491:
571:
981:
763:
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819:'s words, "rich, and poor, doctors and lawyers, workers and shopkeepers, artists and artisans, teachers and students, men and teenage boys from every walk of life, and even a man of God ... among them". The main concern of the SS had been the speedy fulfilment of the quota. Some were residents of Via Rasella who were home at the time of the Partisan attack; others had been arrested and tortured for suspected Resistance and other anti-Fascist activities, while still others had been casually picked up on the streets or arrested at their homes on the basis of tips from Fascist informants. The youngest of them was 15 years old.
1718:: "This is a memorial that brings everyone into agreement: Christians and Jews, believers and non-believers. The memorial conveys the sense of brotherhood even in death. There has only been reciprocal respect, and never any room for vengeful thoughts or religious conflict. Memorial events have been organized without any problem, in full solidarity and collaboration. Death really brought diverse people together and made even the living brothers. I remember that during the recovery and identification process, a Catholic priest, as well as a rabbi, were with us to give the blessings.
977:). The massive bronze gate by Mirko Basaldella used the ubiquitous barbed wire of battlefields and concentration camps as inspiration, merging it with the moving curlicues of a Tree of Life. The curved lines morph into a tangle of limbs reaching out across each other at those awkwardly bent angles characteristic of corpses. Also at the entrance is a colossal concrete statue by Francesco Coccia of three male figures standing together as one. Hands tied behind their backs, the three ages of man are bound together by ideals and fate—the youngest Fosse victim was 15, the oldest 70.
36:
1090:
apartments were sacked and the German police took complete control of the area, prohibiting any interference by other authorities; in any case, it seems that a column of German vehicles passing through Via
Rasella was responsible for provoking the Italians who then hurled grenades from the building alongside Palazzo Tittoni; the counter-measures are not yet known: it is however foreseen that for every German killed 10 Italians will be executed. L'ing. Ferraro hopes to provide further details later.
104:
1910:, p. 382: "Whether the Vatican first learned of a looming reprisal from Father Pankratius Pfeiffer on the night of the 23rd or from Ferrero, the official of the Governatorio, the following morning, seems only marginally relevant now, but, as already noted, until the 1980 release of the Vatican document by which it was informed that a ten-for-one reprisal was foreseen, it had maintained having no knowledge whatsoever of a German retaliation plan."
965:
1607:) from Hitler on 7 December 1941 that was originally intended to winnow out all political activists and resistance "helpers", "anyone endangering German security" ("die deutsche Sicherheit gefährden") throughout Nazi Germany's occupied territories. .. . The decree was meant to intimidate local populations into submission by denying friends and families of the missing any knowledge of their whereabouts or their fate. The
1102:, Himmler's representative in Rome and German Consul Eitel Möllhausen had gone to Pope Pius' personal liaison to the German occupational authorities, Pankratius Pfeiffer, asking him to urge the Pope to intervene and limit reprisals on the grounds that they would inflame the Roman population and make the occupation (and negotiations for a separate peace with the Allies they all fervently wished for) even more difficult.
2033:, p. 28, decries the continuing denial of the nature of the massacre in the following terms: "We are up against something that is close to a mythical, semi-religious belief in the guilt of the partisans and in the innocence of the Nazis. I think this is an amazing situation. Italy is probably the only country in the world that goes to the length of lying to itself in order to absolve its occupiers and massacrers."
1106:
the night before . It was also the opinion held by
Dollman and Möllhausen. None of them seemed to believe that the Partisans meant to hurt the Germans as never before to extend the popularity of the Resistance" nor did they view the Via Rasella attack as a legitimate act of war. Instead, they viewed it as a tragic act of terrorism by Communists, as did the Vatican, and as some of its defenders still do. According to
672:, suggested making up the numbers from the 57 Jews also in Nazi custody. By noon on 24 March, Kappler had a list of 271 victims, each with his crime listed against his name, except for the Jews, who were simply listed as "Jew". By this time the death toll from the Via Rasella bombing had risen to 32. (One more would die while the reprisal was underway; the death toll eventually reaching 33.) To make up the numbers,
742:, ensuring that no more than one bullet would be needed per prisoner. Many were forced to kneel down over the bodies of those who had been killed before them because the cave had become filled with dead bodies. During the killings, the existence of the five extra prisoners was discovered, and it was decided to kill them anyway, in order to prevent the place of execution from becoming known.
1154:
every honest heart is left profoundly grieved in the name of humanity and
Christian sentiment. Thirty-two victims on the one hand, and on the other, three-hundred-and-twenty persons sacrificed for the guilty parties who escaped arrest." Subsequently, the Nazi Occupation forces stepped up their hunt among Roman civilians for suspected Resistance supporters, whom it rounded up and tortured.
1252:, brought back to Italy for trial, and sentenced to house arrest in the home of his lawyer, Paolo Giachini. He died on 11 October 2013 from natural causes at age 100. His last request to have his remains returned to Argentina to be buried alongside his wife was denied by Argentina. The Vatican issued an "unprecedented ban" on holding the funeral in any Catholic church in Rome. But the
559:
cleaner, while others acted as lookouts. The fuse was lit when the police were forty seconds from the bomb. The blast caused the immediate deaths of 28 German SS policemen and may have killed two civilian bystanders, one of whom, Piero
Zuccheretti, was an eleven-year-old boy, although he might well have been killed by the Germans firing in response; it is unknown.
1085:, it showed that the Vatican had indeed heard that the Germans were planning to punish Italian citizens tenfold for the SS deaths. However, the information was received only five hours before the massacre took place; the informant's statement was short and vague as to source; and it provided no information in regards to time, place, or logistics:
1077:
below) was revealed; the court case was reconfigured; and Katz was found guilty of "intention to denigrate" Pius XII. Ultimately, however, the case was dismissed without a ruling on the matter at hand, "on the grounds of an amnesty dating back to 1970." Katz continued to publish various accusations against Pius XII until his death.
1215:, on the other hand, cautions that although "armed resistance during World War II was romanticised because the Nazis were such an appalling enemy and because in that war the guerrillas' targets were still mainly soldiers", it is increasingly hard to draw the line between freedom fighting and terrorism. In his opinion,
1076:
In 1974, Katz was sued in the Roman courts by Pius's niece, Countess Elena
Pacelli Rossignani. Katz was initially found guilty, but an appeals court overturned this initial ruling. The appeals court decision was in turn appealed by the prosecution. Further evidence ("the Governatorato document" - see
1047:
party, suggested that "With immigrants, we should use the same system the SS used, punish 10 of them for every slight against one of our citizens", in reference to Italy's current debate over immigration policies. This comment was met with public condemnation, and Bettio later said, "I certainly made
1027:
For a number of reasons, including (but not limited to): the large number of victims; the fact that many of them were innocent civilians casually taken only to make up the number of those to be killed; the cruel methods implemented (even by Nazi standards) to carry out the massacre; the fact that the
1153:
writes that "the wording is worthy of examination" and speculates that this is a reference to "the Nazis who rounded up over 300 people and then butchered them.") and urging Roman citizens to continue to exercise restraint to prevent further sacrifices of innocent people. "In the face of such deeds,
1219:
regulating irregular warfare has been "more a failure than success". "What is needed," Deák stresses, "is a recognition of reality, namely that future wars will increasingly consist of civilians shooting at soldiers from hiding and frightened soldiers killing innocent civilians. And what is needed,
1007:
WE WERE SLAUGHTERED IN THIS PLACE BECAUSE – WE FOUGHT AGAINST INTERNAL TYRANNY – FOR FREEDOM AND AGAINST THE FOREIGNER – FOR THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE HOMELAND – WE DREAMT A FREE, JUST – AND DEMOCRATIC ITALY. MAY OUR SACRIFICE AND OUR BLOOD – SOW THE SEED AND ACT AS WARNING FOR – GENERATIONS TO COME.
1000:
WAYFARERS THIRSTY FOR LIBERTY – WE WERE ROUNDED UP AT RANDOM – IN THE STREET AND IN JAIL – AS A REPRISAL CAST IN EN MASSE – SLAUGHTERED AND WALLED WITHIN THESE PITS – ITALIANS, DO NOT CURSE – MOTHERS, BRIDES, DO NOT WEEP – CHILDREN, CARRY WITH PRIDE – THE MEMORY – OF THE HOLOCAUST OF YOUR FATHERS –
745:
The bodies of the victims were placed in piles, typically about a metre in height, and then buried under tons of rock debris when German military engineers set explosives to seal the caves and hide the atrocity. They remained summarily buried and abandoned for over a year inside the caves. Families
1105:
According to Katz, the
Secretariat of the Vatican believed that "the attack on Via Rasella had been undertaken to provoke the occupiers into an excessively repressive act and increase the people's hatred of the Germans. "This was what the Pope's liaison Padre Pancrazio had been told in the Vatican
1089:
L'ing. Ferraro, of the
Governatorato of Rome, reports the following details about yesterday's incident: the German victims numbered 26 soldiers; among the Italian civilians there were, unfortunately, three or four deaths; it is not easy to reconstruct what took place because everyone escaped; some
1129:
or through the
General Superior of the Salvatorian Fathers, Father Pancrazio Pfeiffer. Nor should one be surprised that such a supposed intervention had little chance of success; the order had come from Berlin and, moreover, what argument could a papal emissary use in favour of restraint? For the
1139:
debated whether to protest against the massacre but decided not to because, as one of his defenders reported, "all the convents, all the religious houses of Rome were full of refugees, Communists, Jews, democrats and anti-Fascists, ex-generals, etc. Pius XII had even suspended the rules for the
988:
Each face has a distinct expression portraying the range of emotions the men likely felt marching to their deaths in the quarry: despair, eyes half-closed in resignation, a resolute distant stare. Each face on the statue directs its gaze towards an important element of the memorial complex: the
1018:
The last phrase, taken from
Penitential Psalm 130, was most likely chosen for its parallel significance in Christianity and Judaism, simultaneously speaking for 260 Christians and 75 Jews killed and buried side by side. The text is written in both Latin and Hebrew: "Clamavi ad Te, Domine";"שיר
558:
packed in a steel case. This was inserted into a bag containing an additional six kilograms of TNT and TNT-filled iron tubing. Although reported as having been thrown from a building, the bomb had actually been hidden in a rubbish cart, pushed into position by a
Partisan disguised as a street
1196:
officially ruled that the act in Via Rasella had been a legitimate act of war and not a terrorist attack and ordered the publisher to pay punitive damages of 45 thousand euro. Nevertheless, some historians, such as Richard Raiber and István Deák, continue to imply that the Partisans were the
814:
Although it is sometimes claimed that the reprisal victims were predominantly Jewish, only 75 of the 335 victims selected for death in the caves were Jewish, this having been a criterion for selection (because Jews were known to be marked for death anyway). In fact, the victims comprised, in
1165:
This decision was reaffirmed in 1999, when the Italian Supreme Court declared the Partisans immune from prosecution after a Roman prosecutor had unsuccessfully attempted to bring a suit against them for the death of the boy Piero Zuccheretti, who had been killed in Via Rasella. Historian
1204:(2003), posited that the Rome-based Resistance not only undermined German morale but also achieved important strategic objectives and was hence not a useless provocation, as contended by critics, but an act of legitimate military significance in furthering the Allied victory.
