7522:, p. 226-227 (§168–169): "Irre ich nicht, so hat man die Benennung "phönicische Schrift" bisher etwas zu freygebig gebraucht, den Phöniciern alles gegeben, und den Aramäern nichts gelassen, gleichsam, als ob diese gar nicht hätten schreiben können, oder doch von ihnen nicht ein einziges Denkmal aus ältern Zeiten sich sollte erhalten haben. Selbst Schriften, in welchen sich die aramäische Mund-Art gar nicht verkennen läßt, nennen die Orientalisten phönicisch (§. 195), bloß weil sie noch nicht geahndet haben, daß eine Verschiedenheit vorhanden seyn könne. Ein Haupt-Unterscheidungs-Zeichen – So weit man, ohne auch dasjenige gesehen zu haben, was etwa noch entdeckt werden könnte, vorjetzt durch bloße Induction schließen kann – scheint in den Buchstaben ב, ד, ע und ר zu liegen. Denn so viele phönicische Denkmäler ich auch betrachtet habe; so sind mir doch in keinem einzigen ächt phönicischen diejenigen Gestalten vorgekommen, welche sich oben öffnen (§. 100). Nur bey dem einzigen ע finden sich, wie ich schon erinnert habe, jedoch höchst seltene Ausnahmen, die zuweilen bloß von der Uebereilung des Schreibers herrühren (z.B. im ersten ע der oxforder Inschrift (B.I. S.207). Wir haben sogar oben (§. 159) gesehen, daß selbst noch 153 Jahre nach Christi Geburt, als schon die Schrift in Phönicien sehr ausgeartet war, und in dem ganzen Zeit-Raume vorher, nie ד und ר mit von oben geöffneten Köpfen erscheinen. Dagegen haben diejenigen Denkmäler, auf welchen man sie antrifft, wie ich glaube, auch keinen Anspruch an Pönicier, als Urheber. §. 169 Unter solche gehört vor allen die Inschrift von Carpentras, welche ich hier um so lieber vornehme, als ihre Aechtheit über allen Zweifel erhoben ist... §. 195 Die Schrift darauf nannte man ehemals ägyptisch, welches freylich, weder in Vergleichung mit der ägyptischen Buchstaben-Schrift eine angemessene Benennung, noch der Sprache wegen eine zu wagende Vermuthung war. Schwerlich richtig ist aber auch die bey neuern Gelehrten (Gessenii Gesch. d. hebr. Spr. 139. Bibl. der alt. Literat. VI. 18. Hammer Fund-Grub. V. 277 °°) aufgekommene Benennung "Phönicisch". Ja Hartmann (II. II. 540) nennt sogar unmittelbar nach der ersten malteser diese "eine andere phönicische Inschrift". Schon die Mund-Art, welche nicht phönicisch, sondern aramäisch ist, würde uns vermuthen lassen, daß die Schrift den Aramäern ebenfalls gehöre; wenn nicht in dieser sich zugleich auch Merkmale einer Verschiedenheit von der phönicischen zeigten (s. oben §. 100. 168). Ich habe daher mit gutem Vorbedachte unser Denkmal von Carpentras aus meiner kleinen Sammlung phönicischer Inschriften (B. I. 195) ausgeschlossen. §. 196 Es scheint, als ob zur Zeit des oben (§. 193) mitgetheilten babylonischen Denkmals Aramäer und Phönicier eine und dieselbe Schrift gehabt hätten. Gegen 300 Sahre vor unserer Zeit-Rechnung war aber meiner Vermuthung nach schon eine Trennung eingetreten. Ich sage Vermuthung: denn mein Schluß gründet sich nur auf die einseitige Auslegung folgender Münze, bey welcher man mir vielleicht mehr als einen Einwurf zu machen im Stande ist.."
7534:, p. S. 182–185: "Es gehört nicht viel dazu, um einzusehen, daß die Mund-Art, welche in dieser Inschrift herrscht, aramäisch sey. Schon de Wörter עבדת קדם ,ברת ,אמרת, u. s . w. verrathen sie. Allein rein Chaldäisch kann man sie nicht nennen; man müßte denn mit O. G. Tychsen zu manchen Vorausseßungen und Uenderungen seine Zuflucht nehmen wollen. ist nimmermehr chaldäisch; sondern entweder äthiopisch hic, hoc loco, oder das hebräische Demonstrativum. Denn man bemerkt auch ben die Orthographie, nach welcher statt gefegt wird. Ich war einmal in Versuchung das Relativum der Zabier darinnen sinden zu wollen, weil ich wirklich gedruckt fand. Als ich aber die Handschrift selbst verglich, say' ich bald, daß es ein Druckfehler, statt , war… . Oyngeachtet die Endigung nicht gewöhnlich im Chaldäischen ist, so findet sich doch in der Ueberseßung des Buches Ruth (III. 10) dieses Wort grade so geschrieben. Daß dieses Zeit-Wort hier nicht perfectus fuit, wie gewöhnlich, heißen könne, lehrt der Zusammenhang. Es hat aber auch transitive Bedeutung, wie die Wörter-Bücher lehren (Simonis und Gesenius n. 2) und auch das arabische tamam wird für perfecit, complevit gebraucht. Ich habe mir daher um so weniger ein Gewissen daraus gemacht, ihm die transitive Bedeutung hier beyzulegen, als in dieser Anschrift, in welcher , und dergleichen an keine Regeln gebundene Wörter vorkommen, es eine Recheit reyn würde, den Sprach-Gebrauch vorschreiben zu wollen. Daß übrigens in das für stehe, siehet man selbst aus dem Chaldäischen der Bibel (Dan. IV. 15. V. 8)."
7579:, 1.2.34: "But it would seem that the view of Poseidonius is best, for here he derives an etymology of the words from the kinship of the peoples and their common characteristics. For the nation of the Armenians and that of the Syrians and Arabians betray a close affinity, not only in their language, but in their mode of life and in their bodily build, and particularly wherever they live as close neighbours. Mesopotamia, which is inhabited by these three nations, gives proof of this, for in the case of these nations the similarity is particularly noticeable. And if, comparing the differences of latitude, there does exist a greater difference between the northern and the southern people of Mesopotamia than between these two peoples and the Syrians in the centre, still the common characteristics prevail. And, too, the Assyrians, the Arians, and the Aramaeans display a certain likeness both to those just mentioned and to each other. Indeed, Poseidonius conjectures that the names of these nations also are akin; for, says he, the people whom we call Syrians are by the Syrians themselves called Arimaeans and Arammaeans; and there is a resemblance between this name and those of the Armenians, the Arabians and the Erembians, since perhaps the ancient Greeks gave the name of Erembians to the Arabians, and since the very etymology of the word "Erembian" contributes to this result".
811:
6665:, pp. 4–5: "The overarching concept of Aramaic, strictly a historical-linguistic abstraction, is made more concrete by various terms for the various Aramaic languages (or dialects, where we are mainly dealing with regional vernaculars without a written tradition; the neutral term variety includes both categories). Or scholars use the same terms to refer to different historical periods, as with "Old Aramaic" or "Imperial Aramaic." Others still are just misleading, such as "Modern Syriac" for the modern spoken languages, which do not directly descend from Syriac. When discussing what a certain word or phrase is "in Aramaic" then, we always have to specify which period, region, or culture is meant unlike Classical Latin, for instance. For the most part, Aramaic is thus studied as a crucial but subservient element in several well-established, mainly philological and historical disciplines and social sciences. Even in the academic world, only few people see any inherent value that transcends the disciplinary boundaries in this language family."
7698:
les livres fondamentaux du christianisme. Les habitants des pays situés entre la Méditerranée et l'Euphrate, se voyant désignés par une dénomination qui leur était étrangère, mais qui se trouvait en quelque sorte consacrée par l'autorité des livres qu'ils vénéraient à tant de titres, ne crurent pas sans doute pouvoir rejeter ce nom, et l'adoptèrent sans répugnance. Ils se persuadèrent que, régénérés par un nouveau culte, ils devaient sous tous les rapports devenir un peuple nouveau et abjurer leur nom antique, qui semblait leur rappeler l'idolâtrie à laquelle le christianisme venait de les arracher. Cette conjecture est, si je ne me trompe, confirmée par un fait que je crois décisif. Dans la langue syriaque ecclésiastique, le mot armoïo, ܐܪܡܝܐ, qui ne diffère du nom ancien, ormoïo, ܐܪܡܝܐ, que par une seule voyelle, désigne un païen, un idolâtre. Ainsi s'intrôduisit le nom de Sourioïo, Syrien. Quant à la dénomination Orom, Aram, ou le pays des Araméens, elle fut appliquée de préférence à la contrée que les Grecs et les Latins appelaient
Assyrie.
7592:, 16.4.27: "Poseidonius says that the Arabians consist of three tribes, that they are situated in succession, one after another, and that this indicates that they are homogeneous with one another, and that for this reason they were called by similar names – one tribe "Armenians," another "Arameans," and another "Arambians." And just as one may suppose that the Arabians were divided into three tribes, according to the differences in the latitudes, which ever vary more and more, so also one may suppose that they used several names instead of one. Neither are those who write "Eremni" plausible; for that name is more peculiarly applicable to the Aethiopians. The poet also mentions "Arimi,"by which, according to Poseidonius, we should interpret the poet as meaning, not some place in Syria or in Cilicia or in some other land, but Syria itself; for the people in Syria are Arameans, though perhaps the Greeks called them Arimaeans or Arimi".
8829:
still followed by M. Sokoloff in his recent work, A Dictionary of Jewish
Palestinian Aramaic of the Byzantine Period.'1 A different division, now widely accepted, has been put forward by J. A. Fitzmyer.2 It is as follows: a) Old Aramaic, up to 700 B.C.E.; b) Official Aramaic, 700-300 .c.E.; c) Middle Aramaic, 300 ..E.-200 c.E.; d) Late Aramaic (= Middle Aramaic of Rosenthal's division), with two branches: the eastern branch consisting of Syriac, Mandaic, the Aramaic of the Talmud Babli, the Gaonic Literature and incantation texts found mainly in Nippur; and the western, consisting of Samaritan Aramaic, Christian Palestinian Aramaic, Galilean Aramaic (which some, for example Sokoloff, prefer to call Jewish Palestinian Aramaic) found in the Aramaic portions of the Palestinian Talmud and haggadic midrashim and other sources; e) Modern Aramaic (in its eastern and western dialects).
1400:
7657:
Euphrates. During the 3rd century B.C., when the Hebrew Bible was translated by Jewish scholars into the Greek
Septuagint for the use of the Hellenized Jews of Alexandria, the terms for 'Aramean' and 'Aramaic' in the Hebrew Bible, were translated into 'Syrian' and 'the Syrian tongue' respectively. In Palestine itself, according to Noldeke, the Jews and later the Christians there referred to their dialect of Aramaic as Syriac; in Babylon, both Greeks and Persians called the Arameans Syrians. The second-century B.C. Greek historian Posidonius, a native of Syria, noted that 'the people we call Syrians were called by the Syrians themselves Arameans….for the people in Syria are Arameans'."
1177:
6759:, p. 222: "Despite their divergent creeds and confessional affiliations, they retained their own West or East Syriac ritual prayers and liturgical formulae; on the one hand, there are the West Syriac Orthodox and Syriac Catholics...and also to a lesser degree the similarly Catholic Maronites (where Arabic is increasingly taking over the function of Syriac); one the other hand, there is the Assyrian "Church of the East," which stems from the East Syriac tradition, and...the Chaldean Catholic Church. Additionally, some of the many Christian churches of India belong to the Syriac tradition."
13131:
3788:
2376:, can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did". In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "official language", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language. Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought.
2006:(224 AD), dominating the influential, eastern dialect region. As such, the term covers over thirteen centuries of the development of Aramaic. This vast time span includes all Aramaic that is now effectively extinct. Regarding the earliest forms, Beyer suggests that written Aramaic probably dates from the 11th century BCE, as it is established by the 10th century, to which he dates the oldest inscriptions of northern Syria. Heinrichs uses the less controversial date of the 9th century, for which there is clear and widespread attestation.
8984:
Palestinian
Melkites were mostly Jewish converts to Christianity, who had a long tradition of using Palestinian Aramaic dialects as literary languages. Closely associated with the Palestinian Melkites were the Melkites of Transjordan, who also used Palestinian Christian Aramaic. Another community of Aramaic-speaking Melkites existed in the vicinity of Antioch and parts of Syria. These Melkites used Classical Syriac as a written language, the common literary language of the overwhelming majority of Christian Arameans.
5147:
3816:
3354:
3262:
1631:
13120:
1422:
3571:
1925:
3695:
6229:
13142:
14301:
552:
14044:
6243:
2978:
541:
2535:
14032:
2733:. The Hasmonaean targums reached Galilee in the 2nd century AD, and were reworked into this Galilean dialect for local use. The Galilean Targum was not considered an authoritative work by other communities, and documentary evidence shows that its text was amended. From the 11th century AD onwards, once the Babylonian Targum had become normative, the Galilean version became heavily influenced by it.
3326:
7448:(Gen 10:22), in the same manner as the Slavic languages Bohemian, Polish, Vandal etc. Multiple dialects are Chaldean, Syrian, Samaritan."; Latin Original: Linguae Aramaeae nomen à gentis conditore, Aramo nimirum (Gen. X 22) desumptum est, & complectitur, perinde ut Lingua Sclavonica, Bohemican, Polonican, Vandalicam &c. Dialectos plures, ceu sunt: Chaldaica, Syriaca, Samaritana.
2823:
2562:
2075:, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined alphabet, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop from this in the eastern regions of Aram. Due to increasing Aramean migration eastward, the Western periphery of Assyria became bilingual in Akkadian and Aramean at least as early as the mid-9th century BC. As the
5586:, probably existed in a very early stage of the language, and glimpses of them can be seen in a few compound proper names. However, as most of those cases were expressed by short final vowels, they were never written, and the few characteristic long vowels of the masculine plural accusative and genitive are not clearly evidenced in inscriptions. Often, the
7936:
however, and those who followed him, confused therewith the use of o'yu, as name of the people; and since, in Dan. II., 4, the "Chaldeans" speak
Aramaic, so "Chaldaic" and "Aramaic" were held to be identical. And the matter has stood thus in the "Chaldee grammars" and the "Hebrew and Chaldee lexicons," in spite of all protests,3 up to this day.
2781:, with some influence from Arabic: "l" is often turned into "n", and there are some Arabic loanwords. Arabic influence on Nabataean Aramaic increased over time. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions date from the early days of the kingdom, but most datable inscriptions are from the first four centuries AD. The language is written in a
2726:, the "official" targums. The original, Hasmonaean targums had reached Babylon sometime in the 2nd or 3rd century AD. They were then reworked according to the contemporary dialect of Babylon to create the language of the standard targums. This combination formed the basis of Babylonian Jewish literature for centuries to follow.
2523:
2881:), and perhaps wrote his work (172 AD) in East Mesopotamian rather than Classical Syriac or Greek. In Babylonia, the regional dialect was used by the Jewish community, Jewish Old Babylonian (from c. 70 AD). This everyday language increasingly came under the influence of Biblical Aramaic and Babylonian Targumic.
8828:
a) Old
Aramaic from the beginning (through Biblical Aramaic, Nabataean, Palmyrene) down to the established eastern and western branches; b) Middle Aramaic, with two branches, eastern and western; c) Late Aramaic, with the contemporary western (Ma'alula) and eastern branches. This older terminology is
7656:
The designations Syria and Syrian were derived from Greek usage long before
Christianity. When the Greeks became better acquainted with the Near East, especially after Alexander the Great overthrew the Achaemenian empire in the 4th century B.C., they restricted the name Syria to the lands west of the
3215:
During the Late Middle
Aramaic period, spanning from 300 B.C.E. to 200 C.E., Aramaic diverged into its eastern and western branches. During this time, the nature of various Aramaic dialects began to change. The descendants of Imperial Aramaic ceased to be living languages, and the eastern and western
2372:, Aramaic (as had been used in that region) was adopted by the conquerors as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed Official Aramaic or
4225:
Each dialect of
Aramaic has its own distinctive pronunciation, and it would not be feasible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a phonological palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. Some modern Aramaic pronunciations lack the series of "emphatic" consonants, and some have borrowed from
3626:
Middle
Judaean Aramaic, the descendant of Old Judaean Aramaic, was no longer the dominant dialect, and was used only in southern Judaea (the variant Engedi dialect continued throughout this period). Likewise, Middle East Jordanian Aramaic continued as a minor dialect from Old East Jordanian Aramaic.
2653:
languages. Moreover, many common words, including even pronouns, particles, numerals, and auxiliaries, continued to be written as Aramaic "words" even when writing Middle Iranian languages. In time, in Iranian usage, these Aramaic "words" became disassociated from the Aramaic language and came to be
2614:
cities throughout the Seleucid domains. However, Aramaic continued to be used, in its post-Achaemenid form, among upper and literate classes of native Aramaic-speaking communities, and also by local authorities (along with the newly introduced Greek). Post-Achaemenid Aramaic, that bears a relatively
1735:
terms, that are used differently among scholars. Terms like: Old Aramaic, Ancient Aramaic, Early Aramaic, Middle Aramaic, Late Aramaic (and some others, like Paleo-Aramaic), were used in various meanings, thus referring (in scope or substance) to different stages in historical development of Aramaic
7697:
Les livres du Nouveau Testament furent immédiatement traduits dans fa langue du pays. Or ces livres étaient écrits dans la langue des Grecs, et offraient par conséquent les expressions et les dénominations en usage chez'ce peuple. Or les noms de Syrie, de Syriens se trouvaient souvent employés dans
7671:
Nöldeke, 1871, p. 115: "Die Griechen haben den Namen "Aramäer" nie eigentlich gekannt; ausser Posidonius (dem Strabo folgt) nennt ihn uns nur noch ein andrer Orientale, Josephus (Ant. 1, 6, 4). Dass Homer bei den 'Ερεμβοι oder in den Worten eiv 'Αρίμοις an sie dächte, ist sehr unwahrscheinlich. Die
1730:
of historical development of Aramaic language has been the subject of particular interest for scholars, who proposed several types of periodization, based on linguistic, chronological and territorial criteria. Overlapping terminology, used in different periodizations, led to the creation of several
7935:
The author of Daniel uses the word as a title for the members of the Babylonian guild of priests, as already Herodotus regards oi Xardalot as a designation of the priests of Baal, and the name was subsequently the customary one for the Magians, Astrologers, Soothsayers, etc., of the East. Jerome,
6039:
means "he deceived". The Šap̄‘el שפעל is the least common variant of the C-stem. Because this variant is standard in Akkadian, it is possible that its use in Aramaic represents loanwords from that language. The difference between the variants הפעל Hap̄‘el and אפעל Ap̄‘el appears to be the gradual
1477:, and all three empires became operationally bilingual in written sources, with Aramaic used alongside Akkadian. The Achaemenid Empire (539–323 BC) continued this tradition, and the extensive influence of these empires led to Aramaic gradually becoming the lingua franca of most of western Asia,
8983:
The main center of Aramaic-speaking Melkites was Palestine. During the 5th-6th centuries, they were engaged in literary, mainly translation work in the local Western Aramaic dialect, known as "Palestinian Christian Aramaic", using a script closely resembling the cursive Estrangela of Osrhoene.
6067:
sound occurs similarly to that in the form above. These three derived stems are the Gt-stem, התפעל Hiṯpə‘el or אתפעל Eṯpə‘el (also written Hithpe‘el or Ethpe‘el), the Dt-stem, התפעּל Hiṯpa‘‘al or אתפעּל Eṯpa‘‘al (also written Hithpa‘‘al or Ethpa‘‘al), and the Ct-stem, התהפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al, אתּפעל
5569:
handwriting"). Although its original grammatical function seems to have been to mark definiteness, it is used already in Imperial Aramaic to mark all important nouns, even if they should be considered technically indefinite. This practice developed to the extent that the absolute state became
2741:
Babylonian Documentary Aramaic is a dialect in use from the 3rd century AD onwards. It is the dialect of Babylonian private documents, and, from the 12th century, all Jewish private documents are in Aramaic. It is based on Hasmonaean with very few changes. This was perhaps because many of the
1621:
It is also helpful to distinguish modern living languages, or Neo-Aramaics, and those that are still in use as literary or liturgical languages or are only of interest to scholars. Although there are some exceptions to this rule, this classification gives "Old", "Middle", and "Modern" periods
9026:
However, what truly distinguishes the CPA Gospels from the Syriac ones is the strong influence that Greek Biblical tradi- tions had upon it. This is evident, for example, in the syntax of the Gospel passages and even in the spelling of proper nouns, both of which duplicate the Greek Gospels.
2953:
The Old East Jordanian dialect continued to be used into the first century AD by pagan communities living to the east of the Jordan. Their dialect is often then called Pagan Old Palestinian, and it was written in a cursive script somewhat similar to that used for Old Syriac. A Christian Old
6353:
The Syriac writers of Qatar themselves produced some of the best and most sophisticated writing to be found in all Syriac literature of the seventh century, but they have not received the scholarly attention that they deserve in the last half century. This volume seeks to redress this
810:
3665:
from the 5th to the 8th century. As a liturgical language, it was used up to the 13th century. It is also been called "Melkite Aramaic", "Syro-Palestinian" and "Palestinian Syriac". The language itself comes from Old Western Aramaic, but its writing conventions were based on the
3623:, the Tiberian system (7th century), was developed by speakers of the Galilean dialect of Jewish Middle Palestinian. Classical Hebrew vocalisation, therefore, in representing the Hebrew of this period, probably reflects the contemporary pronunciation of this Aramaic dialect.
