversial. 1323: 1319:Teller–Ulam design 1317:The basics of the 1231:exponential growth 1188: 1160: 1145: 995:subjects of debate 987:military personnel 845:thermonuclear bomb 195: 12236: 12235: 12162:Nuclear-free zone 12125:Anti-war movement 12081:Rocky Flats Plant 11739: 11738: 11689: 11688: 11685: 11684: 11636:Magnetized-target 11533: 11532: 11496: 11495: 11327: 11326: 11323: 11322: 11267: 11266: 11151: 11150: 11083: 11082: 10688: 10687: 10643: 10642: 10512: 10511: 10499:Weapon-free zones 10326: 10325: 10318:Radiopharmacology 9900: 9899: 9865: 9864: 9805: 9804: 9797:Chevaline upgrade 9734: 9733: 9695:(1960, cancelled) 9686: 9685: 9500: 9499: 9226: 9225: 9155: 9154: 9080: 9079: 8723: 8722: 8677:Atomic demolition 8230:Video archive of 8179:Media related to 8133: 7883:Library resources 7845:Weart, Spencer R. 7839:978-0-8179-1845-3 7827:Shultz, George P. 7810:Rhodes, Richard. 7753:978-2-7436-1630-4 7712:Holloway, David. 7707:978-0-9791915-0-3 7601:978-0-786-74822-8 7570:978-1-137-22295-4 7539:978-0-7914-6868-5 7433:978-1-502-61949-5 7115:Jim Falk (1982). 7102:Jim Falk (1982). 7039:Jim Falk (1982). 6687:"Nuclear Warfare" 6485:978-0-309-08713-1 6346:978-1-59420-227-8 6337:10.1063/PT.3.2350 6216:978-0-89745-214-4 6045:Los Angeles Times 5915:on March 18, 2017 5884:. June 17, 2019. 5719:Krepon, Michael. 5652:978-1-4711-4796-8 5278:. June 19, 2019. 5248:. June 21, 2019. 4986:978-0-19-285373-8 4947:978-1-136-28624-7 4758:NextBigFuture.com 4686:. July 15, 2021. 4646:Wellerstein, Alex 4587:Sublette, Carey. 4442:978-0-9791915-0-3 4166:Popular Mechanics 4088:also known as an 4076:Explanatory Notes 3938:Uranium Committee 3797:Ernest Rutherford 3718:Manhattan Project 3597:Nobel Peace Prize 3585:radioactive waste 3560:, London, to the 3548:organised by the 3519:nuclear arms race 3499:Public opposition 3457:estimated that a 3413:Nuclear holocaust 3163:Damascus Accident 3111:Mediterranean Sea 3086:off the coast of 2970:neutron radiation 2905:Japan's surrender 2901:Manhattan Project 2837:non-proliferation 2752:Mikhail Gorbachev 2534:Hague Conventions 2526:international law 2252:nuclear forensics 2224:, United States. 2191:nuclear terrorism 2154:. Some prominent 2144:Charles de Gaulle 2126:position is that 2066:strategic weapons 2018:Minuteman missile 1957:Deterrence theory 1843:strategic bombers 1791:commercial launch 1789:A demilitarized, 1568:pure fusion bombs 1550:Project Excalibur 1519:neutron radiation 1500:Antimatter weapon 1404:lithium deuteride 1225:) is forced into 1156:Manhattan Project 1127:Manhattan Project 991:Japan's surrender 905:. Since they are 899:conventional bomb 849:nuclear explosion 833:nuclear reactions 821: 820: 460: 459: 224:Nuclear explosion 147: 146: 139: 121: 16:(Redirected from 12298: 12253: 12252: 12251: 12244: 12228: 12227: 12219: 12218: 12217: 12048:Kyshtym disaster 12043:nuclear meltdown 11970:Related articles 11954:Goiânia accident 11766: 11759: 11752: 11743: 11742: 11727: 11726: 11715: 11714: 11704: 11703: 11702: 11614: 11573:Levitated dipole 11543: 11535: 11534: 11483:Helium gas (GFR) 11346: 11345: 11341: 11278: 11277: 11162: 11161: 11112: 11111: 11105: 11104: 11100: 11099: 10881: 10880: 10877: 10876: 10715: 10707: 10706: 10699:Nuclear reactors 10694: 10693: 10593:High-level (HLW) 10523: 10522: 10370: 10369: 10350:Food irradiation 10340:Atomic gardening 10233: 10232: 10216:Nuclear meltdown 10042:Nuclear material 10032:Fissile material 10027:Fertile material 9942: 9941: 9927: 9920: 9913: 9904: 9903: 9840:-class submarine 9831:-class submarine 9821:launch platforms 9818: 9817: 9760:-class submarine 9747: 9746: 9699: 9698: 9559: 9558: 9527: 9520: 9513: 9504: 9503: 9470:Related subjects 9364:Nuclear warheads 9253: 9246: 9239: 9230: 9229: 9093: 9092: 8734: 8733: 8372: 8371: 8348: 8341: 8334: 8325: 8324: 8178: 8157: 8155: 8144: 8143: 8134: 8124: 8122: 8117: 7961:Moniz, Ernest J. 7945:Michael T. Klare 7742: 7690:Hansen, Chuck, " 7606: 7605: 7581: 7575: 7574: 7550: 7544: 7543: 7519: 7513: 7512: 7500: 7494: 7493: 7482: 7476: 7475: 7463: 7457: 7456: 7444: 7438: 7437: 7417: 7411: 7410: 7408: 7406: 7387: 7381: 7380: 7378: 7376: 7371:on March 3, 2016 7356: 7350: 7349: 7347: 7345: 7340:on March 5, 2016 7339: 7332: 7324: 7318: 7317: 7311: 7303: 7301: 7299: 7293: 7286: 7278: 7272: 7271: 7265: 7257: 7255: 7253: 7247: 7240: 7232: 7226: 7225: 7223: 7221: 7216:on March 5, 2004 7212:. 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Archived from 5413: 5401: 5395: 5382: 5376: 5363: 5357: 5350: 5344: 5330: 5321: 5298: 5292: 5291: 5289: 5287: 5268: 5262: 5261: 5259: 5257: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5225: 5216:. Archived from 5205: 5196: 5195: 5167: 5161: 5145: 5139: 5121: 5115: 5114: 5103: 5097: 5079: 5070: 5063: 5057: 5055: 5053: 5051: 5045: 5039:. Archived from 5006: 4997: 4991: 4990: 4962: 4956: 4955: 4931: 4925: 4924: 4922: 4920: 4909:Breaking Defense 4900: 4894: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4867: 4865: 4850: 4844: 4843: 4841: 4839: 4823: 4817: 4816: 4814: 4798: 4792: 4791: 4789: 4787: 4778:. Cui.unige.ch. 4772: 4766: 4765: 4750: 4744: 4743: 4741: 4729: 4720: 4706: 4700: 4699: 4697: 4695: 4676: 4670: 4669: 4667: 4665: 4642: 4636: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4611: 4605: 4604: 4602: 4600: 4584: 4578: 4577: 4572:. Archived from 4562: 4556: 4555: 4553: 4551: 4531: 4525: 4511: 4505: 4493:Carey Sublette, 4491: 4485: 4484: 4482: 4480: 4474: 4463: 4451: 4445: 4419: 4402: 4401: 4377: 4371: 4370: 4358: 4352: 4343: 4337: 4336: 4334: 4332: 4312: 4306: 4305: 4303: 4301: 4286: 4280: 4279: 4277: 4275: 4260: 4254: 4253: 4248: 4246: 4237:. Archived from 4227: 4221: 4220: 4218: 4216: 4202: 4196: 4195: 4193: 4191: 4176: 4170: 4169: 4158: 4141: 4130: 4124: 4122:Mordechai Vanunu 4118: 4112: 4086: 4027:Nuclear blackout 3972:Shinkolobwe Mine 3970:, a director of 3836:Fritz Strassmann 3815:discovered that 3779:discovered that 3749:enriched uranium 3665:Non-weapons uses 3558:Trafalgar Square 3377:shelter in place 3314:A photograph of 3276:Nevada Test Site 3226:Nevada Test Site 3122: 3121: 3117: 3078:collided with a 3070:occurred when a 3057:B43 nuclear bomb 2985:British Columbia 2830:General Assembly 2778:and through the 2528:, including the 2422: 2416: 2410: 2352:Bertrand Russell 2164:John Mearsheimer 2093:advisory opinion 2077:tactical weapons 1953:Nuclear strategy 1947:Nuclear strategy 1909:Tactical weapons 1823:nuclear strategy 1769:, such as this " 1749:Strategic bomber 1735:Weapons delivery 1677:and 155 mm 1420:depleted uranium 1335:(abbreviated as 1262:fission products 1256: 1239:explosive lenses 1227:supercriticality 1219:enriched uranium 1215:fissile material 1198:(abbreviated as 829:explosive device 813: 806: 799: 783: 782: 764:List of treaties 476: 462: 461: 452: 445: 438: 389: 283:Target selection 211: 197: 196: 172:LGM-25C Titan II 142: 135: 131: 128: 122: 120: 86:"Nuclear weapon" 79: 55: 47: 21: 12306: 12305: 12301: 12300: 12299: 12297: 12296: 12295: 12271:Nuclear weapons 12261: 12260: 12259: 12249: 12247: 12239: 12237: 12232: 12215: 12213: 12206: 12182:Peace activists 12097: 12091: 11916: 11914: 11908: 11786: 11784: 11782: 11775: 11770: 11740: 11735: 11700: 11698: 11681: 11645: 11612: 