1072:
had advance knowledge of the Nazi orders and did little to forestall it. Katz wrote later that he had put together "circumstantial evidence... from six separate sources, though no single element was conclusive." This charge was vigorously disputed by the Pope's defenders.
2467:
1080:
In 1980, a relevant document ("the Governatorato document") was found in the Vatican archives and released by the Vatican. It was dated 24 March 1944, 10:15 a.m., and contained intelligence gathered only hours after the attack on the SS troops. Addressed to the
1032:, and the hiding of the bodies, which were buried summarily instead of being returned to their families – the slaughter became a symbol of the various massacres carried out against civilians in Italy, from 8 September 1943 until the German surrender on 8 May 1945.
859:, a war hero aged 64, who had endured torture with a blowtorch. The old soldier had replied to his captors, "My only regret is that I was not younger because there was so much more I could have done ". Neither man ever talked or in any way betrayed their network.
972:
The design of the Fosse Ardeatine monument resulted from a national competition and was a collaboration between five architects (Nello Aprile, Cino Calcaprina, Aldo Cardelli, Mario Fiorentino & Giuseppe Perugini) and two sculptors (Francesco Coccia &
478:), only 30 miles from Rome, created temporary euphoria among the Roman populace along with a dangerous relaxation of caution on the part of Resistance members, that enabled the Nazis to arrest and torture many of its most important leaders. In the meantime,
737:
delivered to the caves to calm the officers' nerves. The officers were ordered to lead the doomed prisoners into the caves with their hands tied behind their backs and then have them kneel down so that the soldiers could fire a bullet directly into the
1170:
finds "persuasive" Katz's characterisation of the Pope's decision to condemn the Partisans for the Via Rasella attack, rather than the Nazis for the reprisals, as evidence of "a moral failure" resulting from one of the "great misreadings of history".
810:
Misconceptions about the Fosse Ardeatine Massacre abound. Foremost among these is the notion that the Partisans responsible for the Via Rasella attack were ordered to come forward and turn themselves over to the SS and wilfully declined to do so.
733:, they were transported to the Ardeatine caves in truckloads and then, in groups of five, put to death inside the caves. Because the killing squad mostly consisted of officers who had never killed before, Kappler had ordered several cases of
1832:
276:, a solemn state commemoration is held at the monument in honour of the fallen. Each year, 335 names are called out, a simple roll call of the dead, to reinforce that 335 discrete individuals symbolise a collective entity.
1130:
past several months, the Pope had argued that German restraint would ease the tension in Rome. Suddenly, the entire papal strategy had been undermined by the spectacular and tragic liquidation of 33 German soldiers.
516:
into the narrow street of Via Rasella. Organised by the Nazis to intimidate and suppress the Resistance, the battalion had been raised in October 1943 from ethnic German speakers of the northern Italian province of
345:, i.e., a demilitarized zone, a declaration the Allies would refuse to recognise and the Germans to respect. The Germans, anticipating an Italian defection, meanwhile began moving more and more troops into Italy (
1232:
Immediately after the war Roman Partisan leaders, including Rosario Bentivegna, the medical student who had set off the Via Rasella bomb, were recipients of medals conferred by the post-war Italian government.
1014:
HERE WE WERE SLAUGHTERED – VICTIMS OF A HORRENDOUS SACRIFICE – MAY OUR SACRIFICE GIVE RISE TO A BETTER HOMELAND – AND TO LASTING PEACE AMONG THE PEOPLES. FROM THE DEPTHS, I HAVE CRIED OUT TO YOU, O LORD.
826:
of the Resistance (FMRC), which included many policemen. Members of the Bandiera Rossa ("Red Flag") a dissident Communist Resistance group, constituted the largest group. One political prisoner, Padre
651:, considered this an order, one he interpreted as calling for the execution of Italians who had been previously sentenced to death. He was assured by Kappler that sufficient prisoners were available.
1162:
In 1952, the new Italian Supreme Court declared the Via Rasella attack to have been a legitimate act of war after an appeal by Kappler's lawyers of his conviction of guilt in the Ardeatine Massacre.
482:'s attempt to link up the Fifth Army with the Anzio troops was unsuccessful, as the Anzio forces were held back by a line of German fortifications hastily constructed using forced civilian labour.
662:); plus 17 serving long sentences; 167 deemed "worthy of death"; and two to four civilians who had been rounded up in the Via Rasella area on suspicion of involvement. Kappler's superior, SS
1220:
in the aftermath of such a sobering recognition, is an attempt to create a new international law for the more efficient regulation of this type of horrible warfare." Robert Katz's book,
691:. Because of the time limit that Hitler had imposed, Mälzer and Kappler agreed that the victims would have to be shot in the back of the head at close range rather than by conventional
2735:
616:
They agreed that the execution of ten Italians for each German policeman killed was a suitable ratio. Mälzer, who also proposed burning down part of Rome, passed this on to General
272:) was declared a Memorial Cemetery and National Monument open daily to visitors. Every year, on the anniversary of the slaughter and in the presence of the senior officials of the
459:
suffered severe setbacks, and General Eisenhower and other Allied leaders began concentrating their attention on the imminent invasion of France, temporarily neglecting Italy.
1125:
In the absence of documentation, therefore, one is left to surmise that the Pontiff intervened personally, as he had on so many earlier occasions, through his nephew Prince
852:(engineer), to organize and lead the FMRC, representing the Badoglio Government, with which he had been in continual radio contact up until his arrest on 25 January 1944.
1898:
was the ranking German diplomat in Rome. He lobbied strenuously and courageously but vainly against the deportation of the Roman Jews. See Breitman, et al. (2005), p. 80.
529:
after the September "betrayal" by the Italian government. Many of its citizens had since opted for German citizenship. The soldiers of the battalion were veterans of the
2539:
1957:
Hitler's Pope? A Judgment Historically Unsustainable: A look past exploitative polemics to the greatness of the man Eugenio Pacelli, Secretary of State and Roman Pontiff
1278:, in 1977 he successfully escaped from a Roman military hospital where he had been undergoing treatment for cancer. He died unmolested the following year at his home in
3586:
1882:
Born, like Father Pankratius, in Bavaria, S.S. Standartenfürer Eugen Dollmann later worked as a spy for the CIA and was interviewed extensively by Katz. According to
1274:
Kappler, a Protestant until his late conversion in life, unsuccessfully sought asylum within the Vatican. Tried by the British and sentenced to life imprisonment in
1197:
equivalent of terrorists and were, moreover, responsible for avoidable suffering, thus offering some support for the official judgment of the Vatican at the time.
945:
595:
was on the scene soon afterwards to supervise the investigation. That evening he was summoned to the headquarters of the German Armed Forces Commandant in Rome,
695:. The men of the regiment Bozen, the unit which was hit in the attack, were offered the chance to avenge their comrades, but they refused to do it in that way.
3282:
470:
institutions, known to be harbouring prominent CNL members and other Anti-Fascists. In January 1944, news of the surprise Allied landing behind enemy lines at
3469:
2886:
855:
Colonel Giuseppe Montezemolo's incredible courage under torture which included having his nails and teeth pulled out, became legendary. Another was General
3389:
687:, who had been one of his own lieutenants, before being unmasked as a double agent working for the American OSS in charge of radio communications with the
4098:
620:, the commander of the Fourteenth Army, whose jurisdiction included Rome. General Mackensen endorsed the recommendation. In turn, the staff of the German
562:
More would die over the next few days. All twelve Partisans, some of whom fired on the German column, succeeded in melting away into the crowd unscathed.
448:
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Both Priebke and Kappler sought Vatican assistance after the war. Priebke escaped from a British prison camp in 1946 and fled, first to the
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1608:
936:, 1996 tried found not guilty for "acting under orders"; 1998 condemned to life imprisonment; died while under house arrest 11 October 2013
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was perpetrated without prior public notice in a little-frequented rural suburb of the city, inside the tunnels of the disused quarries of
5207:
1001:
IF OUR SLAUGHTER – WILL HAVE HAD A PURPOSE BEYOND REVENGE – IT IS TO ENSHRINE THE RIGHT OF HUMAN EXISTENCE – AGAINST THE CRIME OF MURDER
1140:
cloister. If Pius XII had made a public protest, there would have been searches in all these houses and catastrophe would have ensued".