1504:. However, Aramaic remains a spoken, literary, and liturgical language for local Christians and also some Jews. Aramaic also continues to be spoken by the Assyrians of northern Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, and northwest Iran, with diaspora communities in
1598:
do among themselves. Its long history, extensive literature, and use by different religious communities are all factors in the diversification of the language. Some Aramaic dialects are mutually intelligible, whereas others are not, similar to the situation with modern
1520:. The Mandaeans also continue to use Classical Mandaic as a liturgical language, although most now speak Arabic as their first language. There are still also a small number of first-language speakers of Western Aramaic varieties in isolated villages in western Syria.
5530:, "the handwriting of the queen"). In the masculine singular, the form of the construct is often the same as the absolute, but it may undergo vowel reduction in longer words. The feminine construct and masculine construct plural are marked by suffixes. Unlike a
2701:
dialects is known only through their influence on words and names in a more standard dialect. However, some of those regional dialects became written languages by the 2nd century BC. These dialects reflect a stream of Aramaic that is not directly dependent on
751:, with several varieties used mainly by the older generations. Researchers are working to record and analyze all of the remaining varieties of Neo-Aramaic languages before or in case they become extinct. Aramaic dialects today form the mother tongues of the
2070:
There are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the 10th century BC. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The alphabet of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on the
814:
This clay tablet represents a classroom experiment; a teacher imposed a challenging writing exercise on pupils who spoke both Babylonian-Akkadian and Aramaic. The pupils had to use traditional syllabic signs to express the sounds of the Aramaic alphabet.
2383:
gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire (in 330 BC), Imperial Aramaic – or a version thereof near enough for it to be recognisable – would remain an influence on the various native
2906:
The western regional dialects of Aramaic followed a similar course to those of the east. They are quite distinct from the eastern dialects and Imperial Aramaic. Aramaic came to coexist with Canaanite dialects, eventually completely displacing
2835:
In the eastern regions (from Mesopotamia to Persia), dialects like Palmyrene Aramaic and Arsacid Aramaic gradually merged with the regional vernacular dialects, thus creating languages with a foot in Achaemenid and a foot in regional Aramaic.
3941:. It is quite distinct from any other Aramaic variety. Mandaeans number some 50,000–75,000 people, but it is believed Neo-Mandaic may now be spoken fluently by as few as 5,000 people, with other Mandaeans having varying degrees of knowledge.
2690:, i.e. the language of Persia proper, subsequently also became a prestige language. Following the conquest of the Sassanids by the Arabs in the 7th-century, the Aramaic-derived writing system was replaced by the Arabic alphabet in all but
2686:, who succeeded the Parthian Arsacids in the mid-3rd century AD, subsequently inherited/adopted the Parthian-mediated Aramaic-derived writing system for their own Middle Iranian ethnolect as well. That particular Middle Iranian dialect,
5074:
A distinguishing feature of Aramaic phonology (and that of Semitic languages in general) is the presence of "emphatic" consonants. These are consonants that are pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted, with varying degrees of
1319:. The language is often mistakenly considered to have originated within Assyria (Iraq). In fact, Arameans carried their language and writing into Mesopotamia by voluntary migration, by forced exile of conquering armies, and by nomadic
3105:". Galilean Aramaic, the dialect of Jesus' home region, is only known from a few place names, the influences on Galilean Targumic, some rabbinic literature and a few private letters. It seems to have a number of distinctive features:
5486:
Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional "dual" number exists for nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared from Aramaic over time and has little influence in Middle and Modern Aramaic.
7950:,"… The heartland of Assyria is demarcated by the city of Assur (modern Qala'at Sherqat) in the south, by Nineveh (modern Mosul with the ruin mounds Kuyunjik and Nebi Yunus) in the north and by Arbela (modern Erbil) in the east.“
6079:
Not all verbs use all of these conjugations, and, in some, the G-stem is not used. In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is
5755:– the oldest construction, also known as סמיכות səmîḵûṯ : the possessed object (כתבה kṯābâ, "handwriting") is in the construct state (כתבת kṯāḇaṯ); the possessor (מלכה malkâ, "queen") is in the emphatic state (מלכתא malkṯâ)
6031:, creates the C-stem or variously the Hap̄‘el, Ap̄‘el or Šap̄‘el (also spelt הפעל Haph‘el, אפעל Aph‘el, and שפעל Shaph‘el). This is often an extensive or causative development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, טעה
5775:– both words are in the emphatic state, and the relative particle is used, but the possessed is given an anticipatory, pronominal ending (כתבתה kṯāḇtā-h, "handwriting-her"; literally, "her writing, that (of) the queen").
793:
notes, "The linguistic history of Aramaic prior to the appearance of the first textual sources in the ninth century BC remains unknown." Aramaic is also believed by most historians and scholars to have been the primary
2918:
The form of Late Old Western Aramaic used by the Jewish community is best attested, and is usually referred to as Jewish Old Palestinian. Its oldest form is Old East Jordanian, which probably comes from the region of
2593:
successors, marked an important turning point in the history of Aramaic language. During the early stages of the post-Achaemenid era, public use of Aramaic language was continued, but shared with the newly introduced
2428:
Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language.
2021:(500–330 BC). The period before this, dubbed "Ancient Aramaic", saw the development of the language from being spoken in Aramaean city-states to become a major means of communication in diplomacy and trade throughout
2931:
170 BC). The next distinct phase of the language is called Old Judaean lasting into the second century AD. Old Judean literature can be found in various inscriptions and personal letters, preserved quotations in the
5538:
are treated as a speech unit, with the first unit (possessed) employing the construct state to link it to the following word. In Middle Aramaic, the use of the construct state for all but stock phrases (like בר נשא
3280:
3603:. The Galilean dialect thus rose from obscurity to become the standard among Jews in the west. This dialect was spoken not only in Galilee, but also in the surrounding parts. It is the linguistic setting for the
6501:
The fact that nearly all Arabic loans in Ma'lula originate from the period before the change from the rural dialect to the city dialect of Damascus shows that the contact between the Aramaeans and the Arabs was
8955:
For the Aramaic-speaking Christian communities of Sinai, Palestine or Trans-Jordan, Christian Palestinian Aramaic was the dominant language in local churches; for Syria and Mesopotamia, it was rather Syriac.…
6960:
It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73)
5165:
2789:. After annexation by the Romans in 106 AD, most of Nabataea was subsumed into the province of Arabia Petraea, the Nabataeans turned to Greek for written communications, and the use of Aramaic declined.
2436:
have been discovered, and an analysis was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC Achaemenid administration of Bactria and
6217:
usually follows the order verb–subject–object (VSO). Imperial (Persian) Aramaic, however, tended to follow a S-O-V pattern (similar to Akkadian), which was the result of Persian syntactic influence.
4947:
The various alphabets used for writing Aramaic languages have twenty-two letters (all of which are consonants). Some of these letters, though, can stand for two or three different sounds (usually a
3834:
2618:
By the end of the 2nd century BC, several variants of Post-Achaemenid Aramaic emerged, bearing regional characteristics. One of them was Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official administrative language of
7435:
Summarium Lingvæ Aramææ, i.e. Chaldæo-Syro-Samaritanæ: olim in Academia Wittebergensi orientalium lingvarum consecraneis, parietes intra privatos, prælectum & nunc ... publico bono commodatum
3747:(112,000 to 450,000 speakers). Having largely lived in remote areas as insulated communities for over a millennium, the remaining speakers of modern Aramaic dialects, such as the Arameans of the
2642:, although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms.
5394:. Modern dialects have borrowed sounds from the dominant surrounding languages. The most frequent borrowings are (as the first consonant in "azure"), (as in "jam"), and (as in "church"). The
3468:
Jewish Middle Babylonian is the language employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the fourth and the eleventh century. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian
5601:
Adjectives agree with their nouns in number and gender but agree in state only if used attributively. Predicative adjectives are in the absolute state regardless of the state of their noun (a
3372:
1387:) is used to mean Aramaic. In Biblical scholarship, the term "Chaldean" was for many years used as a synonym of Aramaic, due to its use in the book of Daniel and subsequent interpretation by
3278:
9814:
6709:, p. 145: "The Aramaic Language originated in ancient Syria at the end of the Late Bronze Age (c. 1500–1200 B.C.), is one of the oldest continually spoken languages in the world."
2002:
until as late as the 17th century. The term "Old Aramaic" is used to describe the varieties of the language from its first known use, until the point roughly marked by the rise of the
1534:"Sword" in Syriac, has seen speakers of first-language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world. However, there are several sizable Assyrian towns in northern Iraq, such as
5859:(and preformatives in the imperfect). In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is
5163:
2485:
Biblical Aramaic is a somewhat hybrid dialect. It is theorized that some Biblical Aramaic material originated in both Babylonia and Judaea before the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty.
5510:
handwriting"), and can be used in most syntactic roles. However, by the Middle Aramaic period, its use for nouns (but not adjectives) had been widely replaced by the emphatic state.
2954:
Palestinian dialect may have arisen from the pagan one, and this dialect may be behind some of the Western Aramaic tendencies found in the otherwise eastern Old Syriac gospels (see
3832:
3987:
and all the survivors fled to other parts of Syria or to Lebanon. All these speakers of modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic as well. Other Western Aramaic languages, like
3050:
was the lingua franca of the Near East in trade, among the Hellenized classes (much like French in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries in Europe), and in the Roman administration.
1523:
Being in contact with other regional languages, some Neo-Aramaic dialects were often engaged in the mutual exchange of influences, particularly with Arabic, Iranian, and Kurdish.
5185:
Ancient Aramaic may have had a larger series of emphatics, and some Neo-Aramaic languages definitely do. Not all dialects of Aramaic give these consonants their historic values.
3207:, S.J. Where the appropriate words (in first-century Aramaic) were no longer known, he used the Aramaic of Daniel and fourth-century Syriac and Hebrew as the basis for his work.
3370:
2777:, and supported a wide-ranging trade network. The Nabataeans used imperial Aramaic for written communications, rather than their native Arabic. Nabataean Aramaic developed from
5502:
state is the basic form of a noun. In early forms of Aramaic, the absolute state expresses indefiniteness, comparable to the English indefinite article a(n) (for example, כתבה
8782:
3279:
2694:, which continued to use the name 'pahlavi' for the Aramaic-derived writing system and went on to create the bulk of all Middle Iranian literature in that writing system.
2610:
as the main language of public life and administration. During the 3rd century BCE, Greek overtook Aramaic in many spheres of public communication, particularly in highly
10482:
11560:
Comparative Etymological Studies in the Western Neo-Syriac (Ṭūrōyo) Lexicon: With Special Reference to Homonyms, Related Words and Borrowings with Cultural Signification
6004:
By doubling of the second radical, or root letter, the D-stem or פעל Pa‘‘el is formed. This is often an intensive development of the basic lexical meaning. For example,
3216:
regional dialects started to develop significant new literatures. Unlike many dialects of Old Aramaic, much is known about the vocabulary and grammar of Middle Aramaic.
1220:
as Phoenician, with "everything left to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all". Kopp noted that some of the words on the
6469:
Ich kenne das Dorf nicht, doch gehört habe ich davon. Was ist mit Malula?‹ fragte der festgehaltene Derwisch. >Das letzte Dorf der Aramäer< lachte einer der…
5164:
1554:, and numerous small villages, where Aramaic is still the main spoken language, and many large cities in this region also have Suret-speaking communities, particularly
5855:
that vary according to person, number and gender. In both tenses the third-person singular masculine is the unmarked form from which others are derived by addition of
1309:, bordering northern Israel and what is now called Syria, is considered the linguistic center of Aramaic, the language of the Arameans who settled the area during the
3833:
9684:"The Riddle of Jesus' Cry from the Cross: The Meaning of ηλι ηλι λαμα σαβαχθανι (Matthew 27:46) and the Literary Function of ελωι ελωι λειμα σαβαχθανι (Mark 15:34)"
8916:…. Palestinian Aramaic also began to be written for the first time (Coptic was written in an adapted Greek script and Palestinian Aramaic in a modified Estrangelo….
7494:
In his Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit, Ulrich Friedrich Kopp (1819–21) established the basis of the paleographical development of the Northwest Semitic scripts...
4437:). There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects. There is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short
2742:
documents in BDA are legal documents, the language in them had to be sensible throughout the Jewish community from the start, and Hasmonaean was the old standard.
1007:
of public life, trade and commerce throughout Achaemenid territories. Wide use of written Aramaic subsequently led to the adoption of the Aramaic alphabet and, as
3371:
5605:
may or may not be written). Thus, an attributive adjective to an emphatic noun, as in the phrase "the good king", is written also in the emphatic state מלכא טבא
1720:
633:
Aramaic served as a language of public life and administration of ancient kingdoms and empires, and also as a language of divine worship and religious study.
13952:
7506:
6695:
Aramaic itself consists of a great number of language forms (and indeed languages), spoken and written in many different scripts over a period of 3000 years.
6209:. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an
5742:. As the use of the construct state almost disappears from the Middle Aramaic period on, the latter method became the main way of making possessive phrases.
5297:
for each plosive. In the wake of vowel changes, the distinction eventually became phonemic; still later, it was often lost in certain dialects. For example,
3476:
literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Judaism. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of
14843:
14081:
3509:, is a sister dialect to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, though it is both linguistically and culturally distinct. It is the language in which the Mandaeans'
1663:
and other Jewish writing in Aramaic. The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the
14674:
4217:
5721:, and came to be the only plural for nouns and adjectives of this type in Syriac and some other varieties of Aramaic. The masculine construct plural,
2379:
Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of
5609: – king good. In comparison, the predicative adjective, as in the phrase "the king is good", is written in the absolute state מלכא טב
5490:
Aramaic nouns and adjectives can exist in one of three states. To a certain extent, these states correspond to the role of articles and cases in the
5419:
has the meaning of 'writing'. This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning:
4480:, as in the final vowel of "café" (). Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced slightly more open. Thus, the short close
10752:
9784:
13060:
9622:
1606:
Some Aramaic languages are known under different names; for example, Syriac is particularly used to describe the Eastern Aramaic variety spoken by
8151:
3919:, being in between Western Neo-Aramaic and Northeastern Neo-Aramaic, is generally represented by Turoyo, the language of the Assyrians/Syriacs of
2425:. Consensus as of 2022 regards the Aramaic portion of the Biblical book of Daniel (i.e., 2:4b–7:28) as an example of Imperial (Official) Aramaic.
1594:
Aramaic is often spoken of as a single language but is actually a group of related languages. Some languages differ more from each other than the
1192:
complained that previous scholars had left everything "to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all".
783:
2090:
From 700 BC, the language began to spread in all directions, but lost much of its unity. Different dialects emerged in Assyria, Babylonia, the
5388:
in Aramaic, the word gold is זהב zahav in Hebrew but דהב dehav in Aramaic). Dental/sibilant shifts are still happening in the modern dialects.
5188:
Overlapping with the set of emphatics are the "guttural" consonants. They include ח Ḥêṯ and ע ʽAyn from the emphatic set, and add א ʼĀlap̄ (a
3865:
The Christian varieties of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA) are often called "Assyrian", "Chaldean" or "Eastern Syriac", and are spoken by the
1958:. Therefore, there is not one singular, static Aramaic language; each time and place rather has had its own variation. The more widely spoken
6068:
Ettap̄‘al, השתפעל Hištap̄‘al or אשתפעל Eštap̄‘al (also written Hithhaph‘al, Ettaph‘al, Hishtaph‘al, or Eshtaph‘al). Their meaning is usually
5997:. Following the tradition of mediaeval Arabic grammarians, it is more often called the Pə‘al פעל (also written Pe‘al), using the form of the
3908:, Christian Assyrians and Mizrahi Jews speak mutually unintelligible varieties of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic in the same place. In others, the
1950:
Aramaic's long history and diverse and widespread use has led to the development of many divergent varieties, which are sometimes considered
1473:-influenced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of its empire. This policy was continued by the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire and the
8025:
7198:"Syriac Heritage of the Saint Thomas Christians: Language and Liturgical Tradition Saint Thomas Christians – origins, language and liturgy"
6302:
8184:
7641:
The Modern Assyrians of the Middle East: A History of Their Encounter with Western Christian Missions, Archaeologists, and Colonial Powers
14669:
11810:
3854:
Modern Eastern Aramaic exists in a wide variety of dialects and languages. There is significant difference between the Aramaic spoken by
1330:, Aramaic language was most commonly known as the "Syrian language", in relation to the native (non-Greek) inhabitants of the historical
732:. The Aramaic alphabet also became a base for the creation and adaptation of specific writing systems in some other Semitic languages of
2674:, the Parthian language and its Aramaic-derived writing system both gained prestige. This in turn also led to the adoption of the name '
11743:
1678:
In addition to these writing systems, certain derivatives of the Aramaic alphabet were used in ancient times by particular groups: the
779:
8611:
4019:
Now when Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king, behold, there came wise men from the east to Jerusalem,
2634:, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean Aramaic. It also appears in quotations in the
13844:
13099:
10839:
6307:
4386:
These vowel groups are relatively stable, but the exact articulation of any individual is most dependent on its consonantal setting.
3870:
8790:
4027:
And when he had gathered all the chief priests and scribes of the people together, he demanded of them where Christ should be born.
14725:
14074:
12373:
6391:
The Persian location and character of the Metropolitan proved to be a source of friction between the Syriac-speaking Christians of
5253:
3418:, but its golden age was the fourth to eight centuries. This period began with the translation of the Bible into the language: the
1399:
5380:
Proto-Semitic */θ/ */ð/ are reflected in Aramaic as */t/, */d/, whereas they became sibilants in Hebrew (the number three is שלוש
2697:
Other regional dialects continued to exist alongside these, often as simple, spoken variants of Aramaic. Early evidence for these
14286:
13277:
12324:
12299:
11779:
5697:
for the feminine absolute singular. Likewise, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the Hebrew masculine absolute singular suffix ים-
3109:
are never simplified into monophthongs. East of the Jordan, the various dialects of East Jordanian were spoken. In the region of
2051:"Ancient Aramaic" refers to the earliest known period of the language, from its origin until it becomes the lingua franca of the
2033:. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, local vernaculars became increasingly prominent, fanning the divergence of an Aramaic
452:
10467:
3723:
have become nearly extinct in non-liturgical usage, the most prolific speakers of Neo-Aramaic languages in the 21st century are
2626:, which was the language preferred in religious and some other public uses (coinage). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the
999:(539–330 BC). Mediated by scribes that had been trained in the language, highly standardized written Aramaic, named by scholars
13592:
13586:
12363:
12342:
11180:
5787:
The Aramaic verb has gradually evolved in time and place, varying between varieties of the language. Verb forms are marked for
5740:
Possessive phrases in Aramaic can either be made with the construct state or by linking two nouns with the relative particle --
2510:" was eventually abandoned, when modern scholarly analyses showed that Aramaic dialect used in Hebrew Bible was not related to
12358:
10249:
10201:
9098:
8675:
8638:
8062:
7375:
6920:
6688:
6647:
5479:
Aramaic has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. The feminine absolute singular is often marked by the ending ה-
9590:"Some Basic Annotation to The Hidden Pearl: The Syrian Orthodox Church and its Ancient Aramaic Heritage, I–III (Rome, 2001)"
8842:
7731:
13053:
1305:(Hebrew Bible), "Aram" is used as a proper name of several people including descendants of Shem, Nahor, and Jacob. Ancient
37:
This article is about the sub-group of the Semitic languages native to Mesopotamia and the Levant. Not to be confused with
9645:
4507:, like the vowel in "show" (). There are shorter, and thus more open, counterparts to each of these, with the short close
3873:. However, they also have roots in numerous previously unwritten local Aramaic varieties and, in some cases, even contain
752:
638:
14416:
14067:
13927:
12393:
12388:
11012:
From a Spoken to a Written Language: The Introduction and Development of Literary Urmia Aramaic in the Nineteenth Century
8665:
4906:
4890:
3144:"wealth", were borrowed into Hebrew, and Hebrew words acquired additional senses from Aramaic. For instance, Hebrew ראוי
3132:. Hebrew words entered Jewish Aramaic. Most were mostly technical religious words, but a few were everyday words like עץ
2539:
492:
7846:
7394:
Schmidt, Nathaniel (1923). "Early Oriental Studies in Europe and the Work of the American Oriental Society, 1842–1922".
7328:
3054:, the language of the Roman army and higher levels of administration, had almost no impact on the linguistic landscape.
2649:
Aramaic in the Achaemenid bureaucracy also precipitated the adoption of Aramaic(-derived) scripts to render a number of
13604:
10863:
10429:
8375:
5534:, which marks the possessor, the construct state is marked on the possessed. This is mainly due to Aramaic word order:
4021:
Saying, Where is he that is born King of the Jews? for we have seen his star in the east, and are come to worship him.
3562:
that can be dated back to the fourth century. Its modern pronunciation is based on the form used in the tenth century.