11597: 11554: 11544: 11539: 11529: 11492: 11397: 11342: 11335: 11334: 11319: 11263: 11194: 11169: 11147: 11119: 11101: 11094: 11093: 11092: 11079: 11045: 11036: 11018: 10983: 10974: 10888: 10871: 10870: 10869: 10861: 10775:Natural fission 10729: 10728: 10716: 10711: 10701: 10684: 10660:Nuclear weapons 10639: 10598:Low-level (LLW) 10576: 10508: 10460: 10359: 10322: 10269: 10222: 10143: 10075: 9998: 9936: 9931: 9901: 9896: 9886: 9861: 9845: 9813: 9801: 9780: 9764: 9750:Launch platform 9742: 9730: 9714: 9694: 9682: 9636: 9605: 9583: 9569:Vickers Valiant 9554: 9546: 9537: 9531: 9501: 9496: 9465: 9359: 9323: 9262: 9257: 9227: 9222: 9196: 9151: 9128: 9087: 9076: 8859: 8843: 8719: 8678: 8671: 8608: 8577: 8466: 8366: 8364: 8357: 8352: 8318:Wayback Machine 8294:Wayback Machine 8279:Wayback Machine 8261:Wayback Machine 8248:Wayback Machine 8225:Wayback Machine 8209:nuclear weapons 8205:Wayback Machine 8181:Nuclear weapons 8171: 8170: 8159: 8153: 8151: 8148:This audio file 8145: 8138: 8129: 8126: 8120: 8119: 8115: 8112: 8107: 8007:Daniel Ellsberg 7970:Foreign Affairs 7923:missile defense 7908: 7907: 7906: 7891: 7890: 7886: 7879: 7877:Further reading 7874: 7794:Rhodes, Richard 7775:Wayback Machine 7757:nuclear weapons 7740: 7735:Wayback Machine 7699:Wayback Machine 7674:Wayback Machine 7621: 7615: 7610: 7609: 7602: 7582: 7578: 7571: 7551: 7547: 7540: 7520: 7516: 7506: 7501: 7497: 7484: 7483: 7479: 7469: 7464: 7460: 7450: 7445: 7441: 7434: 7418: 7414: 7404: 7402: 7389: 7388: 7384: 7374: 7372: 7357: 7353: 7343: 7341: 7337: 7330: 7326: 7325: 7321: 7305: 7304: 7297: 7295: 7291: 7284: 7282:"Archived copy" 7280: 7279: 7275: 7259: 7258: 7251: 7249: 7245: 7238: 7236:"Archived copy" 7234: 7233: 7229: 7219: 7217: 7204: 7203: 7199: 7189: 7187: 7172: 7164:McCusker, J. J. 7152: 7144:McCusker, J. J. 7140: 7136: 7128:Spencer Weart, 7127: 7123: 7114: 7110: 7101: 7097: 7078: 7077: 7073: 7063: 7061: 7052: 7051: 7047: 7038: 7031: 6974: 6970: 6960: 6958: 6945: 6944: 6940: 6930: 6928: 6924: 6911: 6905: 6901: 6880:(10): 706–714. 6870: 6866: 6856: 6854: 6819: 6815: 6805: 6803: 6786: 6779: 6769: 6767: 6752: 6748: 6738: 6736: 6732: 6721: 6717: 6716: 6712: 6702: 6700: 6696: 6689: 6685: 6684: 6680: 6659: 6658: 6654: 6644: 6642: 6629: 6628: 6624: 6615: 6611: 6602: 6598: 6588: 6586: 6573:Coghlan, Andy. 6571: 6567: 6559: 6552: 6548: 6547: 6543: 6533: 6531: 6518: 6517: 6513: 6503: 6501: 6486: 6462: 6458: 6448: 6446: 6437: 6436: 6432: 6425: 6409: 6400: 6389: 6385: 6375: 6373: 6358: 6354: 6347: 6309: 6305: 6286: 6285: 6281: 6271: 6269: 6256: 6255: 6251: 6241: 6239: 6228: 6224: 6217: 6203: 6199: 6189: 6187: 6180:Palm Beach Post 6172: 6168: 6152: 6151: 6147: 6141:Wayback Machine 6132: 6128: 6112: 6110: 6106: 6098: 6097: 6093: 6083: 6081: 6068: 6064: 6054: 6052: 6039: 6038: 6034: 6024: 6022: 6009: 6008: 6004: 5994: 5992: 5983: 5982: 5978: 5968: 5966: 5953: 5952: 5948: 5938:Rinaldo Brutoco 5935: 5928: 5918: 5916: 5905: 5901: 5891: 5889: 5873: 5872: 5868: 5858: 5856: 5839: 5835: 5825: 5823: 5803: 5799: 5780: 5776: 5766: 5764: 5755: 5754: 5750: 5740: 5738: 5734: 5723: 5717: 5713: 5703: 5701: 5692: 5691: 5687: 5677: 5675: 5664: 5660: 5653: 5639: 5635: 5626: 5622: 5612: 5610: 5593: 5589: 5579:Wayback Machine 5569: 5565: 5555: 5553: 5537: 5536: 5532: 5522: 5520: 5505: 5501: 5491: 5489: 5472: 5468: 5458: 5456: 5443: 5442: 5438: 5428: 5426: 5422: 5411: 5405:Mark Diesendorf 5402: 5398: 5392:Wayback Machine 5383: 5379: 5373:Wayback Machine 5364: 5360: 5351: 5347: 5341:Wayback Machine 5331: 5324: 5312:Wayback Machine 5299: 5295: 5285: 5283: 5270: 5269: 5265: 5255: 5253: 5238: 5237: 5233: 5223: 5221: 5220:on May 13, 2013 5206: 5199: 5168: 5164: 5157:Wayback Machine 5146: 5142: 5132:Wayback Machine 5122: 5118: 5105: 5104: 5100: 5091:Wayback Machine 5081:Kenneth Waltz, 5080: 5073: 5064: 5060: 5049: 5047: 5043: 5004: 4998: 4994: 4987: 4963: 4959: 4948: 4932: 4928: 4918: 4916: 4901: 4897: 4892:Wayback Machine 4877: 4873: 4863: 4861: 4852: 4851: 4847: 4837: 4835: 4824: 4820: 4812:physics/0507114 4799: 4795: 4785: 4783: 4774: 4773: 4769: 4752: 4751: 4747: 4739:physics/0510071 4730: 4723: 4717:Wayback Machine 4707: 4703: 4693: 4691: 4678: 4677: 4673: 4663: 4661: 4643: 4639: 4629: 4627: 4612: 4608: 4598: 4596: 4585: 4581: 4564: 4563: 4559: 4549: 4547: 4532: 4528: 4522:Wayback Machine 4512: 4508: 4502:Wayback Machine 4492: 4488: 4478: 4476: 4472: 4461: 4455:Albright, David 4452: 4448: 4434:Wayback Machine 4421:Hansen, Chuck. 4420: 4405: 4378: 4374: 4364: 4359: 4355: 4344: 4340: 4330: 4328: 4313: 4309: 4299: 4297: 4288: 4287: 4283: 4273: 4271: 4262: 4261: 4257: 4244: 4242: 4229: 4228: 4224: 4214: 4212: 4204: 4203: 4199: 4189: 4187: 4177: 4173: 4160: 4159: 4155: 4145: 4144: 4131: 4127: 4119: 4115: 4102:nuclear warhead 4087: 4083: 4073: 4068: 4063: 3982: 3977: 3976: 3907:Albert Einstein 3903:its own project 3878:concluded that 3821:alpha particles 3801:Frederick Soddy 3745:nuclear fission 3736: 3728: 3710: 3704: 3673: 3667: 3639: 3617: 3511: 3501: 3431: 3421:Doomsday device 3409: 3308: 3302: 3297: 3291: 3256:nuclear testing 3197: 3191: 3189:Nuclear fallout 3185: 3119: 3115: 3114: 2934: 2928: 2920:Main articles: 2918: 2907:and the U.S.'s 2886: 2880: 2875: 2865: 2815: 2809: 2793:Henry Kissinger 2714:Henry Kissinger 2648: 2641: 2635: 2591:Mark Diesendorf 2424: 2420: 2418: 2414: 2412: 2408: 2406: 2405:on July 7, 2017 2376:nuclear testing 2357:Albert Einstein 2316: 2310: 2270:Main articles: 2268: 2241:Robert Gallucci 2172:interventionist 2048:or land mobile 2034:missile defense 1985: 1979:Nuclear warfare 1959: 1951:Main articles: 1949: 1939:), such as the 1903:missile defense 1847:fighter-bombers 1793:of the Russian 1759: 1737: 1640: 1609:electric charge 1579:Nuclear isomers 1502: 1482:Main articles: 1480: 1455:nuclear fallout 1311: 1305: 1274:nuclear fallout 1254: 1176: 1174:Fission weapons 1164:nuclear fission 1115: 1109: 935: 925:in 1945 during 847:), producing a 817: 456: 407: 387: 377: 346: 201:Nuclear weapons 176:HGM-25A Titan I 143: 132: 126: 123: 80: 78: 68: 56: 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12304: 12294: 12293: 12288: 12283: 12278: 12273: 12258: 12257: 12234: 12233: 12211: 12208: 12207: 12205: 12204: 12199: 12194: 12189: 12187:Peace movement 12184: 12179: 12174: 12169: 12164: 12159: 12154: 12149: 12144: 12139: 12132: 12127: 12122: 12117: 12112: 12107: 12101: 12099: 12093: 12092: 12090: 12089: 12083: 12078: 12073: 12068: 12062: 12056: 12054:Windscale fire 12050: 12044: 12037: 12031: 12025: 12015: 12013:Lucens reactor 12009: 11999: 11993: 11987: 11980: 11974: 11973: 11972: 11967: 11956: 11950: 11944: 11939: 11933: 11927: 11920: 11918: 11910: 11909: 11907: 11906: 11901: 11896: 11891: 11890: 11889: 11884: 11883: 11882: 11877: 11870:United Kingdom 11867: 11862: 11857: 11852: 11847: 11842: 11837: 11827: 11822: 11817: 11812: 11807: 11802: 11797: 11791: 11789: 11777: 11776: 11769: 11768: 11761: 11754: 11746: 11737: 11736: 11734: 11733: 11721: 11709: 11694: 11691: 11690: 11687: 11686: 11683: 11682: 11680: 11679: 11674: 11669: 11667:Muon-catalyzed 11664: 11659: 11653: 11651: 11647: 11646: 11644: 11643: 11638: 11633: 11628: 11627: 11626: 11616: 11607: 11605: 11599: 11598: 11596: 11595: 11590: 11585: 