462:
In December, the armed Partisan Resistance began to strike German forces in Rome. The Germans responded with raids carried out by mixed
4001:
2801:
2525:
1546:
Code named "Cervo", Giglio, from a prominent Roman family, had been subjected to horrific torture, see Katz (2003), pp. xvi and passim.
2629:
5113:
4870:
1256:, a Catholic splinter group often accused of having far-right and anti-Semitic leanings, offered to hold the ceremony in the city of
1192:, to re-label the World War II Partisans responsible for the attack on Via Rasella as "terrorists". In response, the Italian Supreme
2210:
Marcello, Flavia (2017). "Rome remembers fascism: The monument to the Fosse Ardeatine massacre as immersive historical experience".
1895:
1729:
Marcello, Flavia (2017). "Rome remembers fascism: The monument to the Fosse Ardeatine massacre as immersive historical experience".
1713:
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of the victims were notified with excruciating slowness by an individual letter, if at all, a strategy of cover-up and concealment—"
5123:
5108:
2621:
5086:
1149:, deploring the violence of "the guilty parties who escaped arrest" (presumably the Partisans, however Stephen Walker in his book
5307:
5214:
4942:
508:
On 23 March 1944, a column of the German 11th Company, 3rd Battalion, Police Regiment "South Tyrol" was attacked by an ambush of
1886:, p. 329, "Dollman was undoubtedly a rogue, a wastrel, and a former S.S. officer, but he was neither a brute nor a killer".
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In March 2011, on the eve of Pope's visit to the monument commemorating the massacre, Colonel Montezemolo's son, Cardinal
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1709:
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Instead, a special editorial entitled "The Deeds in Via Rasella" appeared in the "semi-official" Vatican newspaper, the
388:, although outnumbering the German soldiers three to one, was leaderless, poorly equipped, and in chaos. After a failed
4335:
1584:"Night and Fog Decree", Document retrieved from the archives of the Avalon Project at the Yale Law School, on website,
1216:
844:(age 44), who, after the flight of the King and Badoglio, had elected to stay and go underground in Rome, disguised in
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314:, the titular head of the Italian state and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces under Mussolini, appointed Marshal
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57:
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The following day, the German army began moving in on Rome, and that night the King and Badoglio fled the city for
1260:. During the funeral service, violent clashes broke out between fascist sympathisers and anti-fascist protesters.
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subtitled his Ninth Symphony, from 1968, "Le fosse Ardeatine" ("The Ardeatine Caves") in memory of the victims.
498:
during the roundup of civilians by Italian soldiers and German troops after the partisan bombing on 23 March 1944
373:, directing Italian troops to end hostilities against the Allies but to oppose attacks "from any other quarter".
330:
295:
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Rome would eventually be bombed 51 times with over 7,000 victims. See Claudia Baldoli and Andrew Knapp (2012),
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The FMCR operated under the directive of "war against the German and the maintenance of public order", see
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burial slab, the old quarries, and the forecourt. The memorial plaque outside the entry to the caves reads:
534:
444:
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357:(CLN). On 3 September 1943, the Badoglio government signed an unconditional surrender, which U.S. General
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1098:, using evidence from recently released OSS and Vatican sources that certain German diplomats, notably
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The Battle for Rome: The Germans, The Allies, The Partisans, and The Pope, September 1943 – June 1944
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The Battle for Rome: The Germans, The Allies, The Partisans, and The Pope, September 1943 – June 1944
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program were war crimes which violated both the Hague Conventions and customary international law.
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in Mussolini. The following day, anxious to extricate his country from an unsustainable war, King
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1267:, a priest expelled from the Society of St Pius X for his extreme right-wing views, told Italy's
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a mistake in citing the SS". He claimed the incident had been "sensationalized" by the media.
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The attack was carried out by 12 partisans of the Communist-dominated resistance organisation
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1248:. He was unmasked on camera in 1994 during a television interview by ABC television reporter
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again, and the Badoglio government began secret surrender negotiations with the Allies in
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1589:, fcit.usf.edu; "Nacht und Nebel", German for "Night and Fog" (a direct reference to a "
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Anatomy of Perjury: Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, Via Rasella, and the GINNY mission
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The Order Has Been Carried Out: History, Memory, and Meaning of a Nazi Massacre in Rome
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Inside the former quarries themselves, there are two more plaques. One in the tunnel:
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3915:
2854:
2800:
2668:
2637:
2413:
2376:
2326:
2303:
2286:
2251:
2231:
2196:
1863:
1796:
1750:
1189:
1126:
897:
840:, filmed in 1944. Another, perhaps the most celebrated, was the aristocratic Colonel
827:
767:
648:
579:
475:
413:
213:
190:
156:
3814:
2517:
2044:
1675:
see section "Lista dei martiri delle Fosse Ardeatine" listing of 323 victims by name
1282:, West Germany, the West Germans having refused Italian requests to extradite him.
1060:'s role in the massacre came under particular scrutiny following the publication of
658:(private prison) at SS headquarters in the German Embassy on 145 Via Tasso (now the
537:
and had chosen service in the SS rather than face another tour in the East with the
5200:
5136:
4808:
3705:
3614:
3359:
3033:
2985:
2862:
2403:
2348:
2344:
2274:
2219:
2098:
1738:
1307:
1268:
1212:
1185:
974:
513:
303:
273:
230:
3865:
3635:
2223:
2185:
1742:
1454:(Oxford University Press, 2012) and Robert Knight, "Not Quite Divine Providence",
1011:
And another in the 'cave' at the very end where the massacre actually took place:
664:
5003:
4993:
4962:
4787:
4129:
3656:
3642:
3542:
3420:
3352:
3170:
3057:
2918:
2839:
2352:
1327:
927:
915:
871:
836:
747:
684:
669:
592:
555:
428:
393:
346:
315:
160:
750:"—designed to confuse, grieve, and intimidate surviving relatives, according to
721:
prisoners were taken, five in excess of the 330 called for. On 24 March, led by
4794:
4752:
4454:
3922:
3749:
3593:
3564:
3452:
3345:
3234:
3218:
2818:
1938:
1594:
1320:
1257:
1107:
1099:
930:, sentenced to life in prison (1947); escaped August 1977; died 9 February 1978
862:
Besides Simoni, four more generals were among the executed, all members of the
436:
3621:
909:
606:
172:
5261:
5018:
5008:
4957:
4952:
4895:
3908:
3712:
3607:
3506:
3483:
3381:
3317:
3178:
3009:
2503:
2490:
2278:
1599:
1249:
1136:
1111:
1069:
939:
933:
918:, tried 1949; released 1953; tried 1967; pardoned 1969; died 25 December 1991
875:
845:
726:
714:
676:
638:
authorised the reprisal, stipulating that it be carried out within 24 hours.
479:
452:
424:
408:) and civilians, the Germans occupied Rome. They announced the imposition of
307:
185:
180:
164:
3310:
2319:
Via Tasso: Quartier generale e carcere tedesco durante l'occupazione di Roma
1110:, author of a monograph defending Pius XII written after the publication of
822:
Political prisoners included members of the GAP, the PA, and the Monarchist
5131:
5077:
5057:
4295:
2417:
2408:
2391:
2356:
2340:
1167:
1029:
891:
692:
635:
602:
586:
The German police attaché and commander of the Security Police in Rome, SS
526:
522:
350:
250:
246:
1793:
Fatal Silence: The Pope, the Resistance, and the German Occupation of Rome
1240:
and then back to Rome, whence, using false papers supplied by the Vatican
337:, although still outwardly allied to Nazi Germany. In accordance with the
4848:
3338:
2977:
2168:
2077:
2048:
1860:
Fatal Silence: The Pope, the Resistance and the German Occupation of Rome
1447:
1180:
1061:
867:
816:
751:
518:
401:
323:
319:
2432:
1489:
1224:, Deák concludes, "provides fine arguments for this necessary debate".
996:
Interior gate at the Mausoleo della Fosse Ardeatine by Mirko Basaldella.
912:, sentenced to death; sentence commuted and died in prison 24 March 1952
512:, while marching and singing on a prescribed route that led through the
5028:
4947:
3331:
3324:
3250:
2894:
2111:
1423:
Forgotten Blitzes: France and Italy under Allied Air Attack, 1940-1945
1299:
1116:
739:
103:
679:, chief of the Fascist police in Rome, offered some Italians from his
447:
and also made numerous mass roundups of non-Jewish male civilians for
294:
landed on the island of Sicily, preparing to invade the mainland, and
4998:
1245:
921:
730:
709:
597:
539:
420:
342:
168:
1978:, p. 268, calls this a "perverse declaration of good and evil".
786:
ROME ARDEATINE CAVES 24·3·1944 HE RECEIVED WITH LOVE THE PERSECUTED
3677:
3049:
2548:
2468:
Video of 1945 film showing exhumation of Ardeatine massacre victims
1590:
1271:: "Priebke was a friend of mine, a Christian, a faithful soldier."
1057:
964:
704:
654:
However, Kappler had only four prisoners sentenced to death in his
610:
467:
427:, tracked down and rescued Mussolini from his hidden prison in the
254:
205:
1227:
2392:"The Massacre of the Ardeatine Caves: Identification of the Dead"
2322:
1833:"Robert Katz, Who Wrote about Nazi Massacre in Italy, Dies at 77"
1768:
1653:
erroneously states that the Ardeatine victims were "mostly Jews".