2396:
2351:
2325:
1281:
In historical sources, Aramaic language is designated by two distinctive groups of terms, first of them represented by
1217:
1185:
775:
565:
10119:
10089:
8392:
1196:
The connection between Chaldean, Syriac, and Samaritan as "Aramaic" was first identified in 1679 by German theologian
14143:
11726:
11705:
11684:
11661:
11638:
11617:
11568:
11547:
11524:
11501:
11480:
11448:
11425:
11402:
11381:
11360:
11328:
11307:
11286:
11262:
11214:
11190:
11151:
11066:
11043:
11020:
10996:
10937:
10913:
10889:
10797:
10738:
10645:
10622:
10599:
10576:
10552:
10529:
10506:
10456:
10418:
10397:
10374:
10339:
10318:
10295:
10272:
10227:
10182:
10159:
10031:
10008:
9987:
9927:
9904:
9845:
9773:
9752:
9718:
9695:
9672:
9616:
9519:
9455:
9431:
9410:
9347:
9283:
9019:
8976:
8948:
8909:
8821:
8648:
8621:
8587:
8194:
7743:
7481:
7298:
Duntsov, Alexey; Häberl, Charles; Loesov, Sergey (2022). "A Modern Western Aramaic Account of the Syrian Civil War".
6953:
6616:
Viele Aramäer arbeiten heute in Damaskus, Beirut oder in den Golfstaaten und verbringen nur die Sommermonate im Dorf.
6609:
6587:
6563:
6541:
6519:
6494:
6462:
6416:
6384:
6346:
5578:, like Hebrew, have the absolute and construct states, the emphatic/determined state is a unique feature to Aramaic.
4955:
at the same point of articulation). Aramaic classically uses a series of lightly contrasted plosives and fricatives:
3025:
2847:(Urhay), the regional dialect became the official language: Edessan Aramaic (Urhaya), that later came to be known as
1610:
in northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, and northwestern Iran, and the Saint Thomas Christians in
17:
13130:
11752:
5779:
In Modern Aramaic, the last form is by far the most common. In Biblical Aramaic, the last form is virtually absent.
3007:
1622:
alongside "Eastern" and "Western" areas to distinguish between the various languages and dialects that are Aramaic.
14807:
13986:
12314:
11032:"Classical Syriac, Neo-Aramaic, and Arabic in the Church of the East and the Chaldean Church between 1500 and 1800"
8324:
Frye, Richard N.; Driver, G. R. (1955). "Review of G. R. Driver's 'Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B. C.'".
7720:
7709:
4801:
3271:
402:
10923:
10899:
4100:
W-buqrehon: Eykeleh haw d-pišleh iliḏe malka d-ihuḏāye? Sabab khzelan l-kawkhḇeh b-maḏnkha w-telan d-saġdakh eleh.
669:. Classical varieties are used as liturgical and literary languages in several West Asian churches, as well as in
13272:
13046:
12319:
12309:
11803:
9075:
4773:
4298:
4199:
2729:
Galilean Targumic is similar to Babylonian Targumic. It is the mixing of literary Hasmonaean with the dialect of
362:
8469:
5059:
Each member of a certain pair is written with the same letter of the alphabet in most writing systems (that is,
14720:
14704:
13667:
13652:
13634:
13610:
13515:
13340:
12648:
8691:
Häberl, Charles G. (February 2006). "Iranian Scripts for Aramaic Languages: The Origin of the Mandaic Script".
8439:
7649:
6392:
5088:
4815:
4432:
4319:
3896:, and most are facing extinction. The Jewish varieties that have come from communities that once lived between
3003:
2804:
in the Syrian Desert from 44 BC to 274 AD. It was written in a rounded script, which later gave way to cursive
2388:. Aramaic script and – as ideograms – Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the
8454:
3516:
was composed. It is characterized by a highly phonetic orthography and does not make use of vowel diacritics.
2598:. By the year 300 BC, all of the main Aramaic-speaking regions came under political rule of the newly created
2463:– documents from the Achaemenid period (5th century BC) concerning the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem.
1614:, India. Most dialects can be described as either "Eastern" or "Western", the dividing line being roughly the
14746:
13521:
13482:
13396:
13267:
12304:
12216:
10678:
Grammatik des Biblisch-Aramäischen: Mit einer Kritischen Erörterung der aramäischen Wörter im Neuen Testament
8769:
8747:
6055:
These three conjugations are supplemented with three further derived stems, produced by the preformative -הת
4061:
3767:
that saw the proliferation of other tongues among those who previously did not speak them, most recently the
3640:
2403:, which number about five hundred. Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from
1326:
Unlike in Hebrew, designations for Aramaic language in some other ancient languages were mostly exonymic. In
352:
8758:
8736:
8458:
5343:. Some dialects have replaced emphatic consonants with non-emphatic counterparts, while those spoken in the
4096:
Min baṯar d-pišleh iliḏe Išo go Beṯlkham d-Ihuḏa b-yomane d-Herodes malka ṯelon mġoše min maḏnkha l-Orešlim.
14756:
14491:
14006:
13981:
13917:
13681:
12383:
12368:
7682:
5595:
4838:
4787:
4305:
3912:
around Mosul for example, the varieties of these two ethnicities are similar enough to allow conversation.
2506:
1407:
1275:
615:
531:
472:
372:
96:
10430:"The Book of Daniel and Matters of Language: Evidences Relating to Names, Words, and the Aramaic Language"
5334:
5330:
5326:
5322:
5318:
5314:
5306:
5302:
5225:
5218:
5211:
5204:
5136:
5125:
5103:
5092:
4213:
4209:
3069:' time. They were probably distinctive yet mutually intelligible. Old Judean was the prominent dialect of
14812:
14694:
14689:
14624:
14300:
13991:
13937:
13800:
13498:
13217:
13192:
13186:
13109:
12982:
12378:
12092:
10763:
9795:
9589:
6638:(2011). "Phyla and Waves: Models of Classification of the Semitic Languages". In Weninger, Stefan (ed.).
5575:
5283:
occurs almost too frequently to document fully, but is a major distinctive feature of different dialects.
5114:
4870:
4822:
4420:
4327:
4277:
3739:. This includes speakers of the Assyrian (235,000 speakers) and Chaldean (216,000 speakers) varieties of
3427:
2912:
1651:. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive "square" style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of
1051:
945:
38b), the language spoken by Adam – the Bible's first human – was Aramaic.
599:
137:
7461:
6423:
He was born in the region of Beth Qatraye in Eastern Arabia, a mixed Syriac- and Arabic Speaking region…
5365:: all the gutturals are reduced to a simple glottal stop. Some Modern Aramaic dialects do not pronounce
14838:
14817:
14426:
14001:
13223:
12237:
12230:
11796:
11116:
8158:
6354:
underdevelopment by setting the standard for further research in the sub-field of Beth Qatraye studies.
5713:. The alternative is sometimes called the "gentilic plural" for its prominent use in ethnonyms (יהודיא
5156:
4899:
4780:
4682:
4673:
4553:
The so-called "emphatic" consonants (see the next section) cause all vowels to become mid-centralised.
4396:
4342:
4068:Ḵaḏ eṯileḏ mōro Yesūs b-Beṯlḥem d-Yuḏō b-yawmay d-Herodes malkō w-hō mġušōya min maḏnḥō eṯaw l-Irušlem.
4006:, verses 1–4, in Classical Syriac (Eastern accent), Christian Palestinian Aramaic and Suret (Swadaya):
3988:
3582:
3555:
3549:
3537:
3082:
1197:
1055:
442:
392:
342:
13646:
11951:
3117:, Damascene Aramaic was spoken (deduced mostly from Modern Western Aramaic). Finally, as far north as
2087:
made Aramaic the Empire's second official language, and it eventually supplanted Akkadian completely.
1346:
phenomena was created, becoming a subject of interest both among ancient writers and modern scholars.
1213:
14501:
14316:
12896:
12187:
12165:
12149:
11898:
11878:
11843:
11055:"From Lingua Franca to Endangered Language: The Legal Aspects of the Preservation of Aramaic in Iraq"
11006:
10351:"New Light on Linguistic Diversity in Pre-Achaemenid Aramaic: Wandering Arameans or Language Spread?"
8492:
4852:
4808:
4430:
4418:
4412:
4410:
4394:
4350:
3724:
3716:
3463:
3249:
3199:
3062:
2901:
2817:
2691:
1959:
582:
382:
217:
212:
132:
11320:
Controlling Contested Places: Late Antique Antioch and the Spatial Politics of Religious Controversy
7947:
6476:
6332:
5415:. The root generally consists of two or three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, כת״ב
2615:
close resemblance to that of the Achaemenid period, continued to be used up to the 2nd century BCE.
1954:, though they have become distinct enough over time that they are now sometimes considered separate
1289:(foreign in origin) names. Native (endonymic) terms for Aramaic language were derived from the same
14456:
14098:
13922:
13460:
13211:
12659:
12282:
9247:
8967:
Arman Akopian (11 December 2017). "Other branches of Syriac Christianity: Melkites and Maronites".
7344:
6012:
means "he slew". The precise relationship in meaning between the two stems differs for every verb.
5408:
4705:
4284:
4121:, verse 16, in Classical Syriac (Eastern accent), Western Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo and Suret (Swadaya):
3803:
3732:
2999:
2988:
1059:
1016:
525:
31:
13119:
6577:
4134:
Then the eleven disciples went away into Galilee, into a mountain where Jesus had appointed them.
3406:
Syriac Aramaic (also "Classical Syriac") is the literary, liturgical and often spoken language of
14766:
14699:
14593:
14446:
14364:
14359:
14011:
13545:
13533:
13406:
13305:
12701:
12638:
12462:
11848:
10686:
10672:
7906:
7556:
5815:, or verbal stems, to mark intensive and extensive developments in the lexical meaning of verbs.
5812:
5491:
4845:
4737:
4728:
4698:
4581:
3889:
3825:
2992:
1075:
11750:
The Aramaic Language and Its Classification – Efrem Yildiz, Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies
9375:
4360:
As with most Semitic languages, Aramaic can be thought of as having three basic sets of vowels:
2630:
texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major
866:(911–605 BC), under whose influence Aramaic became a prestige language after being adopted as a
14797:
14649:
14408:
13766:
13378:
13180:
13174:
13082:
with various additional/alternate self-identifications, such as Syriacs, Arameans, or Chaldeans
12024:
11861:
11838:
11833:
11226:"The Language of Creation or the Primordial Language: A Case of Cultural Polemics in Antiquity"
10541:"Arameans and Aramaic in Transition – Western Influences and the Roots of Aramean Christianity"
6312:
5745:
For example, the various forms of possessive phrases (for "the handwriting of the queen") are:
4863:
4195:
3972:
3776:
3513:
3431:
3114:
3039:
2344:
2155:
1995:
1929:
1497:
1157:
1067:
1063:
127:
13282:
12419:
11278:
A Jewish Neo-Aramaic Dictionary: Dialects of Amidya, Dihok, Nerwa and Zakho, Northwestern Iraq
10851:
9892:
9706:
9295:"Assyrians, Syrians and the Greek Language in the late Hellenistic and Roman Imperial Periods"
7686:
7420:
Hilliger first saw clearly the relation of the so-called Chaldee, Syriac, and Samaritan (1679)
7365:
4040:Ḵaḏ dēyn eṯīleḏ Īšōʕ b-Ḇēṯlḥem d-Īhūḏā b-yawmay Herodes malkā eṯaw mġōšē min maḏnḥā l-Ōrešlem.
3924:
991:
bureaucracy also used Aramaic, and this practice was subsequently inherited by the succeeding
412:
14466:
13390:
13366:
13026:
12598:
12271:
11937:
11923:
9009:
8053:
7639:
6910:
6334:
5290:
5245:
5132:
4928:
4642:
4633:
3710:
3699:
3229:
2014:
1201:
1189:
1188:. Although it was first published in 1704, it was not identified as Aramaic until 1821, when
1113:
992:
654:
627:
117:
10408:
4110:
W-qraeleh kuleh gurane d-kahne w-sapre d-ʔamma w-buqrehmennay eyka bit paiš va iliḏe mšikha.
3046:
as their first language, though many learned Hebrew as a liturgical language. Additionally,
1578:, although the language is dying out. However, Aramaic is also experiencing a revival among
1176:
14684:
14644:
14123:
13973:
13959:
13907:
13882:
13872:
13862:
13857:
13852:
13616:
13310:
12953:
12664:
12002:
10828:
9091:
The Christian Palestinian Aramaic Old Testament and Apocrypha Version from the Early Period
5602:
5310:
4748:
4601:
4231:
3658:
3363:
1500:
in the late seventh century, Arabic gradually replaced Aramaic as the lingua franca of the
1032:
942:
13141:
9635:"Christian Aramaism: The Birth and Growth of Aramaic Scholarship in the Sixteenth Century"
9569:
3183:(Ραββουνει), which means "my master/great one/teacher" in both languages. Other examples:
8:
14771:
14679:
14654:
14461:
14436:
14048:
13932:
13902:
13897:
13892:
13877:
13795:
13557:
13466:
13384:
13372:
13320:
13315:
13155:
13135:
13094:
12967:
12605:
12548:
12476:
12437:
12413:
12258:
12073:
12034:
10634:"The Septuagint as a Source of Information on Egyptian Aramaic in the Hellenistic Period"
10240:(1995). "Aramaic and the Jews". In Geller, M.C.; Greenfield, J.C.; Weizman, M.P. (eds.).
10237:
10211:
6511:
Untersuchungen zum Spracherwerb zweisprachiger Kinder im Aramäerdorf Dschubbadin (Syrien)
6248:
5832:
4952:
4760:
4149:
4044:
W-Āmrīn: Aykaw malkā d-īhūḏāyē d-eṯīleḏ? Ḥzayn gēr kawkḇēh b-maḏnḥā w-eṯayn l-mesgaḏ lēh.
4024:
When Herod the king had heard these things, he was troubled, and all Jerusalem with him.
3956:
3950:
3916:
3799:
3728:
3533:
3447:
3407:
2908:
2844:
2603:
2586:
2527:
2146:
2084:
2076:
2072:
2010:
1991:
1648:
1607:
1600:
1579:
1250:, the earliest extant full copy of the Hebrew Bible, a Greek translation, used the terms
1153:
1079:
1047:
988:
863:
748:
725:
709:
689:
634:
502:
271:
247:
5583:
1739:
Most commonly used types of periodization are those of Klaus Beyer and Joseph Fitzmyer.
838:
valley. By around 1000 BC, the Arameans had a string of kingdoms in what is now part of
14761:
14730:
14629:
14476:
14393:
13947:
13867:
13788:
13761:
13478:
13104:
11092:
10971:
10762:. Cambridge: The British School of Archaeology in Iraq. pp. 95–114. Archived from
10710:
10562:
10145:
10073:
10065:
9973:
9961:
9937:
9879:
9794:. Cambridge: The British School of Archaeology in Iraq. pp. 115–22. Archived from
9585:
9565:
9553:
9529:
9494:
9486:
9322:
9314:
9238:
9234:
8704:
8341:
7926:
7751:
7500:
7411:
6679:. In Brock, Sebastian P.; Butts, Aaron M.; Kiraz, George A.; Van Rompay, Lucas (eds.).
6206:
5836:
5796:
5792:
5788:
5515:
5348:
4619:
4576:
3980:
3934:
3787:
3748:
3654:
2840:
2706:, and they also show a clear linguistic diversity between eastern and western regions.
2703:
2590:
2412:
1866:
1687:
1679:
1655:
adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the
1493:
1271:
756:
12791:
12669:
11776:
11124:
11104:
11076:
9253:
A Compendious Syriac Dictionary: Founded Upon the Thesaurus Syriacus of R. Payne Smith
6001:פע״ל P-‘-L, meaning "to do". This stem carries the basic lexical meaning of the verb.
3862:, and Mandaeans, with mutually unintelligible variations within each of these groups.
1469:). The influx eventually resulted in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) adopting an
517:
14751:
14608:
14603:
14588:
14523:
14441:
14398:
14118:
14113:
13942:
13912:
13739:
13690:
13676:
13527:
13330:
12939:
12733:
12612:
12485:
12246:
12204:
12078:
11871:
11819:
11722:
11701:
11680:
11657:
11634:
11613:
11564:
11543:
11520:
11497:
11476:
11444:
11421:
11398:
11377:
11356:
11324:
11303:
11282:
11258:
11251:"Hebrew versus Aramaic as Jesus' Language: Notes on Early Opinions by Syriac Authors"
11210:
11186:
11147:
11062:
11039:
11016:
10992:
10975:
10933:
10909:
10885:
10859:
10793:
10734:
10641:
10618:
10595:
10572:
10548:
10525:
10502:
10452:
10414:
10393:
10370:
10335:
10314:
10291:
10268:
10245:
10223:
10197:
10178:
10155:
10077:
10027:
10004:
9983:
9923:
9900:
9841:
9769:
9748:
9714:
9691:
9668:
9612:
9515:
9498:
9451:
9427:
9406:
9343:
9326:
9279:
9224:
9094:
9015:
8972:
8944:
8905:
8817:
8671:
8644:
8617:
8583:
8435:
8371:
8190:
8058:
7691:
7645:
7477:
7445:
7371:
7219:
6949:
6926:
6916:
6684:
6643:
6605:
6583:
6559:
6537:
6515:
6490:
6458:
6412:
6380:
6342:
6292:
6282:
5828:
5824:
5800:
5555:
5352:
5076:
4831:
4794:
4721:
4689:
4606:
4586:
4235:
3992:
3878:
3877:
influences. These varieties are not purely the direct descendants of the language of
3874:
3588:
3525:
3423:
3233:
3164:
3058:
2967:
2920:
2797:
2750:
2671:
2578:
2511:
2493:
2385:
2365:
2337:
2046:
2034:
2018:
1937:
1595:
1575:
1527:
1509:
1470:
1320:
1129:
1020:
996:
977:
949:
938:
923:
887:
799:
795:
685:
171:
122:
11718:
A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities
9838:
Humanism, Culture, and Language in the Near East: Studies in Honor of Georg Krotkoff
7438:. Sumtibus hæred. D. Tobiæ Mevii & Elerti Schumacheri, per Matthæum Henckelium.
7382:
The earliest of the Aramaic finds known to us is the so-called "Carpentras stele"...
6972:
5989:, to extend the lexical coverage of verbs. The basic form of the verb is called the
4082:
W-ḵaneš ḵulhun rišay koḥnōya w-soprawi d-qahlo wa-hwo mšayel lhun hōn mšiḥō meṯileḏ.
2585:
334–330 BC), and its replacement with the newly created political order, imposed by
2488:
Biblical Aramaic presented various challenges for writers who were engaged in early
14664:
14659:
14563:
14558:
14553:
14543:
14538:
14528:
14344:
14201:
14186:
14170:
14165:
14160:
14138:
13887:
13472:
13325:
13297:
13203:
13166:
13019:
12974:
12960:
12770:
12721:
12684:
12589:
12575:
12541:
12511:
12492:
12457:
12223:
12197:
12171:
12131:
12124:
12064:
12047:
12019:
11995:
11887:
11237:
11140:"Language Variation, Language Development, and the Textual History of the Peshitta"
10963:
10702:
10355:
Wandering Arameans: Arameans Outside Syria: Textual and Archaeological Perspectives
10057:
9953:
9871:
9829:
9604:
9545:
9478:
9387:
9306:
8696:
8333:
7918:
7469:
7403:
7307:
7209:
6631:
6509:
6482:
6277:
6234:
5804:
5587:
5362:
4596:
4571:
4566:
4542:). These were originally full diphthongs, but many dialects have converted them to
4243:
4239:
4054:
W-ḵanneš ḵulhōn rabbay kāhnē w-sāprē d-ʕammā wa-mšayel-wālhōn d-aykā meṯīleḏ mšīḥā.
4033:
3984:
3604:
3575:
3494:
3489:
3477:
3435:
3379:
3287:
3253:
3241:
3237:
3124:
The three languages, especially Hebrew and Aramaic, influenced one another through
2885:
2829:
2826:
2808:. Like Nabataean, Palmyrene was influenced by Arabic, but to a much lesser degree.
2778:
2662:), much like the symbol '&' is read as "and" in English and the original Latin
2547:
2489:
2449:
2422:
2380:
2373:
2137:
2132:
2115:
2052:
1799:
1668:
1660:
1642:
1221:
1181:
1091:
1039:
1028:
1000:
973:
953:
788:
721:
713:
701:
697:
332:
322:
302:
275:
252:
222:
186:
80:
13825:
10947:
10873:
9027:
Therefore, unlike Syriac where "Jesus" is spelled īšū', in CPA it is spelled īsūs.
7311:
7280:
4476:(like the vowel in "need", ). It has a slightly more open counterpart, the "long"
3038:
It is generally believed by Christian scholars that in the first century, Jews in
1208:("Images and Inscriptions of the Past"), in which he established the basis of the
14598:
14573:
14568:
14548:
14496:
14486:
14481:
14471:
14451:
14421:
14373:
14369:
14339:
13815:
13640:
13430:
13424:
13287:
13262:
13242:
13069:
12987:
12891:
12865:
12814:
12679:
12619:
12527:
12520:
12504:
12498:
12425:
12176:
12052:
12042:
11783:
11756:
11716:
11695:
11672:
11649:
11628:
11605:
11558:
11535:
11512:
11491:
11470:
11436:
11413:
11392:
11371:
11350:
11339:
11318:
11297:
11276:
11250:
11204:
11200:
11169:
11139:
11128:
11108:
11054:
11031:
11010:
10984:
10927:
10903:
10877:
10824:
10809:"Stammbaum or Continuum? The Subgrouping of Modern Aramaic Dialects Reconsidered"
10785:
10726:
10676:
10633:
10610:
10587:
10566:
10540:
10517:
10494:
10446:
10385:
10329:
10306:
10283:
10260:
10215:
10170:
10149:
10115:
10085:
10041:
10019:
9998:
9977:
9915:
9855:
9833:
9763:
9742:
9683:
9660:
9507:
9445:
9421:
9358:
9335:
9273:
9251:
8577:
8298:
8051:
Kutscher, Eduard (2007). "Aramaic". In Berenbaum, Michael; Skolnik, Fred (eds.).