11580: 11575: 11570: 11564: 11562: 11556: 11555: 11549: 11546: 11545: 11531: 11530: 11528: 11527: 11522: 11521: 11520: 11515: 11504: 11502: 11498: 11497: 11494: 11493: 11491: 11490: 11485: 11480: 11475: 11474: 11473: 11468: 11463: 11458: 11453: 11448: 11443: 11438: 11433: 11428: 11423: 11418: 11407: 11405: 11399: 11398: 11396: 11395: 11390: 11385: 11380: 11375: 11370: 11365: 11360: 11358:Integral (IFR) 11355: 11349: 11343: 11332: 11329: 11328: 11325: 11324: 11321: 11320: 11318: 11317: 11312: 11307: 11302: 11297: 11292: 11286: 11284: 11275: 11269: 11268: 11265: 11264: 11262: 11261: 11260: 11259: 11254: 11253: 11252: 11247: 11242: 11237: 11222: 11217: 11216: 11215: 11204: 11202: 11196: 11195: 11193: 11192: 11187: 11182: 11173: 11171: 11167: 11159: 11153: 11152: 11149: 11148: 11146: 11145: 11140: 11135: 11130: 11124: 11122: 11117: 11109: 11102: 11088: 11085: 11084: 11081: 11080: 11078: 11077: 11076: 11075: 11070: 11065: 11060: 11049: 11047: 11043: 11038: 11037: 11035: 11034: 11028: 11026: 11020: 11019: 11017: 11016: 11011: 11006: 11005: 11004: 10999: 10988: 10986: 10981: 10976: 10975: 10973: 10972: 10971: 10970: 10965: 10960: 10955: 10950: 10949: 10948: 10943: 10938: 10928: 10923: 10922: 10921: 10916: 10913: 10910: 10907: 10893: 10891: 10886: 10878: 10863: 10862: 10860: 10859: 10854: 10853: 10852: 10849: 10844: 10839: 10838: 10837: 10832: 10822: 10817: 10812: 10807: 10802: 10797: 10792: 10787: 10777: 10772: 10771: 10770: 10765: 10760: 10755: 10745: 10739: 10737: 10731: 10730: 10722: 10721: 10718: 10717: 10703: 10702: 10690: 10689: 10686: 10685: 10683: 10682: 10677: 10675:Uranium mining 10672: 10667: 10662: 10657: 10651: 10649: 10645: 10644: 10641: 10640: 10638: 10637: 10632: 10631: 10630: 10625: 10615: 10610: 10605: 10600: 10595: 10590: 10584: 10582: 10578: 10577: 10575: 10574: 10569: 10568: 10567: 10557: 10552: 10551: 10550: 10548:Minor actinide 10545: 10540: 10529: 10527: 10520: 10514: 10513: 10510: 10509: 10507: 10506: 10501: 10496: 10491: 10490: 10489: 10484: 10474: 10468: 10466: 10462: 10461: 10459: 10458: 10457: 10456: 10446: 10441: 10440: 10439: 10434: 10424: 10419: 10414: 10413: 10412: 10402: 10397: 10392: 10387: 10382: 10376: 10374: 10367: 10361: 10360: 10358: 10357: 10352: 10347: 10342: 10336: 10334: 10328: 10327: 10324: 10323: 10321: 10320: 10315: 10310: 10305: 10300: 10295: 10290: 10285: 10279: 10277: 10271: 10270: 10268: 10267: 10262: 10257: 10252: 10247: 10245:Autoradiograph 10241: 10239: 10230: 10224: 10223: 10221: 10220: 10219: 10218: 10208: 10207: 10206: 10196: 10195: 10194: 10184: 10179: 10174: 10169: 10164: 10159: 10153: 10151: 10145: 10144: 10142: 10141: 10136: 10131: 10126: 10121: 10116: 10111: 10106: 10101: 10096: 10091: 10085: 10083: 10077: 10076: 10074: 10073: 10072: 10071: 10066: 10061: 10060: 10059: 10054: 10039: 10034: 10029: 10024: 10019: 10014: 10008: 10006: 10000: 9999: 9997: 9996: 9995: 9994: 9989: 9979: 9974: 9969: 9967:Atomic nucleus 9964: 9959: 9954: 9948: 9946: 9938: 9937: 9930: 9929: 9922: 9915: 9907: 9898: 9897: 9891: 9888: 9887: 9885: 9884: 9879: 9873: 9871: 9867: 9866: 9863: 9862: 9860: 9859: 9853: 9851: 9847: 9846: 9844: 9843: 9834: 9833:(1994–present) 9824: 9822: 9815: 9814:(1994–present) 9807: 9806: 9803: 9802: 9800: 9799: 9794: 9788: 9786: 9782: 9781: 9779: 9778: 9772: 9770: 9766: 9765: 9763: 9762: 9753: 9751: 9744: 9736: 9735: 9732: 9731: 9729: 9728: 9722: 9720: 9716: 9715: 9713: 9712: 9705: 9703: 9696: 9688: 9687: 9684: 9683: 9681: 9680: 9675: 9670: 9665: 9660: 9655: 9650: 9648:Mk.1 atom bomb 9644: 9642: 9638: 9637: 9635: 9634: 9629: 9624: 9619: 9613: 9611: 9607: 9606: 9604: 9603: 9597: 9591: 9589: 9585: 9584: 9582: 9581: 9576: 9571: 9565: 9563: 9556: 9552:V bomber force 9548: 9547: 9542: 9539: 9538: 9535:United Kingdom 9530: 9529: 9522: 9515: 9507: 9498: 9497: 9495: 9494: 9489: 9484: 9479: 9473: 9471: 9467: 9466: 9464: 9463: 9458: 9453: 9448: 9443: 9438: 9433: 9428: 9423: 9418: 9413: 9408: 9403: 9398: 9393: 9388: 9383: 9378: 9373: 9367: 9365: 9361: 9360: 9358: 9357: 9352: 9347: 9342: 9337: 9331: 9329: 9325: 9324: 9322: 9321: 9316: 9311: 9306: 9301: 9296: 9291: 9286: 9281: 9276: 9270: 9268: 9264: 9263: 9256: 9255: 9248: 9241: 9233: 9224: 9223: 9221: 9220: 9215: 9210: 9204: 9202: 9198: 9197: 9195: 9194: 9189: 9184: 9179: 9174: 9169: 9163: 9161: 9160:Primary stages 9157: 9156: 9153: 9152: 9150: 9149: 9143: 9136: 9134: 9130: 9129: 9127: 9126: 9120: 9115: 9110: 9105: 9099: 9097: 9090: 9082: 9081: 9078: 9077: 9075: 9074: 9069: 9063: 9058: 9053: 9048: 9043: 9038: 9033: 9028: 9023: 9018: 9013: 9008: 9003: 8998: 8993: 8988: 8983: 8978: 8973: 8968: 8963: 8958: 8953: 8948: 8943: 8938: 8933: 8928: 8923: 8918: 8913: 8908: 8903: 8898: 8893: 8888: 8883: 8878: 8873: 8867: 8865: 8861: 8860: 8858: 8857: 8851: 8849: 8845: 8844: 8842: 8841: 8836: 8831: 8826: 8821: 8816: 8811: 8806: 8801: 8796: 8791: 8786: 8781: 8776: 8771: 8766: 8761: 8756: 8751: 8746: 8740: 8738: 8731: 8725: 8724: 8721: 8720: 8718: 8717: 8711: 8705: 8699: 8694: 8689: 8683: 8681: 8673: 8672: 8670: 8669: 8663: 8657: 8652: 8647: 8642: 8637: 8632: 8627: 8622: 8616: 8614: 8610: 8609: 8607: 8606: 8601: 8596: 8591: 8585: 8583: 8579: 8578: 8576: 8575: 8570: 8565: 8560: 8555: 8550: 8545: 8540: 8535: 8530: 8525: 8520: 8515: 8510: 8505: 8500: 8495: 8490: 8485: 8480: 8474: 8472: 8468: 8467: 8465: 8464: 8459: 8454: 8449: 8444: 8439: 8434: 8429: 8424: 8419: 8414: 8409: 8404: 8399: 8393: 8387: 8380: 8378: 8369: 8359: 8358: 8351: 8350: 8343: 8336: 8328: 8322: 8321: 8308: 8302: 8297: 8282: 8269: 8263: 8251: 8238: 8228: 8215: 8194: 8184: 8160: 8146: 8139: 8127: 8114: 8113: 8111: 8110:External links 8108: 8106: 8105: 8092: 8071: 8035:Eric Schlosser 8032: 8000: 7958: 7942: 7909: 7905: 7904: 7899: 7893: 7892: 7888:Nuclear weapon 7881: 7880: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7872: 7858: 7842: 7824: 7808: 7791: 7783: 7760: 7738: 7724: 7710: 7688: 7678: 7663: 7651: 7640: 7622: 7614: 7611: 7608: 7607: 7600: 7594:. p. 33. 7576: 7569: 7545: 7538: 7514: 7495: 7477: 7468:, p. 268. 7458: 7439: 7432: 7412: 7382: 7351: 7319: 7273: 7227: 7197: 7181:1800–present: 7134: 7121: 7108: 7095: 7071: 7045: 7029: 6990:(8): 586–596. 6968: 6938: 6907:Helfand, Ira. 6899: 6864: 6833:(4): 287–300. 6813: 6777: 6746: 6710: 6678: 6652: 6622: 6609: 6596: 6565: 6541: 6511: 6484: 6476:10.17226/10621 6456: 6430: 6424:978-0582902695 6423: 6398: 6383: 6352: 6345: 6303: 6279: 6249: 6222: 6215: 6197: 6166: 6145: 6126: 6091: 6062: 6032: 6002: 5976: 5946: 5926: 5899: 5866: 5833: 5806:Hugh Gusterson 5797: 5774: 5748: 5711: 5685: 5658: 5651: 5633: 5620: 5587: 5563: 5530: 5499: 5466: 5436: 5396: 5377: 5358: 5345: 5322: 5301:Eric Schlosser 5293: 5263: 5231: 5197: 5162: 5140: 5116: 5098: 5094:Adelphi Papers 5071: 5058: 5046:on May 1, 2013 5015:(1): 105–123. 4992: 4985: 4957: 4946: 4926: 4895: 4871: 4845: 4830:. Sfgate.com. 4818: 4793: 4767: 4745: 4721: 4701: 4671: 4637: 4606: 4579: 4557: 4526: 4506: 4486: 4446: 4403: 4372: 4363:, p. 201. 