1040:
463:
377:
195:
2481:
The Fosse Ardeatine and the struggle over memory in modern Italy
3649:
2552:
1955:
Cardinal Tarcisio Bertone, S.D.B., Vatican Secretary of State,
1700:
German wikipedia entry on Giuseppe Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo
1279:
734:
4728:
1275:
830:, was one of the models for the character of Padre Pietro in
718:
471:
405:
3299:
2013:
Silvio Berlusconi's election in 1994 was the motivation for
2556:
1337:
by Amy Harmon details a fictional account of the massacre.
381:
338:
242:
118:
2099:"Nazi war criminal Priebke's funeral halted amid protests"
1387:– "ditch"), is the Italian word used for "mass gravesite".
770:, on the house in which he lived on the Via Urbana, Rome:
419:
Three days later (on 12 September), Nazi commandos led by
306:
had not convened since 1939, met and overwhelmingly voted
3084:
2265:
Portelli, Alessandro (2005). "Response to Commentaries".
2458:
Catholic League report into Vatican view of the massacre
924:, convicted 1998; under house arrest; died 21 April 2004
1628:, in Katharine Hodgkin and Susannah Radstone, editors,
722:
341:'s wishes, Badoglio also unilaterally declared Rome an
318:
to head a new military government. He then ordered his
1945:) in "Via Rasella and the Fosse Ardeatine" (chapter).
1611:
held that the disappearances committed as part of the
2547:
1765:"Italy politician urges Nazi policies for immigrants"
1712:(born 1925), told interviewer Giampolo Mattei of the
1450:
in the aftermath of the war, see Gerald Steinacher's
431:
and set him up in the puppet regime of the so-called
369:(8 September). At the same time, Badoglio issued the
1966:
weekly edition in English (19 November 2008), p. 11.
1425:, London: Continuum Books (2012), pg. 38 and passim.
1969:
3283:Anti-Jewish violence in Czechoslovakia (1918–1920)
2184:
1990:
2068:, Lanham, Md., University Press of America, 2003.
1516:
485:
27:1944 mass killing outside Rome by German soldiers
5259:
2474:Ardeatine Caves Massacre, Holocaust Encyclopedia
1918:
1916:
1504:
1412:(2007) New York: Henry Holt and Co., pp. 139–40.
1298:) directed by Filippo Walter Ratti and starring
565:
349:). Foreseeing a German invasion, a coalition of
1228:Post-war fates of leading figures in the events
609:, who had decided that the killings called for
5242:Pope Pius XII and the raid on the Roman ghetto
5179:Centro di Documentazione Ebraica Contemporanea
4627:Overland Park Jewish Community Center shooting
1549:
1528:
1410:The Day of Battle: the War in Sicily and Italy
900:, tried 1947; released 1952; died 16 July 1960
778:THERE SHONE THE LIGHT OF THE GENEROUS HEART OF
108:Entry to caves in the Fosse Ardeatine Monument
4864:
2597:
2533:
2112:"Dieci italiani per un tedesco (Via Rasella)"
1913:
1656:
1482:"Death in Rome: The Life and Times of a Book"
1461:
906:, tried 1947; released 1952; died 19 May 1969
554:was prepared consisting of 12 kilogrammes of
2157:For Love and Country: The Italian Resistance
2066:For Love and Country: The Italian Resistance
1609:International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg
1428:
1296:Ten Italians for One German (Rasella Street)
1202:For Love and Country: The Italian Resistance
1292:Dieci italiani per un tedesco (Via Rasella)
984:"The Three Ages of Man" by Francesco Coccia
237:), was a mass killing of 335 civilians and
4878:
4871:
4857:
2802:Persecution of Jews during the Black Death
2540:
2526:
574:German troops and Italian soldiers of the
392:in the working-class neighbourhood at the
2437:
2407:
2316:
1290:The event was recreated in the 1962 film
801:REMEMBERS THAT THOSE WHO DIED FOR FREEDOM
298:for the first time. On 24 July 1943, the
148:Italian political prisoners and civilians
80:Learn how and when to remove this message
5293:Massacres in the Italian Social Republic
5273:Holocaust massacres and pogroms in Italy
4539:
2622:Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus
2476:, United States Holocaust Museum website
2264:
2238:
2209:
2137:
2030:
2024:
2019:
1728:
1630:Memory, History, Nation: Contested Pasts
1566:
1564:
1396:
991:
979:
963:
794:OF REDEMPTION AND THE FORGIVENESS OF GOD
761:
569:
489:
441:rounded up and deported the Jews of Rome
279:
268:Subsequently, the Ardeatine Caves site (
43:This article includes a list of general
5215:My Italian Secret: The Forgotten Heroes
4824:Antisemitic riots in the North Caucasus
2396:Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps
2389:
2343:(2005). "Coddling a Nazi Turncoat". In
2094:
2092:
2090:
1446:For a discussion of the role played by
799:ON THE 53RD ANNIVERSARY OF THE MASSACRE
776:IN THE DARK TIME OF THE NAZI OCCUPATION
466:and Italian Fascist police militias on
14:
5260:
2293:
2043:For a review of Raiber's book see the
1555:
1534:
1522:
1510:
1467:
1028:reprisal order had come directly from
550:("Patriotic Action Group") or GAP. An
5087:Biblioteca della Comunità Israelitica
4852:
4491:Tel Aviv Central bus station massacre
2521:
2339:
2154:
1996:
1883:
1830:
1561:
1486:Robert Katz's History of Modern Italy
1200:Historian Patrick Gallo, however, in
4643:Hypercacher kosher supermarket siege
4233:Chez Jo Goldenberg restaurant attack
2183:
2167:
2087:
2010:Via Rasella: the truth and the liar.
1975:
1922:
1907:
1857:
1790:
1703:
1686:
1662:
1571:Jewish Virtual Library, Priebke file
1434:
1068:(1967), in which he speculated that
894:, committed suicide in Berlin, 1945.
326:, to arrest and imprison Mussolini.
29:
4368:
3900:
3491:
2150:. Milano: Ugo Mursia Editore. 2006.
1941:(writing under the auspices of the
1710:Andrea Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo
1188:, brother of former Prime Minister
1094:Katz elaborated on this in 2003 in
578:round up civilians in front of the
384:, leaving a leadership vacuum. The
353:parties and Monarchists formed the
286:Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy
24:
2433:Fosse Ardeatine Memorial Panoramas
1135:In the aftermath of the massacre,
790:UNTO THE SACRIFICE OF HIS OWN SELF
49:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
5329:
4635:Jewish Museum of Belgium shooting
4384:Sbarro restaurant suicide bombing
4377:Dolphinarium discotheque massacre
2426:
1586:A Teacher' Guide to the Holocaust
1285:
4611:Toulouse and Montauban shootings
4512:Maxim restaurant suicide bombing
4434:Matza restaurant suicide bombing
2017:to write his seminal 1999 work,
1831:Weber, Bruce (22 October 2010).
1815:
1479:
1357:Museum of the Liberation of Rome
660:Museum of the Liberation of Rome
400:by remaining loyalist soldiers,
355:Committee of National Liberation
102:
34:
5247:Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust
4730:2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel
3829:Kremnička and Nemecká massacres
2630:Jewish revolt against Heraclius
2363:U.S. Intelligence and the Nazis
2140:Dall'Alpenvorland a via Rasella
2104:
2071:
2058:
2037:
2002:
1981:
1948:
1928:
1901:
1889:
1876:
1851:
1824:
1809:
1784:
1757:
1722:
1692:
1679:
1668:
1639:
1618:
1576:
1540:
959:
955:, died in Cologne 26 March 1985
885:
834:'s pioneering neo-realist film
331:13 August 1943, Rome was bombed
5308:Violence against men in Europe
4420:Yeshivat Beit Yisrael massacre
4249:Neve Shalom Synagogue massacre
3259:Tel Aviv and Jaffa deportation
1896:German Consul Eitel Möllhausen
1473:
1440:
1415:
1402:
1390:
1374:
1157:
1051:
968:Mausoleo della Fosse Ardeatine
486:Partisan attack in Via Rasella
361:made public on the eve of the
13:
1:
4667:Pittsburgh synagogue shooting
4336:Mahane Yehuda Market bombings
2224:10.1080/13642529.2016.1270566
1743:10.1080/13642529.2016.1270566
1362:
1019:המעלות, ממעמקים קראתיך י-ה".
717:. By mistake, a total of 335
566:Preparations for the reprisal
249:occupation troops during the
235:Eccidio delle Fosse Ardeatine
5232:History of the Jews in Italy
4619:Jerusalem synagogue massacre
4526:Haifa bus 37 suicide bombing
4304:Dizengoff Street bus bombing
2736:Massacres at London and York
2300:University of Delaware Press
2101:, BBC News, 16 October 2013.
1960:(speech), reproduced in the
942:, executed 22 September 1944
792:HE FELL IN THE ULTIMATE SIGN
788:OF EVERY FAITH AND CONDITION
667:und Generalmajor der Polizei
439:. In October 1943 the Nazis
261:in central Rome against the
7:
5313:War crimes of the Waffen-SS
5278:Italian resistance movement
4067:Night of the Murdered Poets
2161:University Press of America
2148:Le Dolomiti del Terzo Reich
2055:, 22 March 2004, and infra.
1987:Katz (2005), n. 31, p. 390.
1651:, Volume 23, (1993), p. 699
1603:) was a directive (German:
1340:
698:
552:improvised explosive device
548:Gruppo d'Azione Patriottica
533:who had seen action on the
10:
5334:
5303:Police misconduct in Italy
4498:Davidka Square bus bombing
4209:Antwerp summer camp attack
4083:Shafrir synagogue shooting
3786:Operation Harvest Festival
2895:Massacre of the Assumption
2440:"Fosse Ardeatine Massacre"
2369:Cambridge University Press
2138:Baratter, Lorenzo (2003).