7433:
7348:
7332:
6287:
6272:
6267:
6081:
5860:
5808:
5395:
5298:
5233:
5080:
4918:
4627:
4591:
4493:
4292:
4227:
4162:
4072:Ōmrin: Hōn hū deyn d-eṯileḏ? Ḥmaynan ger kawkḇeh b-maḏnḥō w-eṯaynan d-nesguḏ leh.
3882:
3866:
3855:
3792:
3752:
3744:
3667:
3662:
3574:
Hebrew (left) and Aramaic (right) in parallel in a 1299 Hebrew Bible held by the
3529:
3387:
3337:
3333:
3330:
3320:
3295:
3043:
2848:
2805:
2786:
2770:
2723:
2683:
2675:
2623:
2599:
2501:
2500:
was named as "Chaldean" (Chaldaic, Chaldee). That label remained common in early
2478:
2417:
2389:
2259:
2003:
1963:
1782:
1695:
1664:
1656:
1635:
1403:
1298:
1149:
1121:
1071:
1043:
1012:
760:
741:
737:
729:
693:
658:
623:
611:
555:
482:
312:
261:
243:
109:
92:
56:
11459:
9634:
5519:
state is a form of the noun used to make possessive constructions (for example,
3869:
in northern Iraq, northeast Syria, southeast Turkey, northwest Iran, and in the
3763:, escaped the linguistic pressures experienced by others during the large-scale
2009:
The central phase in the development of Old Aramaic was its official use by the
1630:
1274:. This connection between the names Syrian and Aramaic was discussed in 1835 by
14578:
14036:
13695:
13622:
13598:
13486:
13257:
13252:
12947:
12901:
12871:
12848:
12842:
12726:
12674:
12555:
12329:
12158:
9608:
8359:
7560:
6635:
6210:
6069:
5717:, 'the Jews', for example). This alternative plural is written with the letter
4948:
4660:
4313:
3909:
3764:
3740:
3675:
3343:
3245:
3129:
2946:
2719:
2687:
2667:
2650:
2607:
2595:
2472:
2466:
1971:
1880:
1841:
1813:
1770:
1756:
1331:
1259:
1225:
1165:
1164:. They have retained use of the once-dominant lingua franca despite subsequent
1145:
1117:
1024:
961:
956:
during his public ministry, as well as the language of several sections of the
619:
603:
462:
236:
100:
11771:
10967:
10000:
The Aramaic Language in the Achaemenid Period: A Study in Linguistic Variation
9318:
9294:
7473:
6930:
972:, the Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible. It is also the language of the
14832:
14378:
14226:
14133:
13539:
13146:
13124:
12881:
12876:
12786:
12533:
12058:
11241:
10781:
10748:
10722:
10661:
Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies
9656:
9549:
9441:
9116:
The Christian Palestinian Aramaic New Testament Version from the Early Period
8057:. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 342.
7325:
7223:
6073:
5531:
4766:
4666:
3204:
3203:
used Aramaic for much of its dialogue, specially reconstructed by a scholar,
3160:
2924:
2543:
2223:
2184:
2160:
1999:
1727:
1364:
1335:
1327:
1306:
1004:
867:
176:
13805:
11972:
11373:
A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic of the Talmudic and Geonic Periods
10951:
9392:
4179:
Ina talmiḏe khadissar azzillun l-Glila l-ṭūra eyka d-bit khwaʔda ʔammeh Išo.
2753:
was the written language of the Arab kingdom of Nabataea, whose capital was
1421:
14383:
14196:
14128:
13563:
12807:
11165:
10134:
10104:
6016:
5998:
5986:
5844:
5412:
5189:
5110:
4712:
4503:(like the vowel in "school", ). It has a more open counterpart, the "long"
4462:
3964:
3859:
3760:
3628:
3620:
3540:). Of these four, only Jewish Palestinian continued as a written language.
3443:
2762:
2566:
2460:
2249:
2064:
1894:
1827:
1703:
1229:
1209:
1125:
965:
957:
891:
768:
674:
666:
646:
11584:
Arabic and Semitic Linguistics Contextualized: A Festschrift for Jan Retsö
10362:
9860:"The Aramaic of Daniel in the Light of Old Aramaic, by Zdravko Stefanovic"
7773:
6570:
Die Kontakte zwischen den drei Aramäer-dörfern sind nicht besonders stark.
6486:
6076:. However, as with other stems, actual meaning differs from verb to verb.
5361:
is the main distinctive feature of Samaritan pronunciation, also found in
3570:
3061:
and Babylonian, there were a number of colloquial Aramaic dialects. Seven
2855:, East Mesopotamian Aramaic flourished, with evidence from the regions of
1297:. Endonymic forms were also adopted in some other languages, like ancient
497:
487:
477:
467:
457:
447:
437:
427:
417:
407:
397:
387:
377:
367:
357:
347:
337:
327:
317:
307:
297:
14802:
14792:
14583:
14515:
14388:
14276:
14090:
13810:
13448:
13442:
13079:
12432:
12117:
11749:
10878:"Remarks on the Aramaic of Upper Mesopotamia in the Seventh Century B.C."
10856:
The Challenge of Bible Translation: Communicating God's Word to the World
10331:
A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam
10020:"Imperial Aramaic as an Administrative Language of the Achaemenid Period"
9405:(Second ed.). Oxford-New York: Oxford University Press. p. 64.
9222:
is less common in classical texts, but may be found (for example) in the
7589:
7576:
6912:
A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam
6676:
6045:
6044:
sound in later Old Aramaic. This is noted by the respelling of the older
5694:
5276:
Six broad features of sound change can be seen as dialect differentials:
4880:
4271:
4259:
3955:
Very little remains of Western Aramaic. Its only remaining vernacular is
3938:
3807:
3768:
3736:
3086:
3047:
2870:
2555:
2522:
2421:, a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical
2408:
2254:
2208:
2165:
2022:
1945:
1908:
1856:
1789:
1746:
1350:
1107:
1095:
875:
855:
607:
432:
422:
181:
88:
11096:
11080:
10222:. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 698–713.
9557:
9533:
8727:
8708:
7040:
6409:
The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East
4105:
Iman d-šmayeleh Herodes malka aha pišleh šġhiše w-kulaha Orešlim ʔammeh.
2395:
One of the largest collections of Imperial Aramaic texts is that of the
1924:
1574:. In modern Israel, the only native Aramaic-speaking population are the
1449:, the native speakers of Aramaic, began to settle in greater numbers in
14334:
14329:
13776:
13771:
13569:
11979:
11930:
11272:
11161:
9965:
9941:
9883:
9859:
9376:"Aramaic as a Lingua Franca During the Persian Empire (538–333 B.C.E.)"
9178:
9154:
8345:
7214:
7197:
6202:
5848:
5579:
5177:
4336:
4264:
4118:
3897:
3846:
3559:
3510:
3438:. Missionary activity led to the spread of Syriac from Mesopotamia and
3398:
3306:
2698:
2611:
2475:– a single sentence in the middle of a Hebrew text denouncing idolatry.
2400:
2299:
2294:
2170:
1571:
1513:
1310:
1270:; numerous later bibles followed the Septuagint's usage, including the
1247:
1243:
1133:
1103:
883:
576:
14059:
11610:
Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word
10714:
10690:
10657:"The Aramaic Background of the Seventy: Language, Culture and History"
10545:
Research on Israel and Aram: Autonomy, Independence and Related Issues
10069:
10045:
9490:
9466:
7930:
7822:
7415:
5554:
state is an extended form of the noun that functions similarly to the
4461:
are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters א "alaph" (a
4156:
Bes aḥḥadaʕsar tilmit̲ zallun l-Galila l-ṭūra ti amerlun maʕleh Yešūʕ.
894:
under Assyrian rule. At its height, Aramaic was spoken in what is now
14639:
14324:
14211:
14148:
13996:
13830:
13710:
13551:
13492:
11944:
11656:. Vol. 1. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. pp. 237–51.
11059:
On the Margins of Nations: Endangered Languages and Linguistic Rights
9765:
An Aramaic Approach to Q: Sources for the Gospels of Matthew and Luke
8700:
7367:
Using Ostraca in the Ancient World: New Discoveries and Methodologies
5840:
5730:
5294:
5068:
4523:
4488:
in some dialects. The close front vowels usually use the consonant י
4003:
3930:
3920:
3756:
3703:
3694:
3596:
3498:
3106:
3070:
2889:
2659:
2619:
2289:
2284:
2213:
2203:
2080:
1967:
1933:
1732:
1672:
1615:
1551:
1501:
1450:
1363:) has been translated as "Aramaic" in some versions of the Christian
1290:
1282:
1141:
1137:
1099:
934:, having gradually replaced several other related Semitic languages.
764:
733:
678:
662:
510:
288:
256:
11788:
11592:
11579:
11225:
10808:
10656:
10350:
10151:
Hebrew Scripture in Patristic Biblical Theory: Canon, Language, Text
9957:
9875:
9729:
8869:
8337:
8305:. Vol. 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 251–52
6457:(in German). Carl Hanser Verlag GmbH & Company KG. p. 151.
4169:
Wa-ḥḏaḥsar talmiḏe azzinnewa lu Ġlilo lu ṭūro ayko d-moʕadleh Yešūʕ.
2977:
1994:
language is spoken by small Christian and Muslim communities in the
1377:
is consistently used in Koine Greek at this time to mean Hebrew and
14776:
14431:
14354:
14349:
14256:
14241:
14236:
14191:
13781:
13754:
13727:
13715:
13700:
13454:
13401:
12582:
11986:
11958:
10706:
10588:"Old Aramaic and Neo-Aramaic: Some Reflections on Language History"
10061:
9482:
9310:
9229:
8370:] (in German). Boston: Adamant Media Corporation. p. 249.
7922:
7559:, 1.144: "Aram had the Aramites, which the Greeks called Syrians" (
7407:
6683:(Electronic Edition, Beth Mardutho, 2018 ed.). Gorgias Press.
6553:
6531:
6297:
6262:
6228:
5764:– both words are in the emphatic state and the relative particle --
5344:
5196:
4205:
4143:
Talmīḏē dēyn ḥḏaʕesre āzalū l-Glīlā l-ṭūrā aykā d-waʕad ennūn Īšōʕ.
3976:
3960:
3419:
3125:
3110:
3074:
2955:
2941:
2874:
2551:
2369:
2193:
2123:
2056:
1955:
1543:
1539:
1482:
1478:
1446:
1430:
1343:
1294:
1286:
1246:) both stated that the "Syrians" called themselves "Arameans". The
1235:
1008:
931:
827:
717:
642:
551:
42:
13038:
12716:
11606:"Bilingualism and Diglossia in Late Antique Syria and Mesopotamia"
11352:
A Dictionary of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic of the Byzantine Period
9113:
8434:. Studies in the Khalili Collection. Oxford: Khalili Collections.
8012:"The last of the Aramaic speakers", Miriam Shaviv, 14 July 2013,
7513:
5811:(active, reflexive, or passive). Aramaic also employs a system of
4445:. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long
3472:(which was completed in the seventh century) and of post-Talmudic
2800:
is the dialect that was in use in the multicultural city state of
1367:, as Aramaic was at that time the language commonly spoken by the
14261:
14251:
14216:
14206:
14043:
13436:
13358:
12765:
11965:
11697:
Grammar for Gemara and Targum Onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic
10854:. In Scorgie, Glen G.; Strauss, Mark L.; Voth, Steven M. (eds.).
7948:
https://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/countries/centralassyria/
7441:
6242:
3975:, as well as by some people who migrated from these villages, to
3686:, a transliteration of the Greek form, in Christian Palestinian.
3646:
3612:
3600:
3411:
3225:
3078:
3057:
In addition to the formal, literary dialects of Aramaic based on
2801:
2782:
2730:
2639:
2635:
2433:
2279:
2103:
1951:
1691:
1547:
1505:
1462:
1454:
1102:. Syriac was also the liturgical language of several now-extinct
903:
871:
843:
670:
540:
265:
38:
11761:
9707:"Hebraisti in Ancient Texts: Does ἑβραϊστί Ever Mean 'Aramaic'?"
9534:"A Fragment of the Acta Pilati in Christian Palestinian Aramaic"
2534:
1998:, and closely related western varieties of Aramaic persisted in
626:, where it has been continually written and spoken in different
14281:
14231:
14153:
14016:
13820:
13749:
13722:
13705:
12993:
11907:
11765:
11061:. Bath: Foundation for Endangered Languages. pp. 197–203.
9032:
6395:
who naturally looked to their co-linguists back in Mesopotamia.
6257:
6214:
5856:
5852:
3904:
are not all mutually intelligible. In some places, for example
3893:
3720:
3671:
3616:
3608:
3473:
3469:
3415:
3118:
2937:
2933:
2866:
2852:
2715:
2631:
2627:
2570:
2438:
2274:
2264:
2218:
2198:
2099:
2091:
2026:
1987:
1652:
1611:
1563:
1535:
1517:
1434:
1411:
1388:
1323:
invasions of Babylonia during the period from 1200 to 1000 BC.
1262:, the earliest extant Hebrew copy of the Bible, uses the terms
1239:
1083:
969:
919:
915:
911:
907:
879:
851:
847:
835:
831:
830:, a Semitic-speaking people of the region between the northern
705:
84:
10495:"Variety in Early Syriac: The Context in Contemporary Aramaic"
8989:
8026:"Aramaic Israelis seek to revive endangered language of Jesus"
7347:(1821). "Semitische Paläographie: Aramäische ältere Schrift".
4389:
The open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel ("short"
1718:
1212:
development of the Northwest Semitic scripts. Kopp criticised
593:
68:
14634:
14271:
14266:
14246:
13744:
13732:
13628:
8582:. Translated by Azodi, Azizeh. I.B. Taurus. pp. 118–20.
7972:
7970:
7968:
7887:
7565:Ἀραμαίους δὲ Ἄραμος ἔσχεν, οὓς Ἕλληνες Σύρους προσαγορεύουσιν
6049:
5718:
5690:
5309:
instead, like Arabic; other dialects (for instance, standard
4089:
3968:
3905:
3901:
3772:
3451:
3325:
3102:
3066:
3051:
2860:
2856:
2774:
2766:
2754:
2497:
2453:
2404:
2309:
2244:
2228:
2175:
2095:
2030:
1979:
1683:
1567:
1559:
1555:
1486:
1474:
1466:
1458:
1438:
1415:
1378:
1372:
1354:
1339:
1302:
1161:
1087:
1042:
by certain religious communities. Most notable among them is
981:
899:
839:
826:
Historically and originally, Aramaic was the language of the
650:
8921:
8881:
8732:
8730:
8533:
8497:
7357:
6337:; Saif Shaheen Al-Murikhi; Haya Al Thani (9 December 2014).
5329:, as with Modern Hebrew. In most dialects of Modern Syriac,
3148:"seen" borrowed the sense "worthy, seemly" from the Aramaic
2670:, whose government used Greek but whose native language was
14221:
10171:"Lost and Found in the Grammar of First-Millennium Aramaic"
9056:
8521:
8278:
8208:
8206:
7863:
7239:
7237:
7235:
7233:
7128:
7126:
6808:
6806:
6804:
5726:
3650:
3506:
3502:
3439:
3098:
3092:
2269:
2060:
1983:
1975:
1583:
1526:
The turbulence of the last two centuries (particularly the
1368:
927:
895:
859:
10261:"Aramaic in the Parthian Period: The Arsacid Inscriptions"
9129:
8509:
8411:
8266:
7982:
7965:
7525:
7249:
6842:
6474:
5985:
Like other Semitic languages, Aramaic employs a number of
3163:
preserves some semiticisms, including transliterations of
2822:
2761:
200 BC – 106 AD) controlled the region to the east of the
11209:(7th expanded ed.). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
10852:"Translating John's Gospel: Challenges and Opportunities"
9942:"The Aramaic Language and the Study of the New Testament"
9824:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 108–44.
9363:
Bulletin of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies
8857:
8715:
8545:
8119:
8071:
7607:
6890:
6556:
Arabisch-aramäische Sprachbeziehungen im Qalamūn (Syrien)
6534:
Arabisch-aramäische Sprachbeziehungen im Qalamūn (Syrien)
5689:
in a number of these suffixes is written with the letter
4393:, somewhat like the first vowel in the English "batter",
4128:
4049:Šmaʕ dēyn Herodes malkā w-ettzīʕ w-ḵullāh Ōrešlem ʕammēh.
4013:
3592:
3558:
is earliest attested by the documentary tradition of the
3410:. It originated by the first century AD in the region of
3224:
The dialects of Old Eastern Aramaic continued in ancient
2666:
is now no longer obvious. Under the early 3rd-century BC
2561:
2304:
1285:(native) names, and the other one represented by various
10194:
The City of the Moon God: Religious Traditions of Harran
8474:
8364:
Grundriss der iranischen Philologie: Band I. Abteilung 1
8203:
7994:
7953:
7619:
7595:
7230:
7123:
7111:
7087:
7051:
6878:
6801:
6791:
6789:
6433:
6431:
3179:, and others may be either Hebrew or Aramaic like רבוני
11133:(1st English ed.). London: Williams & Norgate.
11085:
Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft
11015:. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten.
10905:
The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion
10727:"Language Contact between Aramaic Dialects and Iranian"
9688:
The Language Environment of First Century Judaea Vol. 2
9423:
The Aramaic Language: Its Distribution and Subdivisions
9044:
8368:
Outline of the Iranian Philology: Volume 1. Division 1.
8242:
8131:
8095:
8083:
7431:
7063:
6996:
6994:
6866:
6830:
6700:
6599:
6575:
6365:
Huehnergard, J., "What is Aramaic?." Aram 7 (1995): 281
5693:. However, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the letter
5411:(the way words are formed) is based on the consonantal
4226:
the inventories of surrounding languages, particularly
4077:
W-ḵaḏ šmaʕ malkō Herodes eṯʕabaḇ w-ḵuloh Irušlem ʕameh.
3995:, are preserved only in liturgical and literary usage.
3631:
are either in Middle East Jordanian or Middle Judaean.
3193:"Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?" (?אלי, אלי, למה שבקתני)
3042:
primarily spoke Aramaic with a decreasing number using
10956:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
10617:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 697–707.
10313:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 598–609.
9213:
8230:
7791:
7177:
7165:
7143:
7141:
7006:
6818:
6762:
6681:
Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage
6213:), allowing for narrative that is more vivid. Aramaic
5807:(indicative, imperative, jussive, or infinitive), and
3173:
3150:
3134:
3090:
2923:. This is the dialect of the oldest manuscript of the
2452:
is the Aramaic found in four discrete sections of the
1667:. A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the
62:
11679:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 747–55.
11612:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 298–331.
11542:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 619–28.
11519:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 416–24.
11443:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 660–70.
11420:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 610–19.
10991:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 628–37.
10792:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 708–24.
10733:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 738–47.
10524:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 637–52.
10410:
Discovering the Language of Jesus: Hebrew Or Aramaic?
10392:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 725–37.
10290:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 574–86.
10026:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 587–98.
9922:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 555–73.
9899:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 499–514.
9667:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 670–85.
9514:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 652–59.
9342:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 685–96.
8693:
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
7803:
7453:
7099:
7075:
7023:
7021:
6948:. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans. p. 72.
6786:
6478:
Grammatical Borrowing in Cross-Linguistic Perspective
6428:
5083:. Using their alphabetic names, these emphatics are:
3121:, the western dialect of Orontes Aramaic was spoken.
2504:, and persisted up into the nineteenth century. The "
1338:
itself emerged as a variant of Assyria, the biblical
11341:
Arameans, Aramaic and the Aramaic Literary Tradition
10244:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–18.
9834:"A Preliminary List of Aramaic Loanwords in Kurdish"
9711:
The Language Environment of 1st Century Judea Vol. 2
9401:
Berlin, Adele; et al., eds. (2011). "Aramaic".
9232:(ed. Cureton) p. 4 (Syriac pagination) line 10. See
8557:
8254:
7823:"Strong's Hebrew: 804. אַשּׁוּר (Ashshuwr) – Asshur"
7537:
6991:
6224:
4204:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
2055:. It was the language of the Aramean city-states of
2037:
and the development of differing written standards.
1792:, from the earliest records, to regional prominence
1445:
During the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires,
225:
11146:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 231–56.
11038:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 335–52.
10929:
Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar
10640:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 93–105.
10501:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 221–29.
10267:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 107–30.
9822:
The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia
8218:
7370:. Materiale Textkulturen. De Gruyter. p. 147.
7297:
7261:
7153:
7138:
6854:
6407:Raheb, Mitri; Lamport, Mark A. (15 December 2020).
5729:. In Syriac and some other variants this ending is
5570:
extraordinarily rare in later varieties of Aramaic.