4353: 4338: 4307: 4281: 4255: 4222: 4197: 4171: 4152: 4151: 4150: 4149: 4143: 4142: 4125: 4113: 4080: 4079: 4078: 4077: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4064: 4062: 4061: 4055: 4049: 4044: 4039: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4004: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3958:Rudolf Peierls 3954:Maud Committee 3920:Major General 3737: 3729: 3706:Main article: 3703: 3700: 3669:Main article: 3666: 3663: 3616: 3613: 3611:in the 1980s. 3500: 3497: 3478:involving 100 3451:nuclear winter 3429:Nuclear famine 3417:Doomsday Clock 3408: 3405: 3401:Thyroid cancer 3373: 3372: 3360: 3357: 3347: 3333:nuclear winter 3304:Main article: 3301: 3298: 3293:Main article: 3290: 3287: 3222:mushroom cloud 3187:Main article: 3184: 3181: 3180: 3179: 3159: 3140:hydrogen bombs 3124: 3096:hydrogen bombs 3064: 3046: 3033:occurred near 3027: 3026:in New Jersey. 3012: 3000: 2977: 2954: 2943:Harry Daghlian 2917: 2914: 2884:Nuclear ethics 2882:Main article: 2879: 2876: 2864: 2861: 2832:in July 1997. 2811:Main article: 2808: 2807:United Nations 2805: 2637:Main article: 2634: 2631: 2607:Doomsday Clock 2434:United Nations 2419: 2413: 2407: 2361:Cyrus S. Eaton 2346:was issued in 2267: 2264: 2248:Graham Allison 2234:striking first 2095:issued by the 1948: 1945: 1937:suitcase bombs 1736: 1733: 1639: 1636: 1557:Starfish Prime 1479: 1476: 1364:United Kingdom 1333:hydrogen bombs 1307:Main article: 1304: 1303:Fusion weapons 1301: 1186:weapon designs 1182:The two basic 1175: 1172: 1168:nuclear fusion 1111:Main article: 1108: 1105: 1026:United Kingdom 945:at the end of 934: 931: 913:is a focus of 892:TNT equivalent 825:nuclear weapon 819: 818: 816: 815: 808: 801: 793: 790: 789: 788: 787: 774: 773: 772: 771: 768:treaty parties 758: 757: 753: 752: 751: 750: 745: 740: 732: 731: 727: 726: 725: 724: 719: 714: 712:United Kingdom 709: 704: 699: 694: 689: 684: 679: 674: 669: 664: 654: 649: 644: 639: 634: 629: 624: 619: 614: 609: 604: 599: 594: 589: 584: 579: 574: 569: 564: 559: 554: 549: 544: 539: 534: 529: 524: 516: 515: 509: 508: 507: 506: 501: 496: 491: 483: 482: 478: 477: 469: 468: 458: 457: 455: 454: 447: 440: 432: 429: 428: 427: 426: 421: 416: 411: 401: 400: 395: 390: 381: 371: 370: 365: 360: 358:United Kingdom 355: 350: 335: 334: 328: 327: 326: 325: 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 280: 274: 273: 268: 263: 257: 256: 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 218: 217: 213: 212: 204: 203: 192:PGM-19 Jupiter 145: 144: 59: 57: 50: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12303: 12292: 12289: 12287: 12286:Nuclear bombs 12284: 12282: 12279: 12277: 12274: 12272: 12269: 12268: 12266: 12256: 12246: 12245: 12242: 12231: 12223: 12222: 12209: 12203: 12200: 12198: 12195: 12193: 12190: 12188: 12185: 12183: 12180: 12178: 12175: 12173: 12170: 12168: 12165: 12163: 12160: 12158: 12155: 12153: 12150: 12148: 12145: 12143: 12140: 12138: 12137: 12133: 12131: 12128: 12126: 12123: 12121: 12118: 12116: 12113: 12111: 12108: 12106: 12103: 12102: 12100: 12094: 12088: 12084: 12082: 12079: 12077: 12074: 12072: 12069: 12067: 12063: 12061: 12057: 12055: 12051: 12049: 12045: 12042: 12038: 12036: 12032: 12030: 12026: 12024: 12020: 12016: 12014: 12010: 12008: 12004: 12000: 11998: 11994: 11992: 11988: 11985: 11981: 11979: 11975: 11971: 11968: 11966: 11963: 11962: 11961: 11957: 11955: 11951: 11949: 11945: 11943: 11940: 11938: 11934: 11932: 11928: 11926: 11922: 11921: 11919: 11911: 11905: 11902: 11900: 11897: 11895: 11892: 11888: 11887:United States 11885: 11881: 11878: 11876: 11873: 11872: 11871: 11868: 11866: 11863: 11861: 11858: 11856: 11853: 11851: 11848: 11846: 11843: 11841: 11838: 11836: 11833: 11832: 11831: 11828: 11826: 11823: 11821: 11818: 11816: 11813: 11811: 11808: 11806: 11803: 11801: 11798: 11796: 11793: 11792: 11790: 11788: 11778: 11774: 11767: 11762: 11760: 11755: 11753: 11748: 11747: 11744: 11732: 11731: 11722: 11720: 11719: 11710: 11708: 11707: 11696: 11695: 11692: 11678: 11675: 11673: 11670: 11668: 11665: 11663: 11660: 11658: 11655: 11654: 11652: 11648: 11642: 11639: 11637: 11634: 11632: 11629: 11625: 11624:electrostatic 11622: 11621: 11620: 11617: 11615: 11609: 11608: 11606: 11604: 11600: 11594: 11591: 11589: 11586: 11584: 11581: 11579: 11576: 11574: 11571: 11569: 11566: 11565: 11563: 11561: 11557: 11553: 11547: 11542: 11536: 11526: 11523: 11519: 11516: 11514: 11511: 11510: 11509: 11506: 11505: 11503: 11499: 11489: 11486: 11484: 11481: 11479: 11476: 11472: 11469: 11467: 11464: 11462: 11459: 11457: 11454: 11452: 11449: 11447: 11444: 11442: 11439: 11437: 11434: 11432: 11429: 11427: 11424: 11422: 11419: 11417: 11414: 11413: 11412: 11409: 11408: 11406: 11404: 11403:Generation IV 11400: 11394: 11391: 11389: 11386: 11384: 11381: 11379: 11376: 11374: 11371: 11369: 11366: 11364: 11361: 11359: 11356: 11354: 11353:Breeder (FBR) 11351: 11350: 11347: 11344: 11339: 11330: 11316: 11313: 11311: 11308: 11306: 11303: 11301: 11298: 11296: 11293: 11291: 11288: 11287: 11285: 11283: 11279: 11276: 11274: 11270: 11258: 11255: 11251: 11248: 11246: 11243: 11241: 11238: 11236: 11233: 11232: 11231: 11228: 11227: 11226: 11223: 11221: 11218: 11214: 11211: 11210: 11209: 11206: 11205: 11203: 11201: 11197: 11191: 11188: 11186: 11183: 11181: 11179: 11175: 11174: 11172: 11170: 11163: 11160: 11158: 11154: 11144: 11141: 11139: 11136: 11134: 11131: 11129: 11126: 11125: 11123: 11121: 11113: 11110: 11106: 11103: 11098: 11091: 11086: 11074: 11071: 11069: 11066: 11064: 11061: 11059: 11056: 11055: 11054: 11051: 11050: 11048: 11046: 11039: 11033: 11030: 11029: 11027: 11025: 11021: 11015: 11012: 11010: 11007: 11003: 11000: 10998: 10995: 10994: 10993: 10990: 10989: 10987: 10985: 10977: 10969: 10966: 10964: 10961: 10959: 10956: 10954: 10951: 10947: 10944: 10942: 10939: 10937: 10934: 10933: 10932: 10929: 10927: 10924: 10920: 10917: 10914: 10911: 10908: 10905: 10904: 10903: 10900: 10899: 10898: 10895: 10894: 10892: 10890: 10882: 10879: 10875: 10868: 10864: 10858: 10855: 10850: 10848: 10845: 10843: 10840: 10836: 10833: 10831: 10828: 10827: 10826: 10823: 10821: 10818: 10816: 10813: 10811: 10808: 10806: 10803: 10801: 10798: 10796: 10793: 10791: 10788: 10786: 10783: 10782: 10781: 10778: 10776: 10773: 10769: 10766: 10764: 10761: 10759: 10756: 10754: 10751: 10750: 10749: 10746: 10744: 10741: 10740: 10738: 10736: 10732: 10727: 10726: 10719: 10714: 10708: 10704: 10700: 10695: 10691: 10681: 10678: 10676: 10673: 10671: 10668: 10666: 10663: 10661: 10658: 10656: 10655:Nuclear power 10653: 10652: 10650: 10646: 10636: 10635:Transmutation 10633: 10629: 10626: 10624: 10621: 10620: 10619: 10616: 10614: 10611: 10609: 10606: 10604: 10601: 10599: 10596: 10594: 10591: 10589: 10586: 10585: 10583: 10579: 10573: 10570: 10566: 10563: 10562: 10561: 10558: 10556: 10553: 10549: 10546: 10544: 10541: 10539: 10536: 10535: 10534: 10531: 10530: 10528: 10524: 10521: 10519: 10515: 10505: 10502: 10500: 10497: 10495: 10492: 10488: 10485: 10483: 10480: 10479: 10478: 10475: 10473: 10470: 10469: 10467: 10463: 10455: 10452: 10451: 10450: 10447: 10445: 10442: 10438: 10435: 10433: 10432:high-altitude 10430: 10429: 10428: 10425: 10423: 10422:Proliferation 10420: 10418: 10415: 10411: 10408: 10407: 10406: 10403: 10401: 10398: 10396: 10393: 10391: 10388: 10386: 10383: 10381: 10378: 10377: 10375: 10371: 10368: 10366: 10362: 10356: 10353: 10351: 10348: 10346: 10343: 10341: 10338: 10337: 10335: 10333: 10329: 10319: 10316: 10314: 10311: 10309: 10308:Brachytherapy 10306: 10304: 