1935:Pius XII and the Holocaust
1347:List of massacres in Italy
1305:In 1973, the feature film
1174:In the 1990s, there was a
864:Clandestine Military Front
824:Clandestine Military Front
757:
631:Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
501:
283:
5224:
5192:
5171:
5145:
5122:
5096:
5076:
5037:
4971:
4930:
4904:
4886:
4701:
4586:
4564:Tel Aviv shawarma bombing
4519:Shmuel HaNavi bus bombing
4475:
4441:Hebrew University bombing
4397:
4361:
4354:
4271:
4192:
4162:Ben Yehuda Street bombing
4122:Avivim school bus bombing
4113:
4058:
4045:Menarsha synagogue attack
4036:
4009:Ben Yehuda Street bombing
3986:
3936:
3893:
3843:
3799:
3763:
3727:
3578:
3556:
3520:
3482:
3154:
3147:
2953:
2765:
2758:
2687:
2652:
2570:
2563:
2317:Simonetti, Fabio (2016).
2078:István Deák, "Resistance"
2049:István Deák, "Resistance"
2020:L'ordine è stato eseguito
1456:Times Literary Supplement
1022:
784:TERLIZZI (BARI) 28·6·1888
628:), passed this on to the
365:'s amphibious landing at
201:
152:
144:
136:
128:
113:
101:
96:
5298:Nazi war crimes in Italy
5237:Axis war crimes in Italy
4691:Monsey Hanukkah stabbing
4675:Poway synagogue shooting
4572:Jerusalem yeshiva attack
4406:Ghriba synagogue bombing
4328:Island of Peace massacre
3779:Kielce cemetery massacre
2294:Raiber, Richard (2008).
2279:10.1525/ohr.2005.32.1.27
1862:. Cassell. p. 241.
1795:. Cassell. p. 353.
1458:, 6 January 2012, p. 10.
1352:Appian Way Regional Park
1333:The 2017 novel entitled
880:Sabato Martelli Castaldi
766:Plaque dedicated to Don
263:SS Police Regiment Bozen
227:Fosse Ardeatine massacre
5104:Italian Social Republic
4225:Vienna synagogue attack
4201:Paris synagogue bombing
3445:The Bloody Day in Jaffa
2155:Gallo, Patrick (2003).
2045:History Network website
1839:. No. 22 Oct. 2010
1207:Reviewing Katz's book,
1184:, a newspaper owned by
1039:, a city councillor of
404:(including a school of
64:more precise citations.
5193:Publications and films
5163:RSI Police Order No. 5
4905:Massacres and roundups
4880:The Holocaust in Italy
4548:Beersheba bus bombings
4154:Kiryat Shmona massacre
4075:Scorpion Pass massacre
3772:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
3203:Second Kishinev pogrom
2943:Portuguese Inquisition
2587:2nd Alexandrian pogrom
2463:Death in Rome – Update
2409:10.1136/jramc-87-01-02
1943:Anti-Defamation League
1649:Encyclopedia Americana
1634:Transaction Publishers
1315:was released starring
1133:
1092:
997:
985:
969:
904:Eberhard von Mackensen
807:
618:Eberhard von Mackensen
583:
499:
234:
177:Eberhard von Mackensen
5184:Memoriale della Shoah
4938:Leonardo de Benedetti
4931:Victims and survivors
4448:Rishon LeZion bombing
4170:Coastal Road massacre
3171:First Kishinev pogrom
2962:Chmielnicki massacres
2871:Schaffhausen Massacre
2790:Armleder persecutions
2744:Rintfleisch massacres
2504:41.85667°N 12.51028°E
2444:ns-taeter-italien.org
1858:Katz, Robert (2004).
1791:Katz, Robert (2004).
1122:
1087:
995:
983:
967:
805:OF A BETTER HUMANITY
781:DON PIETRO PAPPAGALLO
765:
582:, Rome, in March 1944
576:Decima Flottiglia MAS
573:
493:
451:. Meanwhile, General
443:for extermination at
371:Badoglio Proclamation
302:, which the dictator
300:Fascist Grand Council
280:Historical background
5318:Rome in World War II
5063:Risiera di San Sabba
4683:Jersey City shooting
4556:Ashdod Port bombings
4138:Lod Airport massacre
4099:Purge of Polish Jews
4023:Kfar Etzion massacre
3529:Częstochowa massacre
3290:1920 Nebi Musa riots
3110:Fourth Odessa pogrom
3066:Second Odessa pogrom
2240:Portelli, Alessandro
2193:Simon & Schuster
1317:Marcello Mastroianni
1265:Florian Abrahamowicz
1254:Society of St Pius X
842:Giuseppe Montezemolo
803:ARE THE LIVING SEEDS
645:Generalfeldmarschall
626:Oberbefehlshaber Süd
245:on 24 March 1944 by
5158:Manifesto of Verona
5153:Italian Racial Laws
4979:Friedrich Boßhammer
4505:Café Hillel bombing
3873:Tripolitania pogrom
3671:Kamianets-Podilskyi
3195:Fifth Odessa pogrom
3133:1898 Algerian riots
3074:Third Odessa pogrom
3018:First Odessa pogrom
2903:Spanish Inquisition
2879:Moroccan revolution
2759:14th – 19th century
2689:Rhineland massacres
2500: /
2390:MacLeod, W (1946).
2267:Oral History Review
2142:. Trento: Publilux.
2015:Alessandro Portelli
1626:Alessandro Portelli
1492:on 18 February 2013
1313:George Pan Cosmatos
1222:The Battle for Rome
1209:The Battle for Rome
946:Carl-Theodor Schütz
681:Regina Coeli prison
634:(OKW). That night,
589:Obersturmbannführer
525:had annexed to the
521:, a territory that
494:A body lies in the
410:German military law
380:, whence by sea to
239:political prisoners
5208:The Periodic Table
5053:Borgo San Dalmazzo
4972:Major perpetrators
4603:Burgas bus bombing
4288:Crown Heights riot
4241:Ras Burqa massacre
3952:Haifa Oil Refinery
3808:Ardeatine massacre
3743:Dzyatlava massacre
3163:Częstochowa pogrom
2774:Shepherds' Crusade
2579:Alexandrian pogrom
2564:1st – 13th century
2509:41.85667; 12.51028
2248:Palgrave Macmillan
2212:Rethinking History
1999:, pp. 329–30.
1963:Osservatore Romano
1837:The New York Times
1820:. pp. 355–56.
1731:Rethinking History
1715:Osservatore Romano
1326:American composer
1244:, he emigrated to
1194:Court of Cassation
1146:Osservatore Romano
1043:and member of the
1035:In December 2007,
998:
986:
970:
848:as a professor or
832:Roberto Rossellini
808:
640:Commander-in-Chief
622:Commander-in-Chief
584:
531:Royal Italian Army
504:Via Rasella attack
500:
433:"Republic of Salò"
398:Pyramid of Cestius
386:Royal Italian Army
312:Victor Emanuel III
290:In July 1943, the
265:the previous day.
259:Via Rasella attack
223:Ardeatine massacre
210:Via Rasella attack
97:Ardeatine massacre
5288:Massacres in 1944
5283:March 1944 events
5255:
5254:
5146:Anti-Semitic laws
5014:Martin Sandberger
4989:Theodor Dannecker
4846:
4845:
4842:
4841:
4818:
4817:
4659:Halamish stabbing
4651:Tel Aviv shooting
4582:
4581:
4535:
4534:
4471:
4470:
4427:Passover massacre
4393:
4392:
4350:
4349:
4346:
4345:
4312:Beit Lid massacre
4267:
4266:
4188:
4187:
4178:Nahariya massacre
4109:
4108:
4054:
4053:
4032:
4031:
3982:
3981:
3945:Fajja bus attacks
3932:
3931:
3889:
3888:
3839:
3838:
3795:
3794:
3759:
3758:
3723:
3722:
3574:
3573:
3552:
3551:
3516:
3515:
3500:Tiberias massacre
3429:Constantine riots
3376:
3375:
3301:Russian Civil War
3143:
3142:
3119:
3118:
2855:Brussels massacre
2849:
2848:
2754:
2753:
2722:
2721:
2648:
2647:
2638:Battle of Khaybar
2614:Bar Kokhba revolt
2382:978-0-521-85268-5
2349:Norman J. W. Goda
2332:978-88-96487-55-6
2309:978-0-874-13994-5
2257:978-1-403-96208-9
2202:978-0-743-21642-5
1771:. 5 December 2007
1624:For example, see
1525:, pp. 52–53.