5464:Aramaic nouns and adjectives are inflected to show
5109:ע ʽAyin (or ʽE in some dialects), a pharyngealized
3959:, which is still spoken in the Aramean villages of
3615:(biblical commentaries and teaching). The standard
3524:The dialects of Old Western Aramaic continued with
2961:
2682:, "of the Parthians") for that writing system. The
1050:. It is used by several communities, including the
11586:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 554–68.
11029:
11005:
10884:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 77–92.
10177:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 11–25.
9038:
8843:"The place of Syriac among the Aramaic dialects 2"
8152:"Panammuwa and Bar-Rakib: Two Structural Analyses"
7018:
6774:
6339:The Syriac Writers of Qatar in the Seventh Century
4515:. The close back vowels often use the consonant ו
2892:, was descended from the Arsacid chancery script.
2869:(or Syrian), the author of the gospel harmony the
2718:is the later post-Achaemenid dialect found in the
1293:as the name of its original speakers, the ancient
11599:. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. pp. 100–09.
11472:The Aramaic of Daniel in the Light of Old Aramaic
11174:. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht's Verlag.
10594:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 1–10.
10357:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 19–38.
9505:
9088:
8875:
8107:
7875:
7505:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
5369:in all words (the third person masculine pronoun
2736:
1589:
1216:and other scholars who had characterized all the
728:, and the most prominent alphabet variant is the
14830:
11777:Jewish Language Research Website: Jewish Aramaic
11677:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
11540:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
11517:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
11441:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
11418:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
11255:The Language Environment of First Century Judaea
11144:Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting
11036:Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting
10989:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10882:Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting
10790:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10731:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10638:Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting
10615:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10592:Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting
10522:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10499:Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting
10390:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10311:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10288:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10265:Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting
10175:Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting
10024:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
9920:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
9665:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
9512:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
9508:"Syriac as the Language of Eastern Christianity"
9340:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
8393:"What are the Persepolis Fortification Tablets?"
6640:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
6630:
5067:are written with the same letter), and are near
4218:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
3634:
1186:ancient inscription ever identified as "Aramaic"
778:date from 11th century BC, placing it among the
688:, which also includes the mutually intelligible
10242:Studia Aramaica: New Sources and New Approaches
9007:
8840:
7363:
6642:. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 259–278.
6507:
5980:
5900:כתבו ↔ כתב(ו)\כתבון kəṯaḇû ↔ kəṯaḇ(w)/kəṯabbûn
5558:. It is marked with a suffix (for example, כתבת
1647:The earliest Aramaic alphabet was based on the
11081:"Die Namen der aramäischen Nation und Sprache"
10367:Aramaic. A History of the First World Language
9840:. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. pp. 283–300.
9709:. In Buth, Randall; Notley, R. Steven (eds.).
9686:. In Buth, Randall; Notley, R. Steven (eds.).
9179:"Strong's Hebrew: 1722. דְּהַב (dehab) – gold"
9076:"The Village of Bakh'a in Qalamoun: Interview"
9001:
6943:
6554:Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold; P. Behnstedt (1993).
6532:Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold; P. Behnstedt (1993).
5917:כתבת ↔ כתב(י)\כתבן kəṯaḇâ ↔ kəṯaḇ(y)/kəṯabbên
5705:. The masculine determined plural suffix, יא-
5398:has been adapted for writing these new sounds.
3426:. Classical Syriac became the language of the
1156:(~3,000) persists in only two villages in the
1038:Some variants of Aramaic are also retained as
684:Aramaic belongs to the Northwest group of the
14075:
13054:
11804:
11461:A dictionary of Christian Palestinian Aramaic
9979:A Wandering Aramean: Collected Aramaic Essays
9644:. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. pp. 421–36.
9155:"Strong's Hebrew: 2091. זָהָב (zahab) – gold"
8966:
6908:
6185:התהפעל\אתּפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al/Ettap̄‘al (Ct-stem)
4401:). It usually has a back counterpart ("long"
3937:of Iran and scattered throughout Iraq, speak
3565:
2345:
13078:Ethno-linguistic group(s) indigenous to the
10932:(2nd ed.). Leuven: Peeters Publishers.
10849:
10836:Notes on Some Problems in the Book of Daniel
10753:"Aramaic in the Medieval and Modern Periods"
10468:"The Edessan Milieu and the Birth of Syriac"
9570:"Three Thousand Years of Aramaic Literature"
9403:The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion
9243:. Vol. 1. Clarendon Press. p. 387.
9011:The Qur'an and the Aramaic Gospel Traditions
8900:Reynolds, Gabriel Said (28 September 2007).
7869:
7440:: "The Aramaic language name comes from its
7425:
6656:
6624:
6452:
6406:
6303:List of Aramaic-language television channels
4417:, or even tending to the vowel in "caught",
3611:(Jewish Aramaic versions of scripture), and
3607:(completed in the 5th century), Palestinian
3457:
1144:, with the main Neo-Aramaic languages being
637:is still spoken by the Christian and Muslim
14844:Languages attested from the 10th century BC
14670:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
11323:. Oakland: University of California Press.
10982:
10547:. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. 433–46.
9447:An Aramaic Approach to the Gospels and Acts
9246:
9233:
8995:
8429:
6937:
5839:, but developed into something more like a
5271:
5232:In addition to these sets, Aramaic has the
4511:sometimes corresponding with the long open
3649:(Chalcedonian) community, predominantly of
3140:"wood". Conversely, Aramaic words, such as
3006:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2102:king, used Aramaic to write to an Egyptian
1713:
1699:
1098:, also remained the liturgical language of
14082:
14068:
13061:
13047:
11811:
11797:
11626:
11468:
11316:
11295:
11257:. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 182–205.
11171:Der neu-aramaeische Dialekt des Ṭûr 'Abdîn
10369:. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
10236:
10210:
9704:
9690:. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 395–421.
9114:Christa Müller-Kessler; Michael Sokoloff.
8969:Introduction to Aramean and Syriac Studies
8575:
8358:
8323:
7893:
7681:
7631:
7468:. Penn State University Press. p. 5.
7462:"A History of Northwest Semitic Epigraphy"
6965:
6902:
6768:
6674:
6375:Thompson, Andrew David (31 October 2019).
3171:(ταλιθα), which represents the noun טליתא
2915:around the turn of the fourth century AD.
2573:intercalated between verses of Hebrew text
2517:
2352:
2338:
1742:Periodization of Klaus Beyer (1929–2014):
1394:
1116:are still spoken in the 21st century as a
11768:) at the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati
11746:: Contains audio recordings of scripture.
11489:
11434:
11411:
11199:
11160:
11115:. Vol. 21 (9th ed.). New York:
10838:. London: Tyndale Press. pp. 31–79.
10685:
10671:
10561:
10144:
9768:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9747:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9713:. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 66–109.
9450:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
9426:. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
9391:
9359:"A Legacy of Syria: The Aramaic Language"
9278:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8927:
8887:
8663:
8539:
8527:
8503:
8236:
7255:
7213:
7105:
6411:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 134.
6154:התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpa‘‘al/Eṯpa‘‘al (Dt-stem)
5427:, handwriting, inscription, script, book.
3944:
3782:
3519:
3219:
3026:Learn how and when to remove this message
2432:A group of thirty Aramaic documents from
874:kings, and its use was spread throughout
802:both for preaching and in everyday life.
747:The Aramaic languages are now considered
11670:
11457:
11397:. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press.
11390:
11376:. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press.
11369:
11355:. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press.
11348:
11337:
10952:"Recent Studies in Neo-Aramaic Dialects"
10922:
10898:
10813:Journal of the American Oriental Society
10721:
10451:. Birmingham: University of Birmingham.
9972:
9936:
9356:
9275:Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World
8899:
8811:
8721:
8125:
8077:
8050:
7988:
7976:
7905:
7695:(in French). Société asiatique: 122–27.
7396:Journal of the American Oriental Society
7000:
6824:
6731:
6721:
6706:
6582:(in German). Harrassowitz. p. 133.
6374:
3786:
3693:
3569:
3422:, and the masterful prose and poetry of
3324:
3065:were spoken in the vicinity of Judea in
2821:
2560:
2533:
2521:
2368:(Persian) conquest of Mesopotamia under
1923:
1629:
1420:
1398:
1342:, and Akkadian Ashuru, a complex set of
1175:
1168:experienced throughout the Middle East.
862:). Aramaic rose to prominence under the
809:
550:
539:
14089:
11714:
11693:
11563:. Uppsala: Uppsala University Library.
11513:"Akkadian and Aramaic Language Contact"
11475:. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
11281:. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
11178:
11137:
11123:
11103:
11075:
10872:
10823:
10654:
10631:
10608:
10585:
10304:
10281:
9893:"Aramaic Scripts for Aramaic Languages"
9890:
9854:
9812:
9782:
9632:
9292:
9271:
9062:
8780:
8667:The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity
8515:
8417:
8390:
8284:
8272:
8149:
7625:
7613:
7543:
7459:
7393:
7093:
6944:Allen C. Myers, ed. (1987). "Aramaic".
6896:
6848:
6736:
6604:(in German). Harrassowitz. p. 15.
6123:התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpə‘ēl/Eṯpə‘el (Gt-stem)
5459:
5407:As in other Semitic languages, Aramaic
3771:of the Middle East and North Africa by
3645:This was the language of the Christian
3497:, used as a liturgical language by the
2530:bearing an Aramaic language inscription
2469:– five tales and an apocalyptic vision.
1457:, also known as the "Arbela triangle" (
1094:, which besides becoming a vernacular,
918:, parts of southeast and south central
720:. Aramaic languages are written in the
14:
14831:
11647:
11603:
11510:
11344:. Tel Aviv: Bar Ilan University Press.
10946:
10538:
10515:
10492:
10465:
10444:
10383:
10361:
10348:
10327:
10258:
10168:
10017:
9996:
9655:
9642:Seeking Out the Wisdom of the Ancients
9464:
9400:
9333:
8863:
8690:
8551:
8432:Ancient Aramaic Documents from Bactria
8296:
8212:
8089:
7959:
7637:
7601:
7243:
7132:
7117:
7081:
7027:
6884:
6836:
6812:
6780:
6756:
6742:
6662:
6536:(in German). Harassowitz. p. 42.
6191:יתהכתב ↔ נתּכתב yiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ nettaḵtaḇ
6160:יתכתּב ↔ נתכתּב yiṯkəttēḇ ↔ neṯkətteḇ
5195:Aramaic classically has a set of four
3727:speakers, the most numerous being the
3678:. For example, the name Jesus, Syriac
3480:written in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic.
14063:
13042:
11818:
11792:
11650:"Aram and Aramaean in the Septuagint"
11597:Neo-Aramaic in Its Linguistic Context
11590:
11577:
11556:
11493:Grammar of Palestinian Jewish Aramaic
11271:
11248:
11223:
10760:Languages of Iraq: Ancient and Modern
10427:
10191:
9913:
9828:
9792:Languages of Iraq: Ancient and Modern
9761:
9740:
9736:. London: Routledge. pp. 222–42.
9727:
9584:
9564:
9528:
9506:Briquel-Chatonnet, Françoise (2012).
9440:
9419:
8636:
8609:
8563:
8480:
8430:Naveh, Joseph; Shaked, Shaul (2006).
8397:The Oriental Studies News & Notes
8260:
8248:
8224:
8182:
8137:
8113:
8101:
8000:
7667:
7665:
7267:
7195:
7183:
7171:
7159:
7057:
6860:
6726:
6558:(in German). Harassowitz. p. 5.
6475:Yaron Matras; Jeanette Sakel (2007).
6437:
6188:התהכתב ↔ אתּכתב hiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ ettaḵtaḇ
6157:התכתּב ↔ אתכתּב hiṯkəttēḇ ↔ eṯkətteḇ
6035:means "he went astray", whereas אטעי
4563:
3627:The inscriptions in the synagogue at
3077:spoke the Southeast Judaean dialect.
2785:script that was the precursor to the
2481:– translation of a Hebrew place-name.
1852:Recent periodization of Aaron Butts:
1659:. This is the writing system used in
1090:. One of the liturgical dialects was
780:earliest languages to be written down
11052:
10780:
10747:
10406:
10127:Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies
10114:
10097:Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies
10084:
10040:
9705:Buth, Randall; Pierce, Chad (2014).
9681:
9256:. Clarendon Press. pp. 29, 242.
9214:
9089:C. Müller-Kessler (1 January 1997).
9050:
8902:The Qur'an in Its Historical Context
7881:
7809:
7797:
7736:
7531:
7519:
7343:
7069:
7012:
6872:
5948:(כתבתי ↔ כתבת(י kəṯaḇtî ↔ kəṯaḇt(y)
5906:יכתבון ↔ נכתבון yiḵtəḇûn ↔ neḵtəḇûn
5543:, "son of man") begins to disappear.
5199:(ancient Aramaic may have had six):
4472:The close front vowel is the "long"
4425:), and a front counterpart ("short"
4208:. For the distinction between ,
3983:was completely destroyed during the
3543:
3004:adding citations to reliable sources
2971:
2843:, founded in 132 BCE and centred in
2079:conquered Aramean lands west of the
586:
569:
63:
57:
13068:
12138:
11533:
11030:Murre van den Berg, Heleen (2008).
10806:
10434:Andrews University Seminary Studies
10216:"Aramaic in the Achaemenian Empire"
9373:
8943:. Brill. 6 June 2017. p. 338.
8664:Nicholson, Oliver (19 April 2018).
7774:"Hittites, Assyrians and Aramaeans"
7672:Griechen nannten das Volk "Syrer"".
7273:
7147:
6795:
6548:Die arabischen Dialekte der Aramäer
6308:List of loanwords in modern Aramaic
5851:, while the imperfect uses various
4534:), and an open vowel followed by ו
4526:exist: an open vowel followed by י
4499:The close back vowel is the "long"
3674:, and it was heavily influenced by
3240:. Eastern Middle Aramaic comprises
3236:as written languages using various
2944:' first, non-extant edition of his
2895:
2811:
2540:Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription
2444:
2109:
1224:corresponded to the Aramaic in the
191:
24:
13025:Languages between parentheses are
11633:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
11302:. London and New York: Routledge.
11182:Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader
9538:The Journal of Theological Studies
9467:"Arameans, Aramaic, and the Bible"
8781:Darling, Cary (25 February 2004).
8637:Butts, Aaron (29 September 2015).
8613:Palmyra: An Irreplaceable Treasure
8326:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
7662:
7364:Caputo, C.; Lougovaya, J. (2020).
7202:Orientalia Christiana Cracoviensia
6169:הפעל\אפעל Hap̄‘ēl/Ap̄‘el (C-stem)
6144:יכתּב ↔ נכתּב yəḵattēḇ ↔ nəkatteḇ
6129:יתכתב ↔ נתכתב yiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ neṯkəṯeḇ
5923:יכתבן ↔ נכתבן yiḵtəḇān ↔ neḵtəḇān
5818:
5157:The emphatic consonants of Aramaic
5145:
4139:Classical Syriac (Eastern accent)
3923:. A related Neo-Aramaic language,
3814:
3483:
3352:
3260:
2415:). Of them, the best known is the
2397:Persepolis Administrative Archives
2040:
1702:) has sometimes been written in a
960:, including parts of the books of
25:
14855:
13100:Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora
11737:
11673:"Aramaic-Arabic Language Contact"
11299:Sacred Languages and Sacred Texts
10850:Köstenberger, Andreas J. (2009).
10475:Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies
9597:Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies
8391:Stolper, John A. Matthew (2007).
8183:Owens, Jonathan (12 March 2013).
7326:An Introduction to Syriac Studies
6126:התכתב ↔ אתכתב hiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ eṯkəṯeḇ
5228:(the emphatic Ṣāḏê listed above).
5192:) and ה Hê (as the English "h").
4927:
4905:
4898:
4889:
4869:
4862:
4851:
4844:
4837:
4821:
4814:
4807:
4800:
4793:
4786:
4779:
4772:
4747:
4736:
4727:
4711:
4704:
4697:
4688:
4681:
4672:
4641:
4632:
4349:
4341:
4326:
4318:
4304:
4297:
4283:
4276:
3979:and other larger towns of Syria.
3689:
3536:), and Christian Palestinian (in
3386:, recited in Western variant of
3314:
3294:, Reading in Eastern variant of
3210:
1990:, whilst the severely endangered
1625:
1218:then-known inscriptions and coins
1011:, some Aramaic vocabulary in the
653:. Other modern varieties include
41:, the Semitic language spoken in
14808:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary
14299:
14042:
14030:
13987:Assyrian Democratic Organisation
13140:
13129:
13118:
11715:Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2016).
10845:from the original on 2022-10-09.
10488:from the original on 2022-10-09.
9744:Aramaic Sources of Mark's Gospel
9651:from the original on 2022-10-09.
9628:from the original on 2022-10-09.
9171:
9147:
9122:
9107:
9082:
9068:
8960:
8933:
8893:
8834:
8805:
8774:
8763:
8752:
8741:
8684:
8657:
8630:
8603:
8569:
8486:
8463:
8448:
8423:
8384:
8352:
8317:
8290:
7909:(1884). "The Aramaic Language".
7432:Johann Wilhelm Hilliger (1679).
7350:Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit
7196:Turek, Przemysław (2011-11-05).
6909:Holger Gzella (8 January 2015).
6600:Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold (2006).
6576:Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold (2006).
6241:
6227:
5766:is used to mark the relationship
5293:, had fricatives as conditioned
5287:Plosive/fricative pair reduction
5176:Problems playing this file? See
5161:
3845:Problems playing this file? See
3830:
3397:Problems playing this file? See
3368:
3305:Problems playing this file? See
3276:
2976:
2962:Languages during Jesus' lifetime
1859:, from the earliest records, to
1749:, from the earliest records, to
1709:
1453:, and later in the heartland of
1206:Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit
1003:, progressively also became the
11338:Sokoloff, Michael, ed. (1983).
10985:"Christian Palestinian Aramaic"
10050:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
9730:"The Classical Syriac Language"
9471:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
9299:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
9228:(ed. Su-Min Ri) XXIV:10 and in
8616:. University of Chicago Press.
8362:; Kuhn, Ernst (25 March 2002).
8176:
8150:Younger, K. Lawson Jr. (1986).
8143:
8044:
8018:
8006:
7941:
7899:
7839:
7815:
7766:
7725:
7714:
7703:
7675:
7582:
7569:
7549:
7387:
7337:
7318:
7291:
7189:
7033:
6750:
6712:
6668:
6602:Lehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen
6579:Lehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen
6514:(in German). LIT. p. 133.
6175:יהכתב↔ נכתב yəhaḵtēḇ ↔ naḵteḇ
5337:are realized as after a vowel.
4200:International Phonetic Alphabet
3998:
3927:, has recently become extinct.
1915:1200 AD, up to the modern times
1777:1200 AD, up to the modern times
1492:Beginning with the rise of the
1410:'s Major Archbishop's House in
968:, and also the language of the
630:for over three thousand years.
602:that originated in the ancient
14365:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)
14360:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)
13653:Genocide of Christians by ISIL
13516:Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia
13029:of the language on their left.
11490:Stevenson, William B. (1924).
11394:A Dictionary of Judean Aramaic
11317:Shepardson, Christine (2019).
10908:. Leuven: Peeters Publishers.
10003:. Leuven: Peeters Publishers.
9946:Journal of Biblical Literature
9864:Journal of Biblical Literature
9293:Andrade, Nathanael J. (2014).
9272:Andrade, Nathanael J. (2013).
9206:
8971:. Gorgias Press. p. 573.
8610:Veyne, Paul (5 October 2018).
6443:
6400:
6368:
6359:
6341:. Gorgias Press. p. 298.
6326:
5968:כתבנא ↔ כתבן kəṯaḇnâ ↔ kəṯaḇn
5903:יכתוב ↔ נכתוב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ
5709:, has an alternative version,
5113:(sometimes considered to be a
5089:voiceless pharyngeal fricative
4465:) or ה "he" (like the English
3167:words. Some are Aramaic, like
2851:. On the upper reaches of the
2737:Babylonian Documentary Aramaic
2622:Judaea (142–37 BC), alongside
1919:
1848:700 AD, up to the modern times
1590:Aramaic languages and dialects
995:(605–539 BC) and later by the
854:, and the fringes of southern
13:
1:
14747:Ancient Mesopotamian religion
14144:Tigris–Euphrates river system
13397:Ancient Mesopotamian religion
11762:Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
11593:"Neologisms in Ṣūrayt/Ṭūrōyo"
11206:A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic
10983:Morgenstern, Matthew (2012).
10413:. Calvary Chapel Publishing.
10220:The Cambridge History of Iran
10090:"Assyria and Syria: Synonyms"
10046:"Assyria and Syria: Synonyms"
9588:(2002). Kiraz, George (ed.).
9380:Journal of Universal Language
8816:. Mohr Siebeck. p. 186.
8186:Arabic as a Minority Language
7460:Lemaire, André (2021-05-25).
7312:10.1080/00437956.2022.2084663
7285:Surayt-Aramaic Online Project
6946:The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary
6453:Rafik Schami (25 July 2011).
6319:
5613: – king good.
5289:. Originally, Aramaic, like
5115:voiced pharyngeal approximant
4556:
4062:Christian Palestinian Aramaic
3641:Christian Palestinian Aramaic
3635:Christian Palestinian Aramaic
3532:), Samaritan Aramaic (in the
3156:meaning "seen" and "worthy".