10301: 10299: 10296: 10294: 10291: 10289: 10286: 10284: 10281: 10280: 10278: 10276: 10272: 10266: 10263: 10261: 10258: 10256: 10253: 10251: 10248: 10246: 10243: 10242: 10240: 10238: 10234: 10231: 10229: 10225: 10217: 10214: 10213: 10212: 10209: 10205: 10202: 10201: 10200: 10197: 10193: 10190: 10189: 10188: 10185: 10183: 10180: 10178: 10175: 10173: 10170: 10168: 10165: 10163: 10160: 10158: 10155: 10154: 10152: 10150: 10146: 10140: 10137: 10135: 10132: 10130: 10127: 10125: 10122: 10120: 10117: 10115: 10112: 10110: 10107: 10105: 10104:Cross section 10102: 10100: 10097: 10095: 10092: 10090: 10087: 10086: 10084: 10082: 10078: 10070: 10067: 10065: 10062: 10058: 10055: 10053: 10050: 10049: 10048: 10045: 10044: 10043: 10040: 10038: 10035: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10023: 10020: 10018: 10015: 10013: 10010: 10009: 10007: 10005: 10001: 9993: 9990: 9988: 9985: 9984: 9983: 9980: 9978: 9975: 9973: 9970: 9968: 9965: 9963: 9960: 9958: 9955: 9953: 9950: 9949: 9947: 9943: 9939: 9935: 9928: 9923: 9921: 9916: 9914: 9909: 9908: 9905: 9895: 9889: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9875: 9874: 9872: 9868: 9858: 9857:Trident II D5 9855: 9854: 9852: 9848: 9842:(replacement) 9841: 9839: 9835: 9832: 9830: 9826: 9825: 9823: 9819: 9816: 9812: 9808: 9798: 9795: 9793: 9790: 9789: 9787: 9783: 9777: 9774: 9773: 9771: 9767: 9761: 9759: 9755: 9754: 9752: 9748: 9745: 9741: 9737: 9727: 9724: 9723: 9721: 9717: 9711: 9710:RAF Spadeadam 9707: 9706: 9704: 9700: 9697: 9693: 9689: 9679: 9676: 9674: 9671: 9669: 9666: 9664: 9661: 9659: 9658:Orange Herald 9656: 9654: 9651: 9649: 9646: 9645: 9643: 9639: 9633: 9630: 9628: 9625: 9623: 9620: 9618: 9615: 9614: 9612: 9608: 9601: 9598: 9596: 9593: 9592: 9590: 9586: 9580: 9577: 9575: 9572: 9570: 9567: 9566: 9564: 9560: 9557: 9553: 9549: 9545: 9540: 9536: 9528: 9523: 9521: 9516: 9514: 9509: 9508: 9505: 9493: 9490: 9488: 9485: 9483: 9480: 9478: 9475: 9474: 9472: 9468: 9462: 9459: 9457: 9454: 9452: 9449: 9447: 9444: 9442: 9439: 9437: 9434: 9432: 9429: 9427: 9424: 9422: 9419: 9417: 9414: 9412: 9409: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9399: 9397: 9394: 9392: 9389: 9387: 9384: 9382: 9379: 9377: 9374: 9372: 9369: 9368: 9366: 9362: 9356: 9353: 9351: 9348: 9346: 9343: 9341: 9338: 9336: 9333: 9332: 9330: 9326: 9320: 9317: 9315: 9312: 9310: 9307: 9305: 9302: 9300: 9297: 9295: 9292: 9290: 9287: 9285: 9282: 9280: 9277: 9275: 9272: 9271: 9269: 9265: 9261: 9254: 9249: 9247: 9242: 9240: 9235: 9234: 9231: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9209: 9206: 9205: 9203: 9199: 9193: 9190: 9188: 9185: 9183: 9180: 9178: 9175: 9173: 9170: 9168: 9165: 9164: 9162: 9158: 9147: 9144: 9141: 9138: 9137: 9135: 9131: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9114: 9111: 9109: 9106: 9104: 9101: 9100: 9098: 9094: 9091: 9089: 9083: 9073: 9070: 9067: 9064: 9062: 9059: 9057: 9054: 9052: 9049: 9047: 9044: 9042: 9039: 9037: 9034: 9032: 9029: 9027: 9024: 9022: 9019: 9017: 9014: 9012: 9009: 9007: 9004: 9002: 8999: 8997: 8994: 8992: 8989: 8987: 8984: 8982: 8979: 8977: 8974: 8972: 8969: 8967: 8964: 8962: 8959: 8957: 8954: 8952: 8949: 8947: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8937: 8934: 8932: 8929: 8927: 8924: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8912: 8909: 8907: 8904: 8902: 8899: 8897: 8894: 8892: 8889: 8887: 8884: 8882: 8879: 8877: 8874: 8872: 8869: 8868: 8866: 8862: 8856: 8853: 8852: 8850: 8846: 8840: 8837: 8835: 8832: 8830: 8827: 8825: 8822: 8820: 8817: 8815: 8812: 8810: 8807: 8805: 8802: 8800: 8797: 8795: 8792: 8790: 8787: 8785: 8782: 8780: 8777: 8775: 8772: 8770: 8767: 8765: 8762: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8752: 8750: 8747: 8745: 8742: 8741: 8739: 8737:Gravity bombs 8735: 8732: 8730: 8729:Thermonuclear 8726: 8715: 8712: 8709: 8706: 8703: 8700: 8698: 8695: 8693: 8690: 8688: 8685: 8684: 8682: 8680: 8674: 8667: 8664: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8651: 8648: 8646: 8643: 8641: 8638: 8636: 8633: 8631: 8628: 8626: 8623: 8621: 8618: 8617: 8615: 8611: 8605: 8602: 8600: 8597: 8595: 8592: 8590: 8587: 8586: 8584: 8580: 8574: 8571: 8569: 8566: 8564: 8561: 8559: 8556: 8554: 8551: 8549: 8546: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8529: 8526: 8524: 8521: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8511: 8509: 8506: 8504: 8501: 8499: 8496: 8494: 8491: 8489: 8486: 8484: 8481: 8479: 8476: 8475: 8473: 8469: 8463: 8460: 8458: 8455: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8445: 8443: 8440: 8438: 8435: 8433: 8430: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8418: 8415: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8403: 8400: 8397: 8394: 8391: 8388: 8385: 8382: 8381: 8379: 8377: 8376:Gravity bombs 8373: 8370: 8368: 8360: 8356: 8349: 8344: 8342: 8337: 8335: 8330: 8329: 8326: 8319: 8315: 8312: 8309: 8306: 8303: 8301: 8298: 8295: 8291: 8288: 8287: 8283: 8280: 8276: 8273: 8270: 8267: 8264: 8262: 8258: 8255: 8252: 8249: 8245: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8236:sonicbomb.com 8233: 8229: 8226: 8222: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8210: 8206: 8202: 8199: 8195: 8192: 8188: 8185: 8182: 8177: 8173: 8172: 8168: 8164: 8149: 8103: 8102: 8097: 8093: 8090: 8089: 8084: 8080: 8076: 8072: 8069: 8065: 8061: 8058: 8054: 8050: 8046: 8045:Penguin Press 8042: 8041: 8036: 8033: 8030: 8029: 8024: 8023:9781608196708 8020: 8016: 8014: 8008: 8004: 8003:Thomas Powers 8001: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7989:United States 7986: 7983: 7979: 7976: 7972: 7971: 7966: 7962: 7959: 7956: 7955: 7950: 7946: 7943: 7940: 7936: 7932: 7928: 7924: 7920: 7919: 7914: 7911: 7910: 7903: 7900: 7898: 7895: 7894: 7889: 7884: 7871: 7870:0-674-05233-1 7867: 7863: 7859: 7857: 7856:0-674-62836-5 7853: 7849: 7846: 7843: 7840: 7836: 7832: 7828: 7825: 7823: 7822:0-684-81378-5 7819: 7815: 7814: 7809: 7807: 7806:0-684-82414-0 7803: 7799: 7795: 7792: 7789: 7788: 7784: 7781: 7777: 7776: 7772: 7769: 7764: 7761: 7758: 7754: 7750: 7746: 7739: 7736: 7732: 7729: 7725: 7723: 7722:0-300-06056-4 7719: 7715: 7711: 7708: 7704: 7700: 7696: 7693: 7689: 7686: 7682: 7681:Hansen, Chuck 7679: 7676: 7675: 7671: 7668: 7664: 7662: 7658: 7657: 7652: 7649: 7645: 7641: 7639: 7638:0-671-74012-1 7635: 7631: 7627: 7624: 7623: 7620: 7603: 7597: 7593: 7592:Da Capo Press 7589: 7588: 7580: 7572: 7566: 7562: 7558: 7557: 7549: 7541: 7535: 7531: 7527: 7526: 7518: 7510: 7504: 7499: 7491: 7487: 7481: 7473: 7467: 7462: 7454: 7448: 7443: 7435: 7429: 7425: 7424: 7416: 7400: 7396: 7395:ctbto dot org 7392: 7386: 7370: 7366: 7362: 7355: 7336: 7329: 7323: 7315: 7309: 7290: 7283: 7277: 7269: 7263: 7244: 7237: 7231: 7215: 7211: 7207: 7201: 7186: 7178: 7171: 7170: 7165: 7158: 7151: 7150: 7145: 7138: 7131: 7125: 7118: 7112: 7105: 7099: 7091: 7087: 7086: 7081: 7075: 7059: 7056:. Cnduk.org. 7055: 7049: 7042: 7036: 7034: 7025: 7021: 7017: 7013: 7008: 7007:11250/3039288 7003: 6998: 6993: 6989: 6985: 6984: 6979: 6972: 6956: 6952: 6948: 6942: 6923: 6919: 6918: 6910: 6903: 6895: 6891: 6887: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6868: 6852: 6848: 6844: 6840: 6836: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6817: 6801: 6797: 