1335:From Sand and Ash
1217:Hague Conventions
1190:Silvio Berlusconi
1083:Papal Secretariat
898:Albert Kesselring
828:Pietro Pappagallo
768:Pietro Pappagallo
649:Albert Kesselring
580:Palazzo Barberini
476:Operation Shingle
455:'s Fifth Army in
414:summary execution
219:
218:
214:Italian partisans
157:Albert Kesselring
90:
89:
82:
16:(Redirected from
5325:
5225:Related articles
5201:If This Is a Man
5137:Giorgio Perlasca
5114:Adriatic Littora
5109:Alpine Foothills
4892:
4873:
4866:
4859:
4850:
4849:
4835:
4832:Dagestan attacks
4827:
4811:
4804:
4797:
4790:
4783:
4776:
4769:
4762:
4755:
4748:
4741:
4726:
4725:
4721:
4718:Beersheba attack
4713:
4694:
4686:
4678:
4670:
4662:
4654:
4646:
4638:
4630:
4622:
4614:
4606:
4598:
4575:
4567:
4559:
4551:
4537:
4536:
4528:
4521:
4514:
4507:
4500:
4493:
4486:
4473:
4472:
4464:
4457:
4450:
4443:
4436:
4429:
4422:
4415:
4408:
4395:
4394:
4386:
4379:
4366:
4365:
4359:
4358:
4339:
4331:
4323:
4315:
4307:
4299:
4291:
4283:
4280:Cairo bus attack
4269:
4268:
4260:
4252:
4244:
4236:
4228:
4220:
4212:
4204:
4190:
4189:
4181:
4173:
4165:
4157:
4149:
4146:Ma'alot massacre
4141:
4133:
4125:
4111:
4110:
4102:
4094:
4086:
4078:
4070:
4056:
4055:
4047:
4034:
4033:
4025:
4018:
4011:
4004:
3997:
3984:
3983:
3975:
3968:
3961:
3954:
3947:
3934:
3933:
3925:
3918:
3911:
3898:
3897:
3882:
3875:
3868:
3861:
3859:Topoľčany pogrom
3854:
3852:Deutsch Schützen
3841:
3840:
3832:
3824:
3822:Sărmașu massacre
3817:
3810:
3797:
3796:
3788:
3781:
3774:
3761:
3760:
3752:
3745:
3738:
3736:Dünamünde Action
3725:
3724:
3716:
3708:
3701:
3699:Kaunas (October)
3694:
3687:
3680:
3673:
3666:
3659:
3652:
3645:
3638:
3631:
3624:
3617:
3610:
3603:
3596:
3589:
3576:
3575:
3567:
3554:
3553:
3545:
3538:
3531:
3518:
3517:
3509:
3502:
3489:
3488:
3475:
3473:
3456:
3448:
3440:
3432:
3424:
3416:
3408:
3400:
3398:
3385:
3382:Zavirtcha pogrom
3369:
3362:
3355:
3348:
3341:
3334:
3327:
3320:
3313:
3297:
3296:
3292:
3285:
3278:
3270:
3262:
3254:
3246:
3238:
3230:
3222:
3214:
3211:Białystok pogrom
3206:
3198:
3190:
3182:
3174:
3166:
3152:
3151:
3136:
3128:
3112:
3105:
3098:
3082:
3081:
3077:
3069:
3061:
3053:
3045:
3037:
3029:
3021:
3013:
3005:
3002:Algiers massacre
2997:
2989:
2986:Massacre of Uman
2981:
2973:
2965:
2946:
2938:
2930:
2922:
2914:
2906:
2898:
2890:
2882:
2874:
2866:
2858:
2842:
2835:
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2821:
2814:
2798:
2797:
2793:
2785:
2777:
2763:
2762:
2747:
2739:
2731:
2715:
2708:
2701:
2685:
2684:
2680:
2677:Granada massacre
2672:
2664:
2661:Córdoba massacre
2641:
2633:
2625:
2617:
2609:
2606:The Great Revolt
2595:
2594:
2590:
2582:
2568:
2567:
2542:
2535:
2528:
2519:
2518:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2511:
2510:
2505:
2501:
2498:
2497:
2496:
2493:
2454:
2452:
2450:
2421:
2411:
2386:
2366:
2345:Richard Breitman
2336:
2313:
2290:
2261:
2246:. New York, NY:
2235:
2206:
2191:. New York, NY:
2190:
2180:
2175:. New York, NY:
2164:
2151:
2143:
2124:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2108:
2102:
2096:
2085:
2084:, 22 March 2004.
2082:The New Republic
2075:
2069:
2062:
2056:
2053:The New Republic
2041:
2035:
2006:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1985:
1979:
1973:
1967:
1952:
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1580:
1574:
1568:
1559:
1553:
1547:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1514:
1513:, pp. 42–43
1508:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1488:. Archived from
1477:
1471:
1465:
1459:
1452:Nazis on the Run
1444:
1438:
1432:
1426:
1419:
1413:
1406:
1400:
1394:
1388:
1378:
1308:Massacre in Rome
1186:Paolo Berlusconi
975:Mirko Basaldella
954:
797:THE CITY OF ROME
514:Piazza di Spagna
416:for violators.
304:Benito Mussolini
274:Italian Republic
251:Second World War
106:
94:
93:
85:
78:
74:
71:
65:
60:this article by
51:inline citations
38:
37:
30:
21:
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5256:
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5220:
5188:
5167:
5141:
5118:
5092:
5072:
5033:
5004:Herbert Kappler
4994:Odilo Globocnik
4967:
4963:Piero Terracina
4943:Einstein family
4926:
4900:
4890:
4882:
4877:
4847:
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4263:
4255:
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4239:
4231:
4223:
4217:Antwerp bombing
4215:
4207:
4199:
4184:
4176:
4168:
4160:
4152:
4144:
4136:
4130:Munich massacre
4128:
4120:
4105:
4097:
4089:
4081:
4073:
4065:
4050:
4043:
4028:
4021:
4014:
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3599:
3592:
3585:
3570:
3563:
3548:
3541:
3534:
3527:
3512:
3505:
3498:
3478:
3463:
3459:
3451:
3443:
3435:
3427:
3421:Campbell pogrom
3419:
3413:Hebron massacre
3411:
3403:
3392:
3388:
3380:
3372:
3365:
3358:
3351:
3344:
3337:
3330:
3323:
3316:
3309:
3295:
3288:
3281:
3273:
3265:
3257:
3249:
3241:
3233:
3225:
3217:
3209:
3201:
3193:
3185:
3179:Zablotov pogrom
3177:
3169:
3161:
3139:
3131:
3123:
3115:
3108:
3101:
3094:
3080:
3072:
3064:
3058:Damascus affair
3056:
3048:
3040:
3032:
3024:
3016:
3008:
3000:
2992:
2984:
2976:
2968:
2960:
2949:
2941:
2933:
2925:
2919:Lisbon massacre
2917:
2909:
2901:
2893:
2885:
2877:
2869:
2861:
2853:
2845:
2838:
2831:
2824:
2817:
2810:
2796:
2788:
2780:
2772:
2750:
2742:
2734:
2726:
2718:
2711:
2704:
2697:
2683:
2675:
2667:
2659:
2644:
2636:
2628:
2620:
2612:
2604:
2593:
2585:
2577:
2559:
2546:
2508:
2506:
2502:
2499:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2487:
2486:
2448:
2446:
2438:Carlo Gentile.
2429:
2424:
2383:
2353:Timothy Naftali
2333:
2310:
2258:
2203:
2146:
2128:
2127:
2117:
2115:
2110:
2109:
2105:
2097:
2088:
2076:
2072:
2064:Patrick Gallo,
2063:
2059:
2047:. For Deàk see
2042:
2038:
2007:
2003:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1982:
1974:
1970:
1953:
1949:
1933:
1929:
1921:
1914:
1906:
1902:
1894:
1890:
1881:
1877:
1870:
1856:
1852:
1842:
1840:
1829:
1825:
1814:
1810:
1803:
1789:
1785:
1774:
1772:
1763:
1762:
1758:
1727:
1723:
1697:
1693:
1684:
1680:
1673:
1669:
1661:
1657:
1644:
1640:
1636:, 2005), p. 30.