2582:
2364:Around 500 BC, following the
1912:
1902:
1898:
1888:
1884:
1874:
1870:
1860:
1845:
1835:
1831:
1821:
1817:
1807:
1803:
1793:
1774:
1764:
1760:
1750:
1425:Late Syriac text, written in
1313:
1046:, the liturgical language of
1015:, which were used by several
816:
14007:Syriac Union Party (Lebanon)
13982:Assyrian Democratic Movement
11627:Waltisberg, Michael (2016).
11604:Taylor, David G. K. (2002).
11469:Stefanovic, Zdravko (1992).
11414:"Jewish Palestinian Aramaic"
11113:The Encyclopaedia Britannica
9914:Fales, Frederick M. (2012).
9633:Burnett, Stephen G. (2005).
9357:Aufrecht, Walter E. (2001).
8640:Semitic Languages in Contact
7744:"The name Aram in the Bible"
7287:. Free University of Berlin.
6138:פעּל Pa‘‘ēl/Pa‘‘el (D-stem)
6113:יכתב ↔ נכתב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ
6063:. The loss of the initial ה
5981:Conjugations or verbal stems
4429:, like the vowel in "head",
4186:
3698:Territorial distribution of
3174:
3151:
3135:
3101:" all became pronounced as "
3091:
2911:in the first century BC and
2792:
2745:
1940:(also considered a dialect).
1936:. The inscription is in the
1608:Syriac Christian communities
1408:Syro-Malabar Catholic Church
594:
577:
69:
7:
14813:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary
14695:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
14690:Indus-Mesopotamia relations
13992:Assyrian Universal Alliance
13218:Assyrian Church of the East
13193:Assyrian Pentecostal Church
13187:Assyrian Evangelical Church
13110:Terms for Syriac Christians
11772:Dictionary of Judeo-Aramaic
11744:Ancient Aramaic Audio Files
11511:Streck, Michael P. (2012).
11496:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
11437:"Jewish Babylonian Aramaic"
11435:Sokoloff, Michael (2012b).
11412:Sokoloff, Michael (2012a).
11296:John F. A., Sawyer (1999).
10786:"North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic"
10571:. Atlanta: Scholars Press.
10384:Häberl, Charles G. (2012).
10018:Folmer, Margaretha (2012).
9997:Folmer, Margaretha (1995).
9897:The World's Writing Systems
9465:Bowman, Raymond A. (1948).
8670:. Oxford University Press.
7687:"Mémoire Sur Les Nabatéens"
6481:. De Gruyter. p. 185.
6220:
6172:הכתב ↔ אכתב haḵtēḇ ↔ aḵteḇ
6008:means "he killed", whereas
5954:תכתבין tiḵtuḇîn ↔ teḵtuḇîn
5940:תכתבון tiḵtəḇûn ↔ teḵtəḇûn
5934:כתבתון kəṯaḇtûn ↔ kəṯaḇton
5590:is marked by a prefixed -ל
5576:Northwest Semitic languages
4519:to indicate their quality.
3826:Spoken Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
3428:Assyrian Church of the East
3187:"Talitha kumi" (טליתא קומי)
2950:was written in Old Judean.
2709:
2542:(Greek and Aramaic) by the
1052:Assyrian Church of the East
547:in Syriac Esṭrangelā script
10:
14860:
14818:Chicago Hittite Dictionary
14002:Syriac Union Party (Syria)
13224:Ancient Church of the East
11654:The World of the Aramaeans
11458:Sokoloff, Michael (2014).
11391:Sokoloff, Michael (2003).
11370:Sokoloff, Michael (2002).
11349:Sokoloff, Michael (1990).
11138:Peursen, Wido van (2008).
11130:Compendious Syriac Grammar
11007:Murre van den Berg, Heleen
10428:Hasel, Gerhard F. (1981).
10169:Gianto, Agustinus (2008).
10133:(1): 69–70. Archived from
10103:(2): 30–36. Archived from
9982:. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
9891:Daniels, Peter T. (1996).
9785:"Fieldwork in Neo-Aramaic"
9609:10.31826/9781463214104-005
9264:
8576:Wiesehöfer, Josef (2001).
6675:Van Rompay, Lucas (2011).
6040:dropping of the initial ה
5957:תכתבן tiḵtəḇān ↔ teḵtəḇān
5951:כתבתן kəṯaḇtēn ↔ kəṯaḇtên
5791:(first, second or third),
5402:
4484:corresponds with the open
3989:Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
3948:
3797:
3708:
3638:
3583:Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
3580:
3566:Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
3550:Samaritan Aramaic language
3547:
3487:
3461:
3318:
3073:and Judaea. The region of
2965:
2899:
2815:
2113:
2044:
1962:are largely restricted to
1943:
1640:
1618:, or slightly west of it.
1379:
1373:
1355:
1056:Ancient Church of the East
930:, as well as the southern
805:
600:Northwest Semitic language
443:Samaritan Aramaic language
393:Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
36:
29:
14785:
14739:
14713:
14617:
14514:
14407:
14315:
14308:
14297:
14179:
14106:
14097:
14025:
13972:
13843:
13675:
13666:
13579:
13508:
13415:
13356:
13339:
13296:
13237:
13202:
13165:
13154:
13116:
13087:
13076:
13011:
12938:
12857:
12834:
12827:
12779:
12758:
12749:
12742:
12709:
12700:
12693:
12646:
12637:
12567:
12475:
12450:
12406:
12351:
12292:
12281:
12270:
12185:
12148:
12109:
12100:
12091:
12033:
12012:
11915:
11906:
11897:
11859:
11826:
11671:Weninger, Stefan (2012).
11580:"Arabic or Ṣūrayt/Ṭūrōyo"
11230:Journal of Jewish Studies
11179:Richard, Suzanne (2003).
10968:10.1017/S0041977X00026045
10192:Green, Tamara M. (1992),
9783:Coghill, Eleanor (2007).
9014:. Routledge. p. 35.
8904:. Routledge. p. 59.
8812:McNamara, Martin (2011).
8783:"What's up with Aramaic?"
7851:www.assyrianlanguages.org
7564:
7474:10.1515/9781575068879-007
6201:In Imperial Aramaic, the
5874:
5871:
5868:
5799:(masculine or feminine),
5638:
5598:"to") if it is definite.
5120:צ Ṣāḏê, a pharyngealized
4917:
4879:
4759:
4659:
4626:
4605:
4595:
4590:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4249:
3892:are now mostly spoken in
3528:, Jewish Palestinian (in
3464:Jewish Babylonian Aramaic
3458:Jewish Babylonian Aramaic
3250:Jewish Babylonian Aramaic
3200:The Passion of the Christ
3063:Western Aramaic varieties
2902:Western Aramaic languages
2818:Eastern Aramaic languages
2496:(d. 420), Aramaic of the
2098:. Around 600 BC, Adon, a
1960:Eastern Aramaic languages
566:Jewish Babylonian Aramaic
524:
508:
383:Jewish Babylonian Aramaic
286:
281:
233:
206:
164:
106:
76:
55:
50:
13522:Muslim conquest of Syria
13212:Chaldean Catholic Church
13022:or historical languages.
11648:Wevers, John W. (2001).
10539:Healey, John F. (2019).
10516:Healey, John F. (2012).
10493:Healey, John F. (2008).
10466:Healey, John F. (2007).
10445:Healey, John F. (1980).
10334:. Leiden-Boston: Brill.
10305:Gzella, Holger (2012b).
10282:Gzella, Holger (2012a).
10154:. Leiden-Boston: Brill.
9813:Creason, Stuart (2008).
9728:Butts, Aaron M. (2019).
9248:Payne Smith, J. (Jessie)
9235:Payne Smith, R. (Robert)
9199:
9008:Emran El-Badawi (2013).
8841:Sebastian Brock (2021).
8814:Targum and New Testament
7907:Kautzsch, Emil Friedrich
7683:Quatremère, Étienne Marc
7644:. Brill. pp. 9–10.
7492:– via De Gruyter.
6508:Dr. Emna Labidi (2022).
6379:. Springer. p. 49.
5835:. These were originally
5803:(perfect or imperfect),
5782:
5434:, books, the Scriptures.
5272:Historical sound changes
5098:ט Ṭêṯ, a pharyngealized
3804:Northeastern Neo-Aramaic
3779:of the seventh century.
3733:Northeastern Neo-Aramaic
3717:Western Aramaic dialects
3538:Syriac Estrangela script
3085:, where the consonants "
1148:(~240,000 speakers) and
1060:Chaldean Catholic Church
1017:Middle Iranian languages
922:, northern parts of the
32:Aramaic (disambiguation)
14049:Christianity portal
14012:Syriac Military Council
13611:Massacres of Diyarbekir
13546:Principality of Antioch
13499:Byzantine–Sasanian wars
13306:Assyrian folk/pop music
11764:(including editions of
11694:Yitzhak, Frank (2003).
11117:Charles Scribner's Sons
10829:"The Aramaic of Daniel"
10448:First Studies in Syriac
10349:Gzella, Holger (2017).
10328:Gzella, Holger (2015).
10307:"Late Imperial Aramaic"
10259:Gzella, Holger (2008).
9762:Casey, Maurice (2002).
9741:Casey, Maurice (1999).
9393:10.22425/jul.2004.5.1.1
9374:Bae, Chul-hyun (2004).
9334:Arnold, Werner (2012).
9039:Murre van den Berg 1999
7557:Antiquities of the Jews
7476:(inactive 2024-09-11).
6977:Encyclopædia Britannica
6915:. BRILL. pp. 56–.
6205:began to be used for a
5823:Aramaic has two proper
5492:Indo-European languages
5321:and replaced them with
5221:(as in English "ship"),
5214:(as in English "zero"),
4196:phonetic transcriptions
3890:Judeo-Aramaic languages
3595:leaders, expelled from
2518:Post-Achaemenid Aramaic
1395:Geographic distribution
1276:Étienne Marc Quatremère
1214:Jean-Jacques Barthélemy
1198:Johann Wilhelm Hilliger
1171:
1120:by many communities of
1076:Saint Thomas Christians
926:and parts of northwest
686:Semitic language family
556:Syriac-Aramaic alphabet
14650:Babylonian mathematics
13767:Al-Hasakah Governorate
13605:Massacres of Badr Khan
13379:Middle Assyrian Empire
13181:Syriac Catholic Church
13175:Syriac Orthodox Church
11721:. Atlanta: SBL Press.
11242:10.18647/2120/JJS-1998
10691:"The Aramaic Language"
10609:Jastrow, Otto (2012).
10586:Jastrow, Otto (2008).
10568:Studies in Neo-Aramaic
10407:Hamp, Douglas (2005).
10120:"Reply to John Joseph"
9682:Buth, Randall (2014).
9550:10.1093/jts/XXII.I.157
8876:Briquel-Chatonnet 2012
7894:Buth & Pierce 2014
7345:Kopp, Ulrich Friedrich
6313:Romanization of Syriac
5795:(singular or plural),
5392:New phonetic inventory
5207:(as in English "sea"),
5150:
4193:This section contains
3973:Anti-Lebanon Mountains
3945:Modern Western Aramaic
3819:
3795:
3783:Modern Eastern Aramaic
3777:early Muslim conquests
3706:
3578:
3530:Hebrew "square script"
3520:Western Middle Aramaic
3432:Syriac Orthodox Church
3357:
3347:
3265:
3220:Eastern Middle Aramaic
3115:Anti-Lebanon Mountains
2832:
2574:
2558:
2531:
1996:Anti-Lebanon mountains
1941:
1930:Bar-Rakib inscriptions
1638:
1498:early Muslim conquests
1442:
1418:
1193:
1158:Anti-Lebanon Mountains
1068:Syriac Catholic Church
1064:Syriac Orthodox Church
823:
724:, a descendant of the
606:and quickly spread to
558:
548:
403:Koy Sanjaq Neo-Aramaic
13635:Independence movement
13391:Post-imperial Assyria
13367:Early Assyrian period
12217:Christian Palestinian
11938:Ancient North Arabian
11534:Tal, Abraham (2012).
11249:Ruzer, Serge (2014).
11224:Rubin, Milka (1998).
10655:Joosten, Jan (2010).
10632:Joosten, Jan (2008).
9420:Beyer, Klaus (1986).
9336:"Western Neo-Aramaic"
8845:. SyriacPress dot com
8297:Shaked, Saul (1987).
8189:. Walter de Gruyter.
8054:Encyclopaedia Judaica
7638:Joseph, John (2000).
6526:Aramäer von Ǧubbˁadīn
6487:10.1515/9783110199192
6335:Abdulrahim Abu-Husayn
6141:כתּב kattēḇ ↔ katteḇ
5974:נכתב niḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ
5965:כתבת kiṯḇēṯ ↔ keṯḇeṯ
5937:תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ
5931:כתבת kəṯaḇt ↔ kəṯaḇt
5920:תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ
5914:כתבת kiṯbaṯ ↔ keṯbaṯ
5359:Guttural assimilation
5149:
5133:voiceless uvular stop
3818:
3790:
3711:Neo-Aramaic languages
3700:Neo-Aramaic languages
3697:
3573:
3356:
3328:
3292:Avūo·nə đə·Vē·shəmēyā
3272:Avūo·nə đə·Vē·shəmēiā
3264:
2966:Further information:
2825:
2564:
2537:
2525:
2015:Neo-Babylonian Empire
1927:
1634:11th century book in
1633:
1424:
1402:
1202:Ulrich Friedrich Kopp
1190:Ulrich Friedrich Kopp
1179:
1152:(~250,000 speakers).
1114:Neo-Aramaic languages
993:Neo-Babylonian Empire
813:
655:Neo-Aramaic languages
616:southeastern Anatolia
554:
543:
473:Trans-Zab Neo-Aramaic
373:Inter-Zab Neo-Aramaic
97:Southeastern Anatolia
14645:Babylonian astronomy
14124:Mesopotamian Marshes
13311:Music of Mesopotamia
13258:Chaldean Neo-Aramaic
13253:Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
12315:Koy Sanjaq Christian
12003:Pre-classical Arabic
11700:. Jerusalem: Ariel.
11591:Tezel, Sina (2015).
11578:Tezel, Sina (2015).
11557:Tezel, Aziz (2003).
10807:Kim, Ronald (2008).
10238:Greenfield, Jonas C.
10212:Greenfield, Jonas C.
8303:Encyclopædia Iranica
7754:on 29 September 2018
6377:Christianity in Oman
6048:preformative with א
5869:Person & gender
5460:Nouns and adjectives
5441:, secretary, scribe.
5311:Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
3514:religious literature
3081:had its distinctive
3000:improve this section
2884:The written form of
2830:magical "demon trap"
2589:(d. 323 BC) and his
2550:, 3rd century BC at
2514:and their language.
2492:. Since the time of
2326:Aramaic inscriptions
1128:(in particular, the
776:Aramaic inscriptions
363:Hertevin Neo-Aramaic
30:For other uses, see
14726:Destruction by ISIL
14680:Sumerian literature
14655:Akkadian literature
14091:Ancient Mesopotamia
13617:Rise of nationalism
13558:Jalayirid Sultanate
13385:Neo-Assyrian Empire
13373:Old Assyrian period
13316:Syriac sacral music
13136:Aramean-Syriac flag
13095:Assyrian continuity
12159:Ashurian and Hatran
11536:"Samaritan Aramaic"
11109:"Semitic Languages"
11053:Naby, Eden (2004).
10825:Kitchen, Kenneth A.
10611:"Ṭuroyo and Mlaḥsô"
10563:Heinrichs, Wolfhart
10146:Gallagher, Edmon L.
9974:Fitzmyer, Joseph A.
9938:Fitzmyer, Joseph A.
9586:Brock, Sebastian P.
9566:Brock, Sebastian P.
9530:Brock, Sebastian P.
9118:. STYX Publication.
9065:, pp. 697–707.
8287:, pp. 598–609.
8003:, pp. 283–300.
7896:, pp. 107–109.
7748:Abarim Publications
7072:, pp. 395–421.
7060:, pp. 182–205.
6875:, pp. 197–203.
6851:, pp. 499–514.
6594:Aramäern in Ma'lūla
6249:Christianity portal
6107:פעל Pə‘al (G-stem)
6072:, but later became
5971:אכתב eḵtuḇ ↔ eḵtoḇ
5773:kṯāḇtāh d(î)-malkṯâ
5536:possessed possessor
4150:Western Neo-Aramaic
3957:Western Neo-Aramaic
3951:Western Neo-Aramaic
3917:Central Neo-Aramaic
3800:Central Neo-Aramaic
3775:beginning with the
3735:(NENA) speakers of
3729:Central Neo-Aramaic
3408:Syriac Christianity
3190:"Ephphatha" (אתפתח)
2867:Tatian the Assyrian
2773:, and the northern
2604:Hellenistic culture
2587:Alexander the Great
2528:Alexander the Great
2411:in particular (see
2147:Syro-Hittite states
2085:Tiglath-Pileser III
2077:Neo-Assyrian Empire
2073:Phoenician alphabet
2011:Neo-Assyrian Empire
1992:Western Neo-Aramaic
1986:, and southeastern
1694:. In modern times,
1649:Phoenician alphabet
1601:varieties of Arabic
1580:Maronites in Israel
1406:inscription at the
1242:(the latter citing
1154:Western Neo-Aramaic
1048:Syriac Christianity
987:The scribes of the
864:Neo-Assyrian Empire
726:Phoenician alphabet
690:Canaanite languages
503:Western Neo-Aramaic
343:Barzani Neo-Aramaic
272:Phoenician alphabet
14762:Mesopotamian myths
14037:History portal
13479:Church of the East
13268:Bohtan Neo-Aramaic
13105:Chaldean Catholics
12780:Harari–East Gurage
12231:Jewish Palestinian
11782:2008-05-11 at the
11755:2008-09-09 at the
11464:. Leuven: Peeters.
11119:. pp. 641–56.
10284:"Imperial Aramaic"
9245:and in English at
9240:Thesaurus Syriacus
9130:"Classical Syriac"
9078:. 26 January 2020.
9053:, pp. 708–24.
8998:, pp. 628–37.
8930:, pp. 610–19.
8890:, pp. 660–70.
8878:, pp. 652–59.
8866:, pp. 637–52.
8554:, pp. 212–17.
8542:, pp. 110–13.
8518:, pp. 113–31.
8506:, pp. 123–41.
8483:, pp. 211–25.
8420:, pp. 710–12.
8275:, pp. 574–86.
8251:, pp. 555–73.
8215:, pp. 685–96.
8140:, pp. 224–25.
8104:, pp. 222–25.
8030:The Jerusalem Post
7991:, pp. 738–47.
7979:, pp. 747–55.
7962:, pp. 416–24.
7800:, pp. 281–85.
7616:, pp. 93–105.
7604:, pp. 237–51.
7353:. pp. 226–27.
7331:2013-05-18 at the
7246:, pp. 725–37.
7215:10.15633/ochc.1038
7135:, pp. 587–98.
7120:, pp. 304–10.
7015:, pp. 95–114.
6973:"Aramaic language"
6899:, pp. 115–22.
6887:, pp. 214–23.
6815:, pp. 670–85.
6455:Märchen aus Malula
6207:historical present
6110:כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ
6102:Imperfect passive
6019:, which can be -ה
5987:derived verb stems
5897:כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ
5762:kṯāḇtâ d(î)-malkṯâ
5725:, is written with
5384:in Hebrew but תלת
5151:
4036:(Eastern accent):
3935:Khuzestan province
3820:
3796:
3749:Qalamoun Mountains
3707:
3587:In 135, after the
3579:
3358:
3348:
3266:
2936:and receipts from
2888:, the language of
2841:Kingdom of Osroene
2833:
2704:Achaemenid Aramaic
2575:
2559:
2532:
2413:Elephantine papyri
2017:(620–539 BC), and
1942:
1867:Achaemenid Aramaic
1688:Palmyrene alphabet
1680:Nabataean alphabet
1639:
1494:Rashidun Caliphate
1443:
1419:
1272:King James Version
1194:
824:
767:, as well as some
757:Qalamoun mountains
753:Arameans (Syriacs)
639:Arameans (Syriacs)
559:
549:
453:Senaya Neo-Aramaic
353:Bohtan Neo-Aramaic
14839:Aramaic languages
14826:
14825:
14777:Ziggurat (Temple)
14752:Sumerian religion
14510:
14509:
14457:Middle Babylonian
14399:Kish civilization
14295:
14294:
14119:Lower Mesopotamia
14114:Upper Mesopotamia
14057:
14056:
13968:
13967:
13684:
13662:
13661:
13629:Assyrian genocide
13528:Abbasid Caliphate
13350:
13233:
13232:
13036:
13035:
13007:
13006:
13003:
13002:
12934:
12933:
12930:
12929:
12926:
12925:
12823:
12822:
12633:
12632:
12629:
12628:
12471:
12470:
12446:
12445:
12402:
12401:
12374:Koy Sanjaq Jewish
12166:Jewish Babylonian
12087:
12086:
11820:Semitic languages
11630:Syntax des Ṭuroyo
10687:Kautzsch, Emil F.
10681:. Leipzig: Vogel.
10673:Kautzsch, Emil F.
10251:978-0-19-922194-3
10203:978-90-04-09513-7
9830:Chyet, Michael L.