6796: 6791: 6784: 6782: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6750: 6731: 6727: 6720: 6714: 6695: 6688: 6682: 6675: 6670: 6666: 6662: 6656: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6626: 6619: 6613: 6606: 6600: 6584: 6580: 6579:New Scientist 6576: 6569: 6558: 6551: 6545: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6515: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6469: 6468: 6460: 6444: 6440: 6434: 6426: 6420: 6416: 6415: 6407: 6405: 6403: 6394: 6387: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6356: 6348: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6318: 6317:Physics Today 6314: 6307: 6299: 6295: 6290: 6283: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6253: 6237: 6233: 6226: 6218: 6212: 6208: 6201: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6170: 6162: 6158: 6157: 6149: 6142: 6138: 6135: 6134:Broken Arrows 6130: 6123: 6121: 6105: 6101: 6095: 6079: 6078: 6073: 6066: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6036: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6006: 5990: 5986: 5980: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5950: 5943: 5939: 5933: 5931: 5914: 5910: 5903: 5887: 5883: 5881: 5876: 5870: 5854: 5850: 5849: 5844: 5837: 5821: 5817: 5816: 5811: 5807: 5801: 5793: 5789: 5785: 5778: 5762: 5758: 5752: 5733: 5729: 5722: 5715: 5699: 5695: 5689: 5673: 5669: 5662: 5654: 5648: 5644: 5637: 5630: 5624: 5608: 5604: 5603: 5598: 5591: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5573: 5567: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5543:The Economist 5540: 5534: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5503: 5487: 5483: 5482: 5477: 5470: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5440: 5421: 5417: 5416:Energy Policy 5410: 5406: 5400: 5393: 5389: 5386: 5381: 5374: 5370: 5367: 5362: 5355: 5349: 5342: 5338: 5335: 5329: 5327: 5319: 5318: 5313: 5309: 5306: 5302: 5297: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5267: 5251: 5247: 5246: 5241: 5235: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5204: 5202: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5166: 5159: 5158: 5154: 5151: 5144: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5126: 5120: 5112: 5108: 5102: 5095: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5078: 5076: 5068: 5062: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5003: 4996: 4988: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4973: 4968: 4961: 4953: 4949: 4943: 4939: 4938: 4930: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4899: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4875: 4859: 4855: 4849: 4833: 4829: 4822: 4813: 4808: 4804: 4797: 4781: 4777: 4771: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4749: 4740: 4735: 4728: 4726: 4718: 4714: 4711: 4705: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4675: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4641: 4625: 4621: 4620:Russia Beyond 4617: 4610: 4594: 4590: 4583: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4561: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4530: 4523: 4519: 4516: 4510: 4503: 4499: 4496: 4490: 4471: 4467: 4460: 4456: 4450: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4428: 4424: 4418: 4416: 4414: 4412: 4410: 4408: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4376: 4368: 4362: 4357: 4350: 4349: 4342: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4311: 4295: 4291: 4285: 4269: 4265: 4259: 4252: 4245:September 18, 4240: 4236: 4232: 4226: 4211: 4207: 4201: 4186: 4182: 4175: 4167: 4163: 4157: 4153: 4147: 4146: 4139: 4135: 4129: 4123: 4117: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4085: 4081: 4075: 4074: 4059: 4056: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3988: 3985: 3984: 3973: 3969: 3968:Edgar Sengier 3966: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3946: 3943: 3939: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3922:Leslie Groves 3918: 3914: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3898: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3883: 3881: 3877: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3828: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3805: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3765:atomic theory 3762: 3758: 3750: 3746: 3741: 3734: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3709: 3699: 3697: 3692: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3672: 3662: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3612: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3598: 3594: 3593:Linus Pauling 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3573: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3542: 3540: 3532: 3527: 3520: 3515: 3510: 3506: 3496: 3494: 3490: 3489: 3483: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3440: 3435: 3430: 3426: 3425:World War III 3422: 3418: 3414: 3404: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3381: 3378: 3370: 3365: 3364:millisieverts 3361: 3358: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3345: 3341: 3340: 3339: 3336: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3317: 3312: 3307: 3296: 3286: 3284: 3279: 3277: 3273: 3268: 3264: 3259: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3248: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3214: 3207: 3206:Vela incident 3201: 3196: 3190: 3177: 3173: 3168: 3167:Titan Missile 3164: 3160: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3144:ejection seat 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3112: 3108: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3080:KC-135 tanker 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3047: 3044: 3041:carrying two 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3010: 3005: 3001: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2962:supercritical 2959: 2955: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2935: 2933: 2927: 2923: 2913: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2894: 2890: 2885: 2874: 2870: 2860: 2858: 2854: 2851:, especially 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2833: 2831: 2827: 2824: 2820: 2814: 2804: 2801: 2799: 2798:George Shultz 2794: 2790: 2785: 2784:Kenneth Waltz 2781: 2777: 2772: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2753: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2731: 2727: 2726:William Perry 2723: 2719: 2718:George Shultz 2715: 2711: 2707: 2706:nuclear peace 2702: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2683: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2667: 2661: 2657: 2652: 2646: 2640: 2630: 2626: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2603: 2601: 2597: 2592: 2587: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2556: 2549: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2516:In 1996, the 2511: 2506: 2502: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2487:Latin America 2484: 2480: 2475: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2442: 2440: 2435: 2431: 2428:In 1957, the 2404: 2399: 2395: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2372: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2340: 2338: 