1623:
1619:
1613:Nacht und Nebel
1581:
1577:
1569:
1562:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1533:
1529:
1521:
1517:
1509:
1505:
1495:
1493:
1478:
1474:
1466:
1462:
1445:
1441:
1433:
1429:
1420:
1416:
1408:Rick Atkinson,
1407:
1403:
1395:
1391:
1379:
1375:
1365:
1343:
1328:William Schuman
1288:
1230:
1160:
1064:'s first book,
1054:
1045:Northern League
1025:
962:
948:
928:Herbert Kappler
916:Wilhelm Harster
888:
872:Dardano Fenulli
837:Rome, Open City
806:
804:
802:
800:
798:
796:
795:
793:
791:
789:
787:
785:
783:
782:
779:
777:
775:
772:
771:
760:
701:
685:Maurizio Giglio
670:Wilhelm Harster
593:Herbert Kappler
568:
506:
488:
394:Porta San Paolo
347:Operation Achse
316:Pietro Badoglio
296:Rome was bombed
288:
282:
270:Fosse Ardeatine
241:carried out in
193:
188:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
161:Herbert Kappler
159:
109:
86:
75:
69:
66:
56:Please help to
55:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5331:
5321:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5305:
5300:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
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5252:
5250:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5228:
5226:
5222:
5221:
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5211:
5204:
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5181:
5175:
5173:
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5160:
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5119:
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5090:
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5080:
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5073:
5071:
5070:
5065:
5060:
5055:
5050:
5044:
5042:
5035:
5034:
5032:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4981:
4975:
4973:
4969:
4968:
4966:
4965:
4960:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4934:
4932:
4928:
4927:
4925:
4924:
4919:
4917:Ghetto of Rome
4914:
4908:
4906:
4902:
4901:
4899:
4898:
4893:
4887:
4884:
4883:
4876:
4875:
4868:
4861:
4853:
4844:
4843:
4840:
4839:
4837:
4836:
4828:
4819:
4816:
4815:
4813:
4812:
4805:
4798:
4791:
4784:
4777:
4770:
4763:
4756:
4749:
4742:
4734:
4732:
4723:
4722:
4714:
4705:
4703:
4699:
4698:
4696:
4695:
4687:
4679:
4671:
4663:
4655:
4647:
4639:
4631:
4623:
4615:
4607:
4599:
4590:
4588:
4584:
4583:
4580:
4579:
4577:
4576:
4568:
4560:
4552:
4543:
4541:
4533:
4532:
4530:
4529:
4522:
4515:
4508:
4501:
4494:
4487:
4479:
4477:
4469:
4468:
4466:
4465:
4458:
4455:Matzuva attack
4451:
4444:
4437:
4430:
4423:
4416:
4409:
4401:
4399:
4391:
4390:
4388:
4387:
4380:
4372:
4370:
4363:
4356:
4352:
4351:
4348:
4347:
4344:
4343:
4341:
4340:
4332:
4324:
4320:Purim massacre
4316:
4308:
4300:
4292:
4284:
4275:
4273:
4265:
4264:
4262:
4261:
4257:Purim stabbing
4253:
4245:
4237:
4229:
4221:
4213:
4205:
4196:
4194:
4186:
4185:
4183:
4182:
4174:
4166:
4158:
4150:
4142:
4134:
4126:
4117:
4115:
4107:
4106:
4104:
4103:
4095:
4091:Tripoli pogrom
4087:
4079:
4071:
4062:
4060:
4052:
4051:
4049:
4048:
4040:
4038:
4030:
4029:
4027:
4026:
4019:
4016:Cairo bombings
4012:
4005:
3998:
3990:
3988:
3980:
3979:
3977:
3976:
3969:
3962:
3955:
3948:
3940:
3938:
3930:
3929:
3927:
3926:
3919:
3912:
3904:
3902:
3895:
3891:
3890:
3887:
3886:
3884:
3883:
3876:
3869:
3862:
3855:
3847:
3845:
3837:
3836:
3834:
3833:
3825:
3818:
3815:Luduș massacre
3811:
3803:
3801:
3793:
3792:
3790:
3789:
3782:
3775:
3767:
3765:
3757:
3756:
3754:
3753:
3750:Sarny massacre
3746:
3739:
3731:
3729:
3721:
3720:
3718:
3717:
3709:
3702:
3695:
3688:
3681:
3674:
3667:
3660:
3653:
3646:
3639:
3632:
3625:
3618:
3611:
3604:
3597:
3590:
3582:
3580:
3572:
3571:
3569:
3568:
3565:Dorohoi pogrom
3560:
3558:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3546:
3539:
3536:Dynów massacre
3532:
3524:
3522:
3514:
3513:
3511:
3510:
3503:
3495:
3493:
3486:
3480:
3479:
3477:
3476:
3457:
3453:Przytyk pogrom
3449:
3441:
3437:Thrace pogroms
3433:
3425:
3417:
3409:
3405:Safed massacre
3401:
3386:
3377:
3374:
3373:
3371:
3370:
3363:
3356:
3349:
3342:
3335:
3328:
3321:
3314:
3306:
3304:
3294:
3293:
3286:
3279:
3271:
3263:
3255:
3247:
3239:
3231:
3223:
3219:Siedlce pogrom
3215:
3207:
3199:
3191:
3183:
3175:
3167:
3158:
3156:
3149:
3145:
3144:
3141:
3140:
3138:
3137:
3129:
3120:
3117:
3116:
3114:
3113:
3106:
3099:
3091:
3089:
3086:Russian Empire
3079:
3078:
3070:
3062:
3054:
3046:
3042:Safed massacre
3038:
3030:
3022:
3014:
3006:
2998:
2994:Tétouan pogrom
2990:
2982:
2974:
2970:Safed massacre
2966:
2957:
2955:
2951:
2950:
2948:
2947:
2939:
2931:
2923:
2915:
2907:
2899:
2891:
2887:Cordoba pogrom
2883:
2875:
2867:
2859:
2850:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2843:
2836:
2829:
2822:
2815:
2807:
2805:
2795:
2794:
2786:
2782:Navarre pogrom
2778:
2769:
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2760:
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2755:
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2751:
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2748:
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2732:
2723:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2716:
2709:
2702:
2694:
2692:
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2681:
2673:
2665:
2656:
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2650:
2649:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2642:
2634:
2626:
2618:
2610:
2601:
2599:
2598:Jewish revolts
2592:
2591:
2583:
2574:
2572:
2565:
2561:
2560:
2545:
2544:
2537:
2530:
2522:
2484:
2483:
2478:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2435:
2428:
2427:External links
2425:
2423:
2422:
2387:
2381:
2337:
2331:
2314:
2308:
2291:
2262:
2256:
2236:
2207:
2201:
2181:
2165:
2159:. Lanham, MD:
2152:
2144:
2134:
2126:
2125:
2103:
2086:
2070:
2057:
2036:
2027:, p. 15).
2001:
1989:
1980:
1968:
1947:
1939:Joseph Lichten
1927:
1925:, p. 242.
1912:
1900:
1888:
1875:
1868:
1850:
1823:
1816:Katz, Robert.
1808:
1801:
1783:
1756:
1721:
1706:, p. 157.
1691:
1689:, p. 145.
1678:
1667:
1665:, p. 240.
1655:
1638:
1617:
1593:" spell, from
1575:
1560:
1548:
1539:
1527:
1515:
1503:
1480:Katz, Robert.
1472:
1460:
1439:
1437:, p. 349.
1427:
1414:
1401:
1389:
1372:
1371:
1364:
1361:
1360:
1359:
1354:
1349:
1342:
1339:
1321:Richard Burton
1287:
1286:Dramatisations
1284:
1258:Albano Laziale
1229:
1226:
1159:
1156:
1108:Joseph Lichten
1100:Eugen Dollmann
1053:
1050:
1041:Treviso, Italy
1037:Giorgio Bettio
1024:
1021:
961:
958:
957:
956:
943:
937:
931:
925:
919:
913:
907:
901:
895:
887:
884:
780:
774:IN THIS HOUSE
773:
759:
756:
700:
697:
567:
564:
487:
484:
437:Northern Italy
281:
278:
217:
216:
203:
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42:
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33:
26:
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5294:
5291:
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5286:
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5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5268:1944 in Italy
5266:
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5240:
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5230:
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5202:
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5177:
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5174:
5172:Commemoration
5170:
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5159:
5156:
5154:
5151:
5150:
5148:
5144:
5138:
5135:
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5049:
5046:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5036:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5019:Theo Saevecke
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5009:Erich Priebke
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4976:
4974:
4970:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4958:Liliana Segre
4956:
4954:
4953:Ettore Ovazza
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4935:
4933:
4929:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4912:Lake Maggiore
4910:
4909:
4907:
4903:
4897:
4896:The Holocaust
4894:
4889:
4888:
4885:
4881:
4874:
4869:
4867:
4862:
4860:
4855:
4854:
4851:
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4821:
4820:
4810:
4806:
4803:
4799:
4796:
4792:
4789:
4785:
4782:
4781:Netiv HaAsara
4778:
4775:
4771:
4768:
4764:
4761:
4757:
4754:
4750:
4747:
4746:Ein HaShlosha
4743:
4740:
4736:
4735:
4733:
4731:
4727:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4706:
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4636:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4595:Itamar attack
4592:
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4585:
4573:
4569:
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4502:
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4478:
4474:
4463:
4462:Hebron ambush
4459:
4456:
4452:
4449:
4445:
4442:
4438:
4435:
4431:
4428:
4424:
4421:
4417:
4414:
4413:Hadera attack
4410:
4407:
4403:
4402:
4400:
4396:
4385:
4381:
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3906:
3905:
3903:
3899:
3896:
3892:
3881:
3877:
3874:
3870:
3867:
3866:Kraków pogrom
3863:
3860:
3856:
3853:
3849:
3848:
3846:
3842:
3830:
3826:
3823:
3819:
3816:
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3804:
3802:
3798:
3787:
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3780:
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3773:
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3768:
3766:
3762:
3751:
3747:
3744:
3740:
3737:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3726:
3714:
3713:The Holocaust
3710:
3707:
3703:
3700:
3696:
3693:
3692:Švenčionėliai
3689:
3686:
3682:
3679:
3675:
3672:
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3647:
3644:
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3623:
3619:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3608:Kaunas (June)
3605:
3602:
3598:
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3591:
3588:
3584:
3583:
3581:
3577:
3566:
3562:
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3544:
3543:Silc massacre
3540:
3537:
3533:
3530:
3526:
3525:
3523:
3519:
3508:
3507:Kristallnacht
3504:
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3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3396:
3391:
3390:Oradea pogrom
3387:
3383:
3379:
3378:
3368:
3364:
3361:
3357:
3354:
3350:
3347:
3343:
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3333:
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3326:
3322:
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3308:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3298:
3291:
3287:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3267:Kielce pogrom
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3227:Shiraz pogrom
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
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3159:
3157:
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3100:
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3093:
3092:
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3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3034:Hebron pogrom
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3010:Hep-Hep riots
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2958:
2956:
2952:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2927:Hebron pogrom
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
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2856:
2852:
2851:
2841:
2837:
2834:
2830:
2827:
2823:
2820:
2816:
2813:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2799:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2770:
2768:
2764:
2761:
2757:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2724:
2714:
2710:
2707:
2703:
2700:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2657:
2655:
2651:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2602:
2600:
2596:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2575:
2573:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2543:
2538:
2536:
2531:
2529:
2524:
2523:
2520:
2516:
2513:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2475:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2445:
2441:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2430:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2388:
2384:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2367:. Cambridge:
2365:
2364:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2341:Wolfe, Robert
2338:
2334:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2315:
2311:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2263:
2259:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2208:
2204:
2198:
2194:
2189:
2188:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2173:Death in Rome
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2136:
2135:
2133:
2132:
2113:
2107:
2100:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2083:
2079:
2074:
2067:
2061:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2040:
2034:
2032:
2031:Portelli 2005
2028:
2026:
2025:Portelli 2003
2022:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2005:
1998:
1993:
1984:
1977:
1972:
1965:
1964:
1959:
1958:
1951:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1931:
1924:
1919:
1917:
1909:
1904:
1897:
1892:
1885:
1879:
1871:
1865:
1861:
1854:
1838:
1834:
1827:
1819:
1818:Fatal Silence
1812:
1804:
1798:
1794:
1787:
1770:
1766:
1760:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1725:
1719:
1717:
1716:
1711:
1705:
1701:
1695:
1688:
1682:
1676:
1671:
1664:
1659:
1652:
1650:
1645:For example,
1642:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1621:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1601:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1587:
1579:
1572:
1567:
1565:
1558:, p. 81.