9225:Cave of Treasures
9100:978-90-04-66979-6
8941:Arabic in Context
8677:978-0-19-256246-3
8530:, pp. 17–21.
8128:, pp. 60–63.
8092:, pp. 47–48.
8080:, pp. 57–60.
8064:978-0-02-865928-2
8032:. 9 November 2014
7870:Köstenberger 2009
7812:, pp. 30–36.
7732:1 Chronicles 7:34
7692:Journal asiatique
7628:, pp. 53–72.
7377:978-3-11-071290-2
7258:, pp. xi–xv.
7186:, pp. 83–93.
7174:, pp. 38–43.
7096:, pp. 31–79.
6922:978-90-04-28510-1
6839:, pp. 17–22.
6798:, p. 619–28.
6739:, pp. 108–44
6690:978-1-59333-714-8
6649:978-3-11-018613-0
6632:Huehnergard, John
6440:, pp. 11–23.
6293:Gospel of Matthew
6283:Ephrem the Syrian
6199:
6198:
6096:Imperfect active
5978:
5977:
5847:. The perfect is
5683:
5682:
5341:Loss of emphatics
5166:
5077:pharyngealization
4945:
4944:
4834:
4769:
4724:
4669:
4622:
4615:
4358:
4357:
4184:
4183:
4175:Suret (Swadaya):
4116:
4115:
3993:Samaritan Aramaic
3879:Ephrem the Syrian
3835:
3589:Bar Kokhba revolt
3556:Samaritan Aramaic
3544:Samaritan Aramaic
3534:Old Hebrew script
3495:Classical Mandaic
3478:incantation bowls
3424:Ephrem the Syrian
3373:
3281:
3242:Classical Mandaic
3234:Achaemenid Empire
3159:The Greek of the
3083:Samaritan Aramaic
3036:
3035:
3028:
2968:Language of Jesus
2921:Caesarea Philippi
2798:Palmyrene Aramaic
2751:Nabataean Aramaic
2692:Zoroastrian usage
2684:Persian Sassanids
2668:Parthian Arsacids
2579:Achaemenid Empire
2512:ancient Chaldeans
2507:Chaldean misnomer
2494:Jerome of Stridon
2386:Iranian languages
2362:
2361:
2047:Samalian language
2035:dialect continuum
2019:Achaemenid Empire
1938:Samalian language
1781:Periodization of
1725:
1724:
1671:, is used by the
1596:Romance languages
1576:Jews of Kurdistan
1528:Assyrian genocide
1130:Jews of Kurdistan
1080:Syriac Christians
997:Achaemenid Empire
978:Babylonian Talmud
950:language of Jesus
939:Babylonian Talmud
937:According to the
924:Arabian Peninsula
888:Arabian Peninsula
870:of the empire by
834:and the northern
800:Jesus of Nazareth
592:
575:
538:
537:
493:Urmia Neo-Aramaic
323:Classical Mandaic
172:Proto-Afroasiatic
138:Northwest Semitic
18:Aramaic languages
16:(Redirected from
14851:
14675:Sumerian cuisine
14665:Warfare in Sumer
14660:Economy of Sumer
14313:
14312:
14303:
14187:Fertile Crescent
14171:Sinjar Mountains
14166:Hamrin Mountains
14161:Zagros Mountains
14139:Taurus Mountains
14104:
14103:
14084:
14077:
14070:
14061:
14060:
14047:
14046:
14035:
14034:
14033:
13680:
13673:
13672:
13647:Post-Saddam Iraq
13473:Nestorian schism
13467:Christianization
13439:(132 BCE–244 CE)
13433:(247 BCE–224 CE)
13393:(609 BCE–240 CE)
13354:
13353:
13344:
13204:East Syriac Rite
13167:West Syriac Rite
13163:
13162:
13144:
13133:
13122:
13063:
13056:
13049:
13040:
13039:
12832:
12831:
12756:
12755:
12747:
12746:
12707:
12706:
12698:
12697:
12644:
12643:
12512:northern dialect
12290:
12289:
12279:
12278:
12132:Biblical Aramaic
12125:Imperial Aramaic
12107:
12106:
12098:
12097:
11996:Nabataean Arabic
11913:
11912:
11904:
11903:
11879:Canaano-Akkadian
11813:
11806:
11799:
11790:
11789:
11732:
11711:
11690:
11667:
11644:
11623:
11600:
11587:
11574:
11553:
11530:
11507:
11486:
11465:
11454:
11431:
11408:
11387:
11366:
11345:
11334:
11313:
11292:
11268:
11245:
11220:
11201:Rosenthal, Franz
11196:
11175:
11157:
11134:
11125:Nöldeke, Theodor
11120:
11105:Nöldeke, Theodor
11100:
11077:Nöldeke, Theodor
11072:
11049:
11026:
11002:
10979:
10943:
10924:Lipiński, Edward
10919:
10900:Lipiński, Edward
10895:
10869:
10846:
10844:
10833:
10820:
10803:
10777:
10775:
10774:
10768:
10757:
10744:
10718:
10682:
10668:
10651:
10628:
10605:
10582:
10558:
10535:
10512:
10489:
10487:
10472:
10462:
10441:
10424:
10403:
10380:
10358:
10345:
10324:
10301:
10278:
10255:
10233:
10206:
10188:
10165:
10141:
10139:
10124:
10116:Frye, Richard N.
10111:
10109:
10094:
10086:Frye, Richard N.
10081:
10042:Frye, Richard N.
10037:
10014:
9993:
9969:
9933:
9910:
9887:
9856:Collins, John J.
9851:
9825:
9819:
9809:
9807:
9806:
9800:
9789:
9779:
9758:
9737:
9734:The Syriac World
9724:
9701:
9678:
9652:
9650:
9639:
9629:
9627:
9594:
9581:
9561:
9525:
9502:
9461:
9437:
9416:
9397:
9395:
9370:
9353:
9330:
9289:
9258:
9257:
9244:
9217:
9216:
9210:
9193:
9192:
9190:
9189:
9175:
9169:
9168:
9166:
9165:
9151:
9145:
9144:
9142:
9140:
9126:
9120:
9119:
9111:
9105:
9104:
9086:
9080:
9079:
9072:
9066:
9060:
9054:
9048:
9042:
9036:
9030:
9029:
9005:
8999:
8996:Morgenstern 2012
8993:
8987:
8986:
8964:
8958:
8957:
8937:
8931:
8925:
8919:
8918:
8897:
8891:
8885:
8879:
8873:
8867:
8861:
8855:
8854:
8852:
8850:
8838:
8832:
8831:
8809:
8803:
8802:
8800:
8798:
8789:. Archived from
8778:
8772:
8767:
8761:
8756:
8750:
8745:
8739:
8734:
8725:
8724:, pp. 5–21.
8719:
8713:
8712:
8701:10.7282/T37D2SGZ
8688:
8682:
8681:
8661:
8655:
8654:
8634:
8628:
8627:
8607:
8601:
8600:
8598:
8596:
8573:
8567:
8561:
8555:
8549:
8543:
8537:
8531:
8525:
8519:
8513:
8507:
8501:
8495:
8490:
8484:
8478:
8472:
8467:
8461:
8452:
8446:
8445:
8427:
8421:
8415:
8409:
8408:
8406:
8404:
8388:
8382:
8381:
8356:
8350:
8349:
8321:
8315:
8314:
8312:
8310:
8294:
8288:
8282:
8276:
8270:
8264:
8258:
8252:
8246:
8240:
8234:
8228:
8222:
8216:
8210:
8201:
8200:
8180:
8174:
8173:
8171:
8169:
8163:
8157:. Archived from
8156:
8147:
8141:
8135:
8129:
8123:
8117:
8111:
8105:
8099:
8093:
8087:
8081:
8075:
8069:
8068:
8048:
8042:
8041:
8039:
8037:
8022:
8016:
8010:
8004:
7998:
7992:
7986:
7980:
7974:
7963:
7957:
7951:
7945:
7939:
7938:
7903:
7897:
7891:
7885:
7879:
7873:
7867:
7861:
7860:
7858:
7857:
7843:
7837:
7836:
7834:
7833:
7819:
7813:
7807:
7801:
7795:
7789:
7788:
7786:
7784:
7770:
7764:
7763:
7761:
7759:
7750:. Archived from
7740:
7734:
7729:
7723:
7718:
7712:
7707:
7701:
7700:
7679:
7673:
7669:
7660:
7659:
7635:
7629:
7623:
7617:
7611:
7605:
7599:
7593:
7586:
7580:
7573:
7567:
7566:
7553:
7547:
7541:
7535:
7529:
7523:
7517:
7511:
7510:
7504:
7496:
7491:
7490:
7457:
7451:
7450:
7429:
7423:
7422:
7391:
7385:
7384:
7361:
7355:
7354:
7341:
7335:
7322:
7316:
7315:
7295:
7289:
7288:
7277:
7271:
7265:
7259:
7253:
7247:
7241:
7228:
7227:
7217:
7193:
7187:
7181:
7175:
7169:
7163:
7157:
7151:
7150:, pp. 1–20.
7145:
7136:
7130:
7121:
7115:
7109:
7103:
7097:
7091:
7085:
7079:
7073:
7067:
7061:
7055:
7049:
7048:
7037:
7031:
7025:
7016:
7010:
7004:
6998:
6989:
6988:
6986:
6984:
6969:
6963:
6962:
6941:
6935:
6934:
6906:
6900:
6894:
6888:
6882:
6876:
6870:
6864:
6858:
6852:
6846:
6840:
6834:
6828:
6822:
6816:
6810:
6799:
6793:
6784:
6778:
6772:
6766:
6760:
6754:
6748:
6716:
6710:
6704:
6698:
6697:
6672:
6666:
6660:
6654:
6653:
6628:
6622:
6618:
6596:
6572:
6550:
6528:
6504:
6471:
6447:
6441:
6435:
6426:
6425:
6404:
6398:
6397:
6372:
6366:
6363:
6357:
6356:
6330:
6278:Aramaic of Hatra
6251:
6246:
6245:
6237:
6235:Languages portal
6232:
6231:
6099:Perfect passive
6087:
6086:
6082:Classical Syriac
5866:
5865:
5861:Classical Syriac
5616:
5615:
5556:definite article
5455:, I shall write.
5363:Samaritan Hebrew
5336:
5332:
5328:
5324:
5320:
5316:
5308:
5304:
5301:has mostly lost
5234:nasal consonants
5227:
5220:
5213:
5206:
5168:
5167:
5148:
5138:
5127:
5105:
5094:
4931:
4909:
4902:
4893:
4873:
4866:
4855:
4848:
4841:
4830:
4825:
4818:
4811:
4804:
4797:
4790:
4783:
4776:
4765:
4751:
4740:
4731:
4720:
4715:
4708:
4701:
4692:
4685:
4676:
4665:
4645:
4636:
4618:
4613:
4561:
4560:
4453:sound. The open
4436:
4424:
4416:
4400:
4353:
4345:
4330:
4322:
4308:
4301:
4287:
4280:
4254:
4253:
4215:
4211:
4124:
4123:
4034:Classical Syriac
4009:
4008:
3985:Syrian civil war
3883:Classical Syriac
3837:
3836:
3817:
3605:Jerusalem Talmud
3576:Bodleian Library
3490:Mandaic language
3436:Nestorian Church
3375:
3374:
3355:
3283:
3282:
3263:
3254:Classical Syriac
3177:
3154:
3138:
3096:
3031:
3024:
3020:
3017:
3011:
2980:
2972:
2896:Western dialects
2849:Classical Syriac
2812:Eastern dialects
2779:Imperial Aramaic
2584:
2577:The fall of the
2490:Biblical studies
2450:Biblical Aramaic
2445:Biblical Aramaic
2423:Book of Proverbs
2374:Imperial Aramaic
2354:
2347:
2340:
2138:Aramaic alphabet
2133:Aramaic language
2120:
2119:
2116:Imperial Aramaic
2110:Imperial Aramaic
2053:Fertile Crescent
1914:
1904:
1900:
1890:
1886:
1876:
1872:
1862:
1847:
1837:
1833:
1823:
1819:
1809:
1805:
1800:Official Aramaic
1795:
1776:
1766:
1762:
1752:
1714:
1669:Mandaic alphabet
1661:Biblical Aramaic
1643:Aramaic alphabet
1530:, also known as
1382:
1381:
1376:
1375:
1358:
1357:
1318:
1315:
1222:Carpentras Stele
1182:Carpentras Stele
1106:faiths, such as
1044:Classical Syriac
1040:sacred languages
1001:Imperial Aramaic
974:Jerusalem Talmud
954:Galilean dialect
952:, who spoke the
948:Aramaic was the
821:
818:
792:
722:Aramaic alphabet
641:in the towns of
597:
591:romanized:
590:
588:
583:Classical Syriac
580:
574:romanized:
573:
571:
534:
520:
500:
490:
480:
470:
460:
450:
440:
430:
420:
410:
400:
390:
380:
370:
360:
350:
340:
333:Armazic language
330:
320:
313:Classical Syriac
310:
303:Imperial Aramaic
300:
291:
276:Aramaic alphabet
239:
227:
187:Imperial Aramaic
112:
81:Fertile Crescent
72:
66:
65:
60:
59:
48:
47:
27:Semitic language
21:
14859:
14858:
14854:
14853:
14852:
14850:
14849:
14848:
14829:
14828:
14827:
14822:
14781:
14735:
14709:
14618:Culture/society
14613:
14506:
14502:Muslim conquest
14472:Fall of Babylon
14403:
14304:
14291:
14175:
14093:
14088:
14058:
14053:
14041:
14031:
14029:
14021:
13964:
13839:
13816:Mardin Province
13679:
13658:
13641:Simele massacre
13575:
13504:
13469:(1st to 3rd c.)
13451:(64 BCE–637 CE)
13445:(66 BCE–217 CE)
13431:Parthian Empire
13425:Seleucid Empire
13417:
13411:
13407:Assyrian tribes
13375:(2025–1364 BCE)
13369:(2600–2025 BCE)
13348:
13346:
13343:
13335:
13292:
13245:
13229:
13198:
13157:
13150:
13149:
13145:
13139:
13138:
13134:
13128:
13127:
13123:
13114:
13083:
13072:
13070:Assyrian people
13067:
13037:
13032:
12999:
12922:
12853:
12819:
12775:
12759:Amharic–Argobba
12751:
12738:
12689:
12650:
12625:
12563:
12467:
12442:
12398:
12347:
12343:Urmia Christian
12284:
12273:
12266:
12181:
12144:
12083:
12043:Egyptian Arabic
12029:
12025:Modern Standard
12008:
11893:
11855:
11822:
11817:
11784:Wayback Machine
11757:Wayback Machine
11740:
11735:
11729:
11708:
11687:
11664:
11641:
11620:
11571:
11550:
11527:
11504:
11483:
11451:
11428:
11405:
11384:
11363:
11331:
11310:
11289:
11265:
11217:
11193:
11185:. Eisenbrauns.
11154:
11091:(1–2): 113–31.
11069:
11046:
11023:
10999:
10940:
10916:
10892:
10866:
10842:
10831:
10800:
10772:
10770:
10766:
10755:
10741:
10701:(1–2): 98–115.
10648:
10625:
10602:
10579:
10555:
10532:
10509:
10485:
10470:
10459:
10421:
10400:
10377:
10342:
10321:
10298:
10275:
10252:
10230:
10204:
10185:
10162:
10137:
10122:
10107:
10092:
10034:
10011:
9990:
9958:10.2307/3265697
9930:
9907:
9876:10.2307/3267414
9848:
9817:
9804:
9802:
9798:
9787:
9776:
9755:
9721:
9698:
9675:
9648:
9637:
9625:
9619:
9592:
9574:ARAM Periodical
9522:
9458:
9434:
9413:
9350:
9286:
9267:
9262:
9261:
9211:
9207:
9202:
9197:
9196:
9187:
9185:
9177:
9176:
9172:
9163:
9161:
9153:
9152:
9148:
9138:
9136:
9128:
9127:
9123:
9112:
9108:
9101:
9087:
9083:
9074:
9073:
9069:
9061:
9057:
9049:
9045:
9037:
9033:
9022:
9006:
9002:
8994:
8990:
8979:
8965:
8961:
8951:
8939:
8938:
8934:
8926:
8922:
8912:
8898:
8894:
8886:
8882:
8874:
8870:
8862:
8858:
8848:
8846:
8839:
8835:
8824:
8810:
8806:
8796:
8794:
8793:on 3 April 2004
8779:
8775:
8768:
8764:
8757:
8753:
8746:
8742:
8735:
8728:
8720:
8716:
8689:
8685:
8678:
8662:
8658:
8651:
8635:
8631:
8624:
8608:
8604:
8594:
8592:
8590:
8574:
8570:
8562:
8558:
8550:
8546:
8538:
8534:
8526:
8522:
8514:
8510:
8502:
8498:
8491:
8487:
8479:
8475:
8468:
8464:
8453:
8449:
8442:
8428:
8424:
8416:
8412:
8402:
8400:
8389:
8385:
8378:
8360:Geiger, Wilhelm
8357:
8353:
8338:10.2307/2718444
8322:
8318:
8308:
8306:
8295:
8291:
8283:
8279:
8271:
8267:
8259:
8255:
8247:
8243:
8235:
8231:
8223:
8219:
8211:
8204:
8197:
8181:
8177:
8167:
8165:
8164:on 4 March 2016
8161:
8154:
8148:
8144:
8136:
8132:
8124:
8120:
8112:
8108:
8100:
8096:
8088:
8084:
8076:
8072:
8065:
8049:
8045:
8035:
8033:
8024:
8023:
8019:
8014:Times of Israel
8011:
8007:
7999:
7995:
7987:
7983:
7975:
7966:
7958:
7954:
7946:
7942:
7904:
7900:
7892:
7888:
7880:
7876:
7868:
7864:
7855:
7853:
7845:
7844:
7840:
7831:
7829:
7821:
7820:
7816:
7808:
7804:
7796:
7792:
7782:
7780:
7772:
7771:
7767:
7757:
7755:
7742:
7741:
7737:
7730:
7726:
7719:
7715:
7708:
7704:
7680:
7676:
7670:
7663:
7652:
7636:
7632:
7624:
7620:
7612:
7608:
7600:
7596:
7587:
7583:
7574:
7570:
7554:
7550:
7542:
7538:
7530:
7526:
7518:
7514:
7498:
7497:
7488:
7486:
7484:
7466:An Eye for Form
7458:
7454:
7430:
7426:
7392:
7388:
7378:
7362:
7358:
7342:
7338:
7333:Wayback Machine
7323:
7319:
7296:
7292:
7279:
7278:
7274:
7266:
7262:
7254:
7250:
7242:
7231:
7194:
7190:
7182:
7178:
7170:
7166:
7158:
7154:
7146:
7139:
7131:
7124:
7116:
7112:
7104:
7100:
7092:
7088:
7080:
7076:
7068:
7064:
7056:
7052:
7045:www.sefaria.org
7041:"Sanhedrin 38b"
7039:
7038:
7034:
7026:
7019:
7011:
7007:
6999:
6992:
6982:
6980:
6979:. 10 April 2024
6971:
6970:
6966:
6956:
6942:
6938:
6923:
6907:
6903:
6895:
6891:
6883:
6879:
6871:
6867:
6859:
6855:
6847:
6843:
6835:
6831:
6823:
6819:
6811:
6802:
6794:
6787:
6779:
6775:
6769:Greenfield 1995
6767:
6763:
6755:
6751:
6747:
6717:
6713:
6705:
6701:
6691:
6673:
6669:
6661:
6657:
6650:
6636:Rubin, Aaron D.