2337:head of state 2334: 2325: 2320: 2315: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2263: 2261: 2256: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2242: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2218:Minuteman III 2214: 2210: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2187: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2160:Kenneth Waltz 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2098: 2094: 2089: 2087: 2081: 2080: 2078: 2073: 2069: 2067: 2061: 2059: 2058:civil defense 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2006: 2002: 2000: 1995: 1991: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1967:Nuclear peace 1964: 1958: 1954: 1944: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1904: 1900: 1895: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1863: 1858: 1854: 1852: 1848: 1845:and tactical 1844: 1839: 1835: 1832:dropped from 1831: 1826: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1787: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1767:gravity bombs 1763: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1745:Nuclear triad 1742: 1732: 1730: 1726: 1725:antisubmarine 1721: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1710:Nike Hercules 1707: 1706:AIM-26 Falcon 1703: 1698: 1696: 1695:suitcase nuke 1692: 1687: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1659: 1657: 1649: 1648:OTR-21 Tochka 1644: 1635: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1620: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1573: 1569: 1564: 1562: 1558: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1538: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1515: 1512: 1507: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1475: 1473: 1469: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1448: 1447:Edward Teller 1444: 1440: 1438: 1433: 1429: 1423: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1388: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1356:United States 1352: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1329: 1320: 1315: 1310: 1300: 1298: 1294: 1293:Neptunium-237 1290: 1286: 1285:plutonium-239 1282: 1277: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1258: 1257:10 GJ). 1252: 1248: 1242: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1229:—allowing an 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1211: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1185: 1180: 1171: 1169: 1165: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1142: 1141: 1140:Bhagavad Gita 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1119: 1114: 1104: 1102: 1097: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1014:United States 1011: 1010:a few nations 1007: 1003: 998: 996: 992: 988: 984: 980: 976: 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 940: 939:United States 930: 928: 924: 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 895: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 860: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 834: 830: 826: 814: 809: 807: 802: 800: 795: 794: 792: 791: 786: 778: 777: 776: 775: 769: 765: 762: 761: 760: 759: 755: 754: 749: 746: 744: 741: 739: 736: 735: 734: 733: 730:Proliferation 729: 728: 723: 720: 718: 717:United States 715: 713: 710: 708: 705: 703: 700: 698: 695: 693: 690: 688: 685: 683: 680: 678: 675: 673: 670: 668: 665: 662: 658: 655: 653: 650: 648: 645: 643: 640: 638: 635: 633: 630: 628: 625: 623: 620: 618: 615: 613: 610: 608: 605: 603: 600: 598: 595: 593: 590: 588: 585: 583: 580: 578: 575: 573: 570: 568: 565: 563: 560: 558: 555: 553: 550: 548: 545: 543: 540: 538: 535: 533: 530: 528: 525: 523: 520: 519: 518: 517: 514: 511: 510: 505: 502: 500: 497: 495: 492: 490: 487: 486: 485: 484: 480: 479: 475: 471: 470: 467: 464: 463: 453: 448: 446: 441: 439: 434: 433: 431: 430: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 406: 403: 402: 399: 396: 394: 391: 385: 382: 380: 376: 373: 372: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 348:United States 345: 343: 339: 338: 337: 336: 333: 330: 329: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 303:Proliferation 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 281: 279: 276: 275: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 258: 255: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 221: 220: 219: 215: 214: 210: 206: 205: 202: 199: 198: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 166: 162: 158: 153: 149: 141: 138: 130: 119: 116: 112: 109: 105: 102: 98: 95: 91: 88: – 87: 83: 82:Find sources: 76: 72: 66: 65: 60:This article 58: 54: 49: 48: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 18:Atomic weapon 12212: 12134: 12130:Bikini Atoll 12076:Hanford Site 12071:Bikini Atoll 11875:in Australia 11865:Soviet Union 11860:South Africa 11728: 11716: 11697: 11677:Pyroelectric 11631:Laser-driven 11411:Sodium (SFR) 11338:fast-neutron 11177: 10723: 10613:Reprocessing 10494:WMD treaties 10364: 10313:Radiosurgery 10283:Fast-neutron 10255:Scintigraphy 9892:part of the 9837: 9828: 9757: 9663:Green Bamboo 9610:bomb casings 9201:Experimental 8362: 8285: 8099: 8086: 8082: 8078: 8038: 8026: 8025:, 420 pp.), 8010: 7997:cyberweapons 7982:U.S. Senator 7978:Ernest Moniz 7968: 7952: 7916: 7887: 7861: 7847: 7830: 7811: 7797: 7785: 7780:Smyth Report 7766: 7744: 7713: 7684: 7665: 7654: 7647: 7643: 7629: 7613:Bibliography 7586: 7579: 7555: 7548: 7524: 7517: 7498: 7489: 7480: 7461: 7442: 7422: 7415: 7405:December 29, 7403:. Retrieved 7399:the original 7394: 7385: 7375:February 22, 7373:. Retrieved 7369:the original 7364: 7354: 7344:February 22, 7342:. Retrieved 7335:the original 7322: 7296:. Retrieved 7276: 7250:. Retrieved 7230: 7220:November 20, 7218:. Retrieved 7214:the original 7209: 7200: 7190:February 29, 7188:. Retrieved 7168: 7148: 7137: 7129: 7124: 7116: 7111: 7103: 7098: 7083: 7074: 7062:. Retrieved 7048: 7040: 6987: 6981: 6971: 6959:. Retrieved 6950: 6941: 6931:February 13, 6929:. Retrieved 6915: 6902: 6877: 6873: 6867: 6855:. Retrieved 6830: 6826: 6816: 6804:. Retrieved 6793: 6768:. Retrieved 6760:The Atlantic 6759: 6749: 6737:. Retrieved 6725: 6713: 6701:. Retrieved 6694:the original 6681: 6672: 6664: 6655: 6645:September 7, 6643:. Retrieved 6634: 6625: 6617: 6612: 6604: 6599: 6587:. Retrieved 6578: 6568: 6544: 6532:. Retrieved 6523: 6514: 6502:. Retrieved 6498:the original 6466: 6459: 6447:. Retrieved 6433: 6413: 6392: 6386: 6374:. Retrieved 6365: 6355: 6316: 6306: 6293: 6282: 6270:. Retrieved 6261: 6252: 6242:February 16, 6240:. Retrieved 6225: 6206: 6200: 6188:. Retrieved 6184:the original 6179: 6169: 6154: 6148: 6129: 6120: 6118: 6111:. Retrieved 6104:the original 6094: 6082:. Retrieved 6080:. p. 28 6075: 6065: 6053:. Retrieved 6044: 6035: 6023:. Retrieved 6014: 6005: 5993:. Retrieved 5979: 5969:November 28, 5967:. Retrieved 5958: 5949: 5941: 5917:. Retrieved 5913:the original 5902: 5890:. Retrieved 5878: 5869: 5857:. Retrieved 5848:Defense News 5846: 5836: 5824:. Retrieved 5820:the original 5813: 5800: 5787: 5777: 5765:. Retrieved 5761:the original 5751: 5741:November 20, 5739:. Retrieved 5732:the original 5727: 5714: 5702:. Retrieved 5698:the original 5688: 5676:. Retrieved 5661: 5642: 