1557:
1552:
1543:
1537:, p. 45.
1536:
1531:
1524:
1519:
1512:
1507:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1476:
1470:, p. 41.
1469:
1464:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1443:
1436:
1431:
1424:
1418:
1411:
1405:
1398:
1397:Portelli 2003
1393:
1386:
1382:
1377:
1373:
1370:
1369:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1344:
1338:
1336:
1331:
1329:
1324:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1309:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1283:
1281:
1277:
1272:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1250:Sam Donaldson
1247:
1243:
1239:
1234:
1225:
1223:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1205:
1203:
1198:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1169:
1163:
1155:
1152:
1151:Hide and Seek
1148:
1147:
1141:
1138:
1137:Pope Pius XII
1132:
1131:
1128:
1127:Carlo Pacelli
1121:
1119:
1118:
1113:
1112:Rolf Hochhuth
1109:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1091:
1086:
1084:
1078:
1074:
1071:
1070:Pope Pius XII
1067:
1066:Death in Rome
1063:
1059:
1049:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1031:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1009:
1005:
1002:
994:
990:
982:
978:
976:
966:
952:
947:
944:
941:
940:Pietro Caruso
938:
935:
934:Erich Priebke
932:
929:
926:
923:
920:
917:
914:
911:
908:
905:
902:
899:
896:
893:
890:
889:
883:
881:
877:
876:Roberto Lordi
873:
869:
865:
860:
858:
857:Simone Simoni
853:
851:
847:
843:
839:
838:
833:
829:
825:
820:
818:
812:
769:
764:
755:
753:
749:
748:Night and Fog
743:
741:
736:
732:
728:
727:Erich Priebke
724:
720:
716:
715:Via Ardeatina
712:
711:
706:
696:
694:
690:
686:
683:, among them
682:
678:
677:Pietro Caruso
675:
671:
668:
666:
665:Brigadeführer
661:
657:
656:Hausgefängnis
652:
650:
647:
646:
641:
637:
633:
632:
627:
623:
619:
614:
612:
608:
605:
604:
600:
599:
594:
591:
590:
581:
577:
572:
563:
560:
557:
553:
549:
544:
542:
541:
536:
535:Eastern Front
532:
528:
524:
520:
515:
511:
505:
497:
492:
483:
481:
480:General Clark
477:
473:
469:
465:
460:
458:
454:
450:
449:forced labour
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
425:Otto Skorzeny
422:
417:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
374:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
308:no confidence
305:
301:
297:
293:
287:
277:
275:
271:
266:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
215:
211:
207:
204:
200:
197:
192:
187:
182:
181:Pietro Caruso
178:
174:
170:
166:
165:Erich Priebke
162:
158:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
132:24 March 1944
131:
127:
124:
120:
116:
112:
105:
100:
95:
92:
84:
81:
73:
63:
59:
53:
52:
46:
41:
32:
31:
19:
5213:
5206:
5199:
5132:Gino Bartali
5085:
4984:Karl Brunner
4921:
4710:Israel riots
4702:2020–present
4355:21st century
4296:AMIA bombing
3880:Cairo pogrom
3807:
3461:Brest pogrom
3251:Skver pogrom
3148:20th century
3125:Corfu pogrom
3026:Tzfat pogrom
2935:Safed pogrom
2911:Arles pogrom
2863:1391 pogroms
2728:Ham massacre
2669:Fez massacre
2485:
2473:
2447:. Retrieved
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5041:and prisons
4059:1950s–1960s
3831:(1944–1945)
3715:(1941–1945)
3464: [
3393: [
3303:(1918–1920)
3275:Lwów pogrom
3243:Lwów pogrom
3187:Kiev pogrom
3088:(1881–1884)
2978:Mawza Exile
2964:(1648–1657)
2804:(1348–1350)
2792:(1336–1339)
2738:(1189–1190)
2507: /
2371:. pp.
2118:18 December
1937:(1988). By
1556:Raiber 2008
1535:Raiber 2008
1523:Raiber 2008
1511:Raiber 2008
1496:24 November
1468:Raiber 2008
1448:South Tyrol
1383:(plural of
1213:István Deák
1181:Il Giornale
1176:revisionist
1158:Controversy
1062:Robert Katz
1052:The Vatican
949: [
910:Kurt Mälzer
868:Vito Artale
817:Robert Katz
752:Robert Katz
713:, near the
607:Kurt Mälzer
519:South Tyrol
496:Via Rasella
402:carabinieri
324:Carabinieri
320:gendarmerie
173:Kurt Mälzer
62:introducing
5262:Categories
5029:Karl Wolff
5024:Karl Titho
4948:Primo Levi
3916:Kunmadaras
3325:Justingrad
2833:Strasbourg
2495:12°30′37″E
2492:41°51′24″N
2298:. Newark:
1997:Wolfe 2005
1884:Wolfe 2005
1869:0304366811
1843:1 December
1802:0304366811
1775:5 December
1363:References
1300:Gino Cervi
1117:The Deputy
740:cerebellum
689:Fifth Army
502:See also:
453:Mark Clark
429:Gran Sasso
390:resistance
363:Fifth Army
359:Eisenhower
284:See also:
153:Assailants
45:references
4999:Karl Hass
4922:Ardeatine
4587:2010–2019
4540:2004–2009
4362:2000–2009
3894:1946–1999
3615:Szczuczyn
3587:Bucharest
3484:1938–1945
3360:Proskurov
3318:Radomyshl
3235:The Tritl
3155:1900–1937
2954:1600–1899
2766:1300–1599
2653:1000–1299
2632:(614–617)
2624:(351–352)
2616:(132–136)
2549:Massacres
2402:: 10–24.
2287:217476102
2273:: 27–33.
2232:151918828
2218:: 67–90.
2177:Macmillan
1976:Katz 2003
1923:Katz 2003
1908:Katz 2003
1751:151918828
1737:: 67–90.
1704:Katz 2003
1687:Katz 2003
1663:Katz 2003
1647:Groliers
1600:Rheingold
1435:Katz 2003
1246:Argentina
1242:"ratline"
1114:'s play,
922:Karl Hass
850:Ingegnere
731:Karl Hass
725:officers
710:pozzolana
611:reprisals
598:Luftwaffe
540:Wehrmacht
510:Partisans
445:Auschwitz
421:Waffen-SS
343:open city
169:Karl Hass
18:Ardeatine
5124:Rescuers
4774:Nahal Oz
4767:Kissufim
4760:Kfar Aza
4484:Istanbul
3678:Babi Yar
3643:Jedwabne
3050:Allahdad
2640:(628 CE)
2555:against
2418:20996328
2359:(eds.).
2321:. Rome:
2242:(2003).
2195:. 2003.
2171:(1967).
1591:Tarnhelm
1341:See also
1269:Radio 24
705:massacre
699:Massacre
674:Questore
423:officer
396:and the
257:for the
255:reprisal
206:Reprisal
194:Unnamed
189:Unnamed
184:Unnamed
117:Outside
114:Location
5078:Looting
5058:Fossoli
5048:Bolzano
4891:Part of
4809:Yakhini
4677:(2019)
4002:Djerada
3995:Tripoli
3923:Miskolc
3706:Rumbula
3664:Tykocin
3594:Antwerp
3455:(1936)
3339:Zviahel
2608:(66–73)
2553:pogroms
2449:18 July
2323:Odradek
1769:Reuters
1058:Vatican
758:Victims
719:Italian
624:South (
468:Vatican
464:Gestapo
457:Salerno
378:Pescara
367:Salerno
231:Italian
196:Gestapo
145:Victims
58:improve
4834:(2024)
4826:(2023)
4788:Nir Oz
4739:Be'eri
4720:(2022)
4712:(2021)
4693:(2019)
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3966:Aleppo
3909:Kielce
3685:Odessa
3657:Ponary
3650:Farhud
3636:Wąsosz
3474:(1937)
3447:(1936)
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3407:(1929)
3399:(1927)
3384:(1921)
3353:Fastov
3277:(1918)
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3076:(1871)
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2706:Speyer
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2114:. IMDb
1866:
1799:
1749:
1605:Erlass
1595:Wagner
1280:Soltau
1023:Legacy
878:, and
735:cognac
642:South
406:cadets
335:Sicily
322:, the
292:Allies
247:German
202:Motive
137:Deaths
47:, but
5039:Camps
4802:Re'im
4795:Nirim
4753:Holit
4272:1990s
4193:1980s
4114:1970s
3601:Gabès
3472:]
3397:]
3346:Pinsk
3332:Skver
2819:Basel
2699:Worms
2571:1–999
2283:S2CID
2228:S2CID
1747:S2CID
1385:fossa
1381:Fosse
1368:Notes
1276:Gaeta
1238:Tyrol
953:]
846:mufti
472:Anzio
412:with
253:as a
225:, or
123:Italy
5097:Area
4476:2003
4398:2002
4369:2001
4037:1949
3987:1948
3959:Aden
3937:1947
3901:1946
3844:1945
3800:1944
3764:1943
3728:1942
3629:Lviv
3622:Iași
3579:1941
3557:1940
3521:1939
3492:1938
3367:Kiev
3311:Lida
3096:Kiev
2589:(66)
2581:(38)
2557:Jews
2451:2024
2414:PMID
2377:ISBN
2327:ISBN
2304:ISBN
2252:ISBN
2197:ISBN
2120:2012
2008:See
1864:ISBN
1845:2020
1797:ISBN
1777:2007
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1698:See
1582:See
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1319:and
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729:and
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339:Pope
243:Rome
221:The
208:for
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119:Rome
2551:or
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556:TNT
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