5636: 5628: 5623: 5613:September 6, 5611:. Retrieved 5607:the original 5600: 5590: 5582: 5566: 5554:. Retrieved 5542: 5533: 5521:. Retrieved 5512: 5502: 5490:. Retrieved 5479: 5469: 5457:. Retrieved 5448: 5439: 5427:. Retrieved 5420:the original 5415: 5399: 5380: 5361: 5353: 5348: 5315: 5296: 5284:. Retrieved 5276:The Guardian 5275: 5266: 5254:. Retrieved 5243: 5234: 5222:. Retrieved 5218:the original 5213: 5175: 5171: 5165: 5148: 5143: 5135: 5119: 5101: 5093: 5066: 5061: 5056:See page 116 5050:November 23, 5048:. Retrieved 5041:the original 5012: 5008: 4995: 4971: 4960: 4936: 4929: 4919:November 27, 4917:. Retrieved 4908: 4898: 4879: 4874: 4862:. Retrieved 4848: 4836:. Retrieved 4821: 4802: 4796: 4784:. Retrieved 4770: 4757: 4748: 4704: 4694:November 27, 4692:. Retrieved 4683: 4674: 4662:. Retrieved 4653: 4640: 4628:. Retrieved 4619: 4609: 4597:. Retrieved 4582: 4574:the original 4569: 4560: 4548:. Retrieved 4539: 4529: 4509: 4489: 4477:. Retrieved 4449: 4422: 4385: 4375: 4356: 4346: 4341: 4329:. Retrieved 4325:the original 4320: 4310: 4300:December 15, 4298:. Retrieved 4284: 4274:December 29, 4272:. Retrieved 4258: 4250: 4243:. Retrieved 4239:the original 4225: 4215:November 27, 4213:. Retrieved 4209: 4200: 4188:. Retrieved 4184: 4174: 4165: 4156: 4137: 4128: 4116: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4098:nuclear bomb 4097: 4093: 4089: 4084: 3947: 3935: 3932:site in 1945 3930:Trinity test 3899: 3884: 3873: 3844:Lise Meitner 3829: 3825:Enrico Fermi 3806: 3783:, an ore of 3754: 3693: 3674: 3659:Hanford site 3640: 3601: 3576: 3574: 3543: 3536: 3486: 3484: 3467: 3455:Brian Martin 3453:". In 1982, 3444: 3439:Castle Bravo 3382: 3374: 3337: 3324: 3321: 3283:Hanford site 3280: 3260: 3247:Lucky Dragon 3245: 3238:Castle Bravo 3231: 3176:W-53 warhead 3072:B-52G bomber 3061:the Pentagon 3018:destroyed a 2997:Broken Arrow 2983:in northern 2958:Louis Slotin 2941:, physicist 2898: 2834: 2816: 2802: 2789:World War II 2773: 2761:Barack Obama 2749: 2703: 2684: 2668: 2665: 2627: 2604: 2596:Global South 2588: 2553: 2550: 2515: 2476: 2443: 2427: 2373: 2341: 2329: 2257: 2246: 2239: 2188: 2180:South Korean 2147: 2136:Soviet Union 2121: 2090: 2082: 2075: 2064: 2062: 2054:missile silo 2039: 2022:heavier lift 1994:first strike 1986: 1931:. An atomic 1907: 1896: 1890:(ICBMs) and 1877: 1830:gravity bomb 1827: 1812: 1807:throw weight 1779:heavy bomber 1722: 1708:and US Army 1699: 1688: 1663:neutron bomb 1660: 1653: 1621: 1595: 1577: 1565: 1554: 1539: 1516: 1503: 1488:Neutron bomb 1472:stratosphere 1452: 1424: 1389: 1353: 1336: 1332: 1326: 1324: 1278: 1259: 1243: 1212: 1199: 1195: 1192:atomic bombs 1191: 1189: 1161: 1138: 1123:Trinity test 1098: 1086:South Africa 1018:Soviet Union 999: 959:fission bomb 947:World War II 936: 927:World War II 896: 861: 824: 822: 672:South Africa 667:Saudi Arabia 661:Soviet Union 504:Radiological 498: 409:South Africa 404: 388:(undeclared) 374: 340: 200: 164: 148: 133: 124: 114: 107: 100: 93: 81: 69:Please help 64:verification 61: 44: 12202:Smiling Sun 11913:Individual 11850:North Korea 11588:Stellarator 11552:confinement 11446:Superphénix 11273:Molten-salt 11225:VHTR (HTGR) 11002:HW BLWR 250 10968:R4 Marviken 10897:Pressurized 10867:Heavy water 10851:many others 10780:Pressurized 10735:Light water 10437:underground 10395:Disarmament 10303:Tomotherapy 10298:Proton-beam 10162:Power plant 10124:Temperature 9957:Engineering 9838:Dreadnought 9743:(1968–1996) 9702:launch site 9692:Blue Streak 9668:Green Grass 9653:Violet Club 9617:Blue Danube 9602:(cancelled) 9574:Avro Vulcan 9555:(1955–1993) 9319:missile M51 9309:missile M45 9289:missile S1 9284:missile M20 8848:Depth bombs 8582:Depth bombs 8075:Fred Kaplan 8013:Nuclear War 7980:and former 7949:INF Treaty 7913:Laura Grego 7741:(in French) 7503:Rhodes 1986 7466:Rhodes 1986 7447:Rhodes 1986 7161:1700–1799: 7141:1634–1699: 6983:Nature Food 6961:October 26, 6857:October 25, 6806:October 26, 6534:October 24, 6504:October 24, 6449:December 7, 6262:Der Spiegel 6015:Der Spiegel 5826:February 2, 5767:October 24, 5492:November 3, 5224:January 28, 4864:October 24, 4479:October 13, 4266:. Fas.org. 4094:atomic bomb 3987:Cobalt bomb 3950:Tube Alloys 3891:uranium-235 3887:uranium-238 3876:Leo Szilard 3868:Leo Szilard 3823:; in Italy 3781:pitchblende 3777:Marie Curie 3769:John Dalton 3591:. In 1962, 3566:Aldermaston 3488:Nature Food 3195:Downwinders 3136:B-52 bomber 3130:involved a 3104:radioactive 2863:Controversy 2757:Global Zero 2633:Disarmament 2621:during the 2555:casus belli 2453:(expired), 2228:land-based 2184:North Korea 2156:neo-realist 2072:battlefield 2026:SS-18 Satan 1999:game theory 1803:SS-18 Satan 1729:depth bombs 1702:AIR-2 Genie 1555:During the 1531:salted bomb 1478:Other types 1428:criticality 1384:North Korea 1289:uranium-233 1281:uranium-235 1266:radioactive 1253:(4.2 to 2.1 1074:Netherlands 1046:North Korea 961:nicknamed " 868:tons of TNT 843:reactions ( 692:Switzerland 677:South Korea 637:Philippines 627:North Korea 622:Netherlands 398:North Korea 308:Disarmament 168:PGM-17 Thor 12265:Categories 12192:Peace camp 11982:1985–1987 11915:accidents 11783:disasters 11613:(acoustic) 11230:PBR (PBMR) 10618:Spent fuel 10608:Repository 10588:Fuel cycle 10555:Activation 10332:Processing 10199:Propulsion 10157:by country 10089:Activation 9758:Resolution 9627:Yellow Sun 9595:Blue Steel 9381:AN-52 bomb 9376:AN-22 bomb 9371:AN-11 bomb 9314:missile M5 9304:missile M4 9299:missile S3 9294:missile S2 9279:missile M2 9274:missile M1 8384:Little Boy 8365:(including 8211:and their 8163:Audio help 8154:2005-12-01 8053:1594202273 7954:The Nation 7927:technology 7617:See also: 7530:SUNY Press 6376:August 31, 6272:August 20, 6055:August 31, 6025:August 20, 5556:August 13, 5286:October 9, 5256:October 9, 4664:October 8, 4630:October 8, 4550:January 7, 4361:Jungk 1958 4066:References 4002:Dirty bomb 3712:See also: 3619:See also: 3503:See also: 3493:starvation 3411:See also: 3393:half-lifes 3329:firestorms 3327:each city 3193:See also: 3172:hypergolic 3051:, where a 2974:demon core 2930:See also: 2867:See also: 2857:small arms 2853:land mines 2826:Kofi Annan 2776:deterrence 2691:Kazakhstan 2540:, and the 2538:UN Charter 2493:, and the 2312:See also: 2124:deterrence 2046:submarines 1961:See also: 1917:land mines 1739:See also: 1597:Antimatter 1468:tropopause 1432:Tsar Bomba 1408:gamma rays 1196:atom bombs 1137:scripture 1000:Since the 963:Little Boy 888:Tsar Bomba 864:first test 722:Yugoslavia 513:By country 489:Biological 419:Kazakhstan 344:recognized 318:Opposition 216:Background 180:Thor-Agena 97:newspapers 11984:Therac-25 11917:and sites 11787:incidents 11781:Lists of 11583:Spheromak 11282:Fluorides 10946:IPHWR-700 10941:IPHWR-540 10936:IPHWR-220 10725:Moderator 10405:Explosion 10380:Arms race 10167:Economics 10119:Reflector 10114:Radiation 10109:Generator 10064:Plutonium 10017:Deuterium 9982:Radiation 9952:Chemistry 9622:Red Beard 9406:AN 52 CTC 9401:AN 51 CTC 9396:MR 50 CTC 9133:Artillery 9088:radiation 8679:munitions 8613:Artillery 8311:NUKEMAP3D 7709:(2nd Ed.) 7024:251601831 6894:144553194 6847:110974484 6770:April 19, 6589:March 12, 6234:. 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