6629:
6625:
6621:
6612:
6590:
6566:
6544:
6522:
6497:
6465:
6448:
6444:
6436:
6429:
6419:
6405:
6401:
6387:
6373:
6369:
6364:
6360:
6349:
6331:
6327:
6322:
6317:
6288:Hebrew alphabet
6273:Arabic alphabet
6268:Aramaic studies
6247:
6240:
6233:
6226:
6223:
6093:Perfect active
5983:
5821:
5819:Aspectual tense
5785:
5701:instead of ין-
5462:
5405:
5396:Syriac alphabet
5291:Tiberian Hebrew
5274:
5183:
5182:
5174:
5172:
5171:
5170:
5169:
5162:
5159:
5152:
5146:
4600:
4585:
4559:
4494:mater lectionis
4252:
4223:
4222:
4221:
4189:
4001:
3971:'s side of the
3953:
3947:
3852:
3851:
3843:
3841:
3840:
3839:
3838:
3831:
3828:
3821:
3815:
3810:
3798:Main articles:
3785:
3765:language shifts
3725:Eastern Aramaic
3713:
3692:
3643:
3637:
3585:
3568:
3552:
3546:
3522:
3492:
3486:
3484:Mandaic Aramaic
3466:
3460:
3404:
3403:
3395:
3393:
3392:
3391:
3390:
3384:Abun D'Bashmayo
3376:
3369:
3366:
3364:Abun D'Bashmayo
3359:
3353:
3338:John Chrysostom
3323:
3321:Syriac language
3317:
3312:
3311:
3303:
3301:
3300:
3299:
3298:
3284:
3277:
3274:
3267:
3261:
3238:Aramaic scripts
3222:
3213:
3032:
3021:
3015:
3012:
2997:
2981:
2970:
2964:
2904:
2898:
2820:
2814:
2795:
2787:Arabic alphabet
2771:Sinai Peninsula
2757:. The kingdom (
2748:
2739:
2724:Targum Jonathan
2712:
2600:Seleucid Empire
2520:
2502:Aramaic studies
2447:
2418:Story of Ahikar
2390:Pahlavi scripts
2358:
2156:Biblical region
2118:
2112:
2049:
2043:
2041:Ancient Aramaic
2004:Sasanian Empire
1982:, northwestern
1978:, northeastern
1974:communities in
1948:
1922:
1783:Joseph Fitzmyer
1721:
1719:
1712:
1665:Syriac alphabet
1657:Hebrew alphabet
1645:
1628:
1592:
1516:, and southern
1397:
1332:region of Syria
1316:
1174:
1166:language shifts
1074:, and also the
1072:Maronite Church
1013:Pahlavi scripts
819:
808:
786:
742:Arabic alphabet
738:Hebrew alphabet
730:Syriac alphabet
635:Western Aramaic
624:Sinai Peninsula
612:southern Levant
604:region of Syria
530:
516:
496:
495:
486:
485:
483:Turoyo language
476:
475:
466:
465:
456:
455:
446:
445:
436:
435:
426:
425:
416:
415:
413:Mlaḥsô language
406:
405:
396:
395:
386:
385:
376:
375:
366:
365:
356:
355:
346:
345:
336:
335:
326:
325:
316:
315:
306:
305:
296:
295:
287:
269:
262:Hebrew alphabet
260:
251:
244:Syriac alphabet
240:
235:
218:Western Aramaic
213:Eastern Aramaic
202:
167:
160:
133:Central Semitic
113:
110:Language family
108:
67:
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
14857:
14847:
14846:
14841:
14824:
14823:
14821:
14820:
14815:
14810:
14805:
14800:
14798:Assyriologists
14795:
14789:
14787:
14783:
14782:
14780:
14779:
14774:
14769:
14764:
14759:
14754:
14749:
14743:
14741:
14737:
14736:
14734:
14733:
14728:
14723:
14717:
14715:
14711:
14710:
14708:
14707:
14705:List of rulers
14702:
14697:
14692:
14687:
14682:
14677:
14672:
14667:
14662:
14657:
14652:
14647:
14642:
14637:
14632:
14627:
14621:
14619:
14615:
14614:
14612:
14611:
14606:
14601:
14596:
14594:Proto-Armenian
14591:
14586:
14581:
14579:Middle Persian
14576:
14571:
14566:
14561:
14556:
14551:
14546:
14541:
14536:
14531:
14526:
14520:
14518:
14512:
14511:
14508:
14507:
14505:
14504:
14499:
14494:
14489:
14484:
14479:
14474:
14469:
14467:Neo-Babylonian
14464:
14459:
14454:
14449:
14447:Old Babylonian
14444:
14439:
14434:
14429:
14424:
14419:
14417:Early Dynastic
14413:
14411:
14405:
14404:
14402:
14401:
14396:
14391:
14386:
14381:
14376:
14367:
14362:
14357:
14352:
14347:
14342:
14337:
14332:
14327:
14321:
14319:
14310:
14306:
14305:
14298:
14296:
14293:
14292:
14290:
14289:
14284:
14279:
14274:
14269:
14264:
14259:
14254:
14249:
14244:
14239:
14234:
14229:
14224:
14219:
14214:
14209:
14204:
14199:
14194:
14189:
14183:
14181:
14177:
14176:
14174:
14173:
14168:
14163:
14158:
14157:
14156:
14151:
14141:
14136:
14131:
14126:
14121:
14116:
14110:
14108:
14101:
14095:
14094:
14087:
14086:
14079:
14072:
14064:
14055:
14054:
14052:
14051:
14039:
14026:
14023:
14022:
14020:
14019:
14014:
14009:
14004:
13999:
13994:
13989:
13984:
13978:
13976:
13970:
13969:
13966:
13965:
13963:
13962:
13957:
13956:
13955:
13945:
13943:United Kingdom
13940:
13935:
13930:
13925:
13920:
13915:
13910:
13905:
13900:
13895:
13890:
13885:
13880:
13875:
13870:
13865:
13860:
13855:
13849:
13847:
13841:
13840:
13838:
13837:
13836:
13835:
13834:
13833:
13828:
13823:
13813:
13808:
13803:
13793:
13792:
13791:
13786:
13785:
13784:
13779:
13774:
13759:
13758:
13757:
13752:
13747:
13737:
13736:
13735:
13730:
13725:
13720:
13719:
13718:
13713:
13708:
13703:
13696:Nineveh Plains
13687:
13685:
13670:
13664:
13663:
13660:
13659:
13657:
13656:
13650:
13644:
13638:
13632:
13626:
13623:Adana massacre
13620:
13614:
13608:
13602:
13599:Schism of 1552
13596:
13593:Ottoman Empire
13590:
13587:Safavid Empire
13583:
13581:
13577:
13576:
13574:
13573:
13567:
13561:
13555:
13549:
13543:
13537:
13534:Emirs of Mosul
13531:
13525:
13519:
13512:
13510:
13506:
13505:
13503:
13502:
13496:
13490:
13476:
13470:
13464:
13458:
13452:
13446:
13440:
13434:
13428:
13421:
13419:
13413:
13412:
13410:
13409:
13404:
13399:
13394:
13388:
13382:
13381:(1363–912 BCE)
13376:
13370:
13363:
13361:
13351:
13337:
13336:
13334:
13333:
13328:
13323:
13318:
13313:
13308:
13302:
13300:
13294:
13293:
13291:
13290:
13285:
13280:
13275:
13270:
13265:
13260:
13255:
13249:
13247:
13235:
13234:
13231:
13230:
13228:
13227:
13221:
13215:
13208:
13206:
13200:
13199:
13197:
13196:
13190:
13184:
13178:
13171:
13169:
13160:
13152:
13151:
13117:
13115:
13113:
13112:
13107:
13102:
13097:
13091:
13089:
13085:
13084:
13077:
13074:
13073:
13066:
13065:
13058:
13051:
13043:
13034:
13033:
13031:
13030:
13023:
13012:
13009:
13008:
13005:
13004:
13001:
13000:
12998:
12997:
12990:
12985:
12980:
12979:
12978:
12964:
12957:
12950:
12944:
12942:
12936:
12935:
12932:
12931:
12928:
12927:
12924:
12923:
12921:
12920:
12919:
12918:
12917:
12916:
12913:
12910:
12907:
12904:
12894:
12889:
12888:
12887:
12874:
12869:
12861:
12859:
12855:
12854:
12852:
12851:
12846:
12838:
12836:
12829:
12825:
12824:
12821:
12820:
12818:
12817:
12812:
12811:
12810:
12805:
12804:
12803:
12800:
12797:
12783:
12781:
12777:
12776:
12774:
12773:
12768:
12762:
12760:
12753:
12744:
12740:
12739:
12737:
12736:
12731:
12730:
12729:
12724:
12713:
12711:
12704:
12695:
12691:
12690:
12688:
12687:
12682:
12677:
12672:
12667:
12662:
12656:
12654:
12641:
12635:
12634:
12631:
12630:
12627:
12626:
12624:
12623:
12616:
12609:
12602:
12595:
12594:
12593:
12586:
12571:
12569:
12565:
12564:
12562:
12561:
12560:
12559:
12545:
12538:
12537:
12536:
12531:
12524:
12517:
12516:
12515:
12496:
12489:
12481:
12479:
12473:
12472:
12469:
12468:
12466:
12465:
12460:
12454:
12452:
12448:
12447:
12444:
12443:
12441:
12440:
12435:
12430:
12429:
12428:
12423:
12410:
12408:
12404:
12403:
12400:
12399:
12397:
12396:
12391:
12386:
12381:
12376:
12371:
12366:
12361:
12355:
12353:
12349:
12348:
12346:
12345:
12340:
12339:
12338:
12335:
12327:
12322:
12317:
12312:
12307:
12302:
12296:
12294:
12287:
12276:
12268:
12267:
12265:
12264:
12263:
12262:
12250:
12243:
12242:
12241:
12234:
12227:
12220:
12208:
12201:
12193:
12191:
12183:
12182:
12180:
12179:
12174:
12169:
12162:
12154:
12152:
12146:
12145:
12143:
12142:
12139:Middle Aramaic
12135:
12128:
12121:
12113:
12111:
12104:
12095:
12089:
12088:
12085:
12084:
12082:
12081:
12076:
12071:
12070:
12069:
12068:
12067:
12050:
12045:
12039:
12037:
12035:Dialect groups
12031:
12030:
12028:
12027:
12022:
12016:
12014:
12010:
12009:
12007:
12006:
11999:
11992:
11991:
11990:
11983:
11976:
11969:
11962:
11955:
11948:
11934:
11927:
11919:
11917:
11910:
11901:
11895:
11894:
11892:
11891:
11884:
11883:
11882:
11867:
11865:
11857:
11856:
11854:
11853:
11852:
11851:
11846:
11836:
11830:
11828:
11824:
11823:
11816:
11815:
11808:
11801:
11793:
11787:
11786:
11774:
11769:
11759:
11747:
11739:
11738:External links
11736:
11734:
11733:
11727:
11712:
11706:
11691:
11685:
11668:
11662:
11645:
11639:
11624:
11618:
11601:
11588:
11575:
11569:
11554:
11548:
11531:
11525:
11508:
11502:
11487:
11481:
11466:
11455:
11449:
11432:
11426:
11409:
11403:
11388:
11382:
11367:
11361:
11346:
11335:
11329:
11314:
11308:
11293:
11287:
11269:
11263:
11246:
11221:
11215:
11197:
11191:
11176:
11158:
11152:
11135:
11121:
11101:
11073:
11067:
11050:
11044:
11027:
11021:
11003:
10997:
10980:
10948:Macuch, Rudolf
10944:
10938:
10920:
10914:
10896:
10890:
10874:Lemaire, André
10870:
10865:978-0310321859
10864:
10847:
10821:
10804:
10798:
10782:Khan, Geoffrey
10778:
10749:Khan, Geoffrey
10745:
10739:
10723:Kapeliuk, Olga
10719:
10707:10.1086/368803
10683:
10669:
10652:
10646:
10629:
10623:
10606:
10600:
10583:
10577:
10565:, ed. (1990).
10559:
10553:
10536:
10530:
10513:
10507:
10490:
10463:
10457:
10442:
10425:
10419:
10404:
10398:
10381:
10375:
10363:Gzella, Holger
10359:
10346:
10340:
10325:
10319:
10302:
10296:
10279:
10273:
10256:
10250:
10234:
10228:
10208:
10202:
10189:
10183:
10166:
10160:
10142:
10140:on 2020-07-11.
10112:
10110:on 2020-07-13.
10082:
10062:10.1086/373570
10038:
10032:
10015:
10009:
9994:
9988:
9970:
9934:
9928:
9911:
9905:
9888:
9852:
9846:
9826:
9810:
9780:
9774:
9759:
9753:
9738:
9725:
9719:
9702:
9696:
9679:
9673:
9657:Burtea, Bogdan
9653:
9630:
9617:
9582:
9562:
9526:
9520:
9503:
9483:10.1086/370861
9462:
9456:
9442:Black, Matthew
9438:
9432:
9417:
9411:
9398:
9371:
9354:
9348:
9331:
9319:10.1086/677249
9311:10.1086/677249
9305:(2): 299–317.
9290:
9284:
9268:
9266:
9263:
9260:
9259:
9215:ܐܪܡܝܐ, ܐܪܐܡܝܬܐ
9204:
9203:
9201:
9198:
9195:
9194:
9170:
9146:
9121:
9106:
9099:
9081:
9067:
9055:
9043:
9031:
9020:
9000:
8988:
8977:
8959:
8949:
8932:
8928:Sokoloff 2012a
8920:
8910:
8892:
8888:Sokoloff 2012b
8880:
8868:
8856:
8833:
8822:
8804:
8773:
8762:
8751:
8740:
8726:
8714:
8695:(341): 53–62.
8683:
8676:
8656:
8649:
8629:
8622:
8602:
8588:
8579:Ancient Persia
8568:
8556:
8544:
8540:Kautzsch 1884b
8532:
8528:Kautzsch 1884a
8520:
8508:
8504:Gallagher 2012
8496:
8485:
8473:
8462:
8447:
8440:
8422:
8410:
8383:
8377:978-1421246864
8376:
8351:
8316:
8289:
8277:
8265:
8253:
8241:
8237:Heinrichs 1990
8229:
8217:
8202:
8195:
8175:
8142:
8130:
8118:
8106:
8094:
8082:
8070:
8063:
8043:
8017:
8005:
7993:
7981:
7964:
7952:
7940:
7923:10.1086/368803
7898:
7886:
7874:
7872:, p. 350.
7862:
7847:"Search Entry"
7838:
7814:
7802:
7790:
7765:
7735:
7724:
7713:
7702:
7674:
7661:
7650:
7630:
7618:
7606:
7594:
7581:
7568:
7548:
7536:
7524:
7512:
7482:
7452:
7424:
7408:10.2307/593293
7386:
7376:
7356:
7336:
7317:
7306:(4): 359–394.
7290:
7281:"Did you know"
7272:
7260:
7256:Heinrichs 1990
7248:
7229:
7188:
7176:
7164:
7152:
7137:
7122:
7110:
7106:Rosenthal 2006
7098:
7086:
7084:, p. 237.
7074:
7062:
7050:
7032:
7017:
7005:
6990:
6964:
6954:
6936:
6921:
6901:
6889:
6877:
6865:
6853:
6841:
6829:
6817:
6800:
6785:
6773:
6761:
6749:
6746:
6745:
6740:
6734:
6729:
6724:
6718:
6711:
6699:
6689:
6667:
6655:
6648:
6623:
6620:
6619:
6610:
6597:
6588:
6573:
6564:
6551:
6542:
6529:
6520:
6505:
6495:
6472:
6463:
6449:
6442:
6427:
6417:
6399:
6385:
6367:
6358:
6347:
6324:
6323:
6321:
6318:
6316:
6315:
6310:
6305:
6300:
6295:
6290:
6285:
6280:
6275:
6270:
6265:
6260:
6254:
6253:
6252:
6238:
6222:
6219:
6211:auxiliary verb
6197:
6196:
6194:
6192:
6189:
6186:
6182:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6173:
6170:
6166:
6165:
6163:
6161:
6158:
6155:
6151:
6150:
6148:
6145:
6142:
6139:
6135:
6134:
6132:
6130:
6127:
6124:
6120:
6119:
6117:
6114:
6111:
6108:
6104:
6103:
6100:
6097:
6094:
6091:
5982:
5979:
5976:
5975:
5972:
5969:
5966:
5963:
5959:
5958:
5955:
5952:
5949:
5946:
5942:
5941:
5938:
5935:
5932:
5929:
5925:
5924:
5921:
5918:
5915:
5912:
5908:
5907:
5904:
5901:
5898:
5895:
5891:
5890:
5887:
5884:
5881:
5877:
5876:
5873:
5870:
5820:
5817:
5784:
5781:
5777:
5776:
5767:
5756:
5681:
5680:
5677:
5674:
5671:
5668:
5664:
5663:
5660:
5657:
5654:
5650:
5649:
5646:
5643:
5640:
5637:
5633:
5632:
5629:
5626:
5623:
5620:
5574:Whereas other
5572:
5571:
5544:
5511:
5461:
5458:
5457:
5456:
5449:
5442:
5435:
5428:
5404:
5401:
5400:
5399:
5389:
5378:
5356:
5353:pharyngealized
5338:
5284:
5273:
5270:
5254:alveolar trill
5230:
5229:
5222:
5215:
5208:
5173:
5160:
5155:
5154:
5153:
5144:
5143:
5142:
5141:
5140:
5129:
5118:
5107:
5096:
5057:
5056:
5023:
4990:
4943:
4942:
4940:
4938:
4936:
4934:
4932:
4925:
4923:
4921:
4915:
4914:
4912:
4910:
4903:
4896:
4894:
4887:
4885:
4883:
4877:
4876:
4874:
4867:
4860:
4858:
4856:
4849:
4842:
4835:
4827:
4826:
4819:
4812:
4805:
4798:
4791:
4784:
4777:
4770:
4763:
4757:
4756:
4754:
4752:
4745:
4743:
4741:
4734:
4732:
4725:
4717:
4716:
4709:
4702:
4695:
4693:
4686:
4679:
4677:
4670:
4663:
4657:
4656:
4654:
4652:
4650:
4648:
4646:
4639:
4637:
4630:
4624:
4623:
4616:
4610:
4609:
4604:
4594:
4589:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4564:
4558:
4555:
4550:respectively.
4384:
4383:
4376:
4369:
4356:
4355:
4346:
4339:
4333:
4332:
4323:
4316:
4310:
4309:
4302:
4295:
4289:
4288:
4281:
4274:
4268:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4251:
4248:
4216:⟩, see
4192:
4191:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4182:
4181:
4176:
4172:
4171:
4166:
4159:
4158:
4153:
4146:
4145:
4140:
4136:
4135:
4132:
4114:
4113:
4093:
4086:
4085:
4065:
4058:
4057:
4037:
4030:
4029:
4017:
4000:
3997:
3949:Main article:
3946:
3943:
3933:living in the
3910:Nineveh Plains
3842:
3829:
3824:
3823:
3822:
3813:
3812:
3811:
3793:Eastern Syriac
3784:
3781:
3709:Main article:
3691:
3690:Modern Aramaic
3688:
3639:Main article:
3636:
3633:
3617:vowel pointing
3581:Main article:
3567:
3564:
3548:Main article:
3545:
3542:
3521:
3518:
3488:Main article:
3485:
3482:
3462:Main article:
3459:
3456:
3434:and later the
3414:, centered in
3394:
3377:
3367:
3362:
3361:
3360:
3351:
3350:
3349:
3344:Gospel of John
3342:Homily on the
3336:manuscript of
3319:Main article:
3316:
3315:Syriac Aramaic
3313:
3302:
3285:
3275:
3270:
3269:
3268:
3259:
3258:
3257:
3252:dialects, and
3221:
3218:
3212:
3211:Middle Aramaic
3209:
3197:The 2004 film
3195:
3194:
3191:
3188:
3130:semantic loans
3034:
3033:
2984:
2982:
2975:
2963:
2960:
2947:The Jewish War
2900:Main article:
2897:
2894:
2816:Main article:
2813:
2810:
2794:
2791:
2747:
2744:
2738:
2735:
2720:Targum Onqelos
2711:
2708:
2688:Middle Persian
2654:understood as
2651:Middle Iranian
2608:Greek language
2606:, and favored
2602:that promoted
2596:Greek language
2519:
2516:
2483:
2482:
2476:
2473:Jeremiah 10:11
2470:
2464:
2446:
2443:
2360:
2359:
2357:
2356:
2349:
2342:
2334:
2331:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2320:
2319:
2315:
2314:
2313:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2239:
2238:
2237:Aramean cities
2234:
2233:
2232:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2188:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2150:
2149:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2135:
2127:
2126:
2114:Main article:
2111:
2108:
2042:
2039:
2013:(911–608 BC),
1972:Mizrahi Jewish
1944:Main article:
1921:
1918:
1917:
1916:
1906:
1892:
1881:Middle Aramaic
1878:
1864:
1850:
1849:
1842:Modern Aramaic
1839:
1825:
1814:Middle Aramaic
1811:
1797:
1779:
1778:
1771:Modern Aramaic
1768:
1757:Middle Aramaic
1754:
1723:
1722:
1717:
1711:
1708:
1641:Main article:
1627:
1626:Writing system
1624:
1591:
1588:
1396:
1393:
1317: 3500 BC
1260:Masoretic Text
1226:Book of Daniel
1210:paleographical
1204:published his
1184:was the first
1173:
1170:
1118:first language
1025:Middle Persian
807:
804:
736:, such as the
657:spoken by the
620:Eastern Arabia
536:
535:
528:
522:
521:
514:
506:
505:
463:Suret language
423:Modern Mandaic
292:
284:
283:
282:Language codes
279:
278:
241:
237:Writing system
234:
231:
230:
229:
228:
220:
215:
208:
204:
203:
201:
200:
199:
198:
197:
196:
195:
194:
192:Middle Aramaic
170:
168:
165:
162:
161:
159:
158:
157:
156:
155:
154:
153:
152:
151:
150:
149:
148:
116:
114:
107:
104:
103:
101:eastern Arabia
78:
74:
73:
53:
52:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
14856:
14845:
14842:
14840:
14837:
14836:
14834:
14819:
14816:
14814:
14811:
14809:
14806:
14804:
14801:
14799:
14796:
14794:
14791:
14790:
14788:
14784:
14778:
14775:
14773:
14770:
14768:
14765:
14763:
14760:
14758:
14755:
14753:
14750:
14748:
14745:
14744:
14742:
14738:
14732:
14729:
14727:
14724:
14722:
14719:
14718:
14716:
14712:
14706:
14703:
14701:
14698:
14696:
14693:
14691:
14688:
14686:
14683:
14681:
14678:
14676:
14673:
14671:
14668:
14666:
14663:
14661:
14658:
14656:
14653:
14651:
14648:
14646:
14643:
14641:
14638:
14636:
14633:
14631:
14628:
14626:
14623:
14622:
14620:
14616:
14610:
14607:
14605:
14602:
14600:
14597:
14595:
14592:
14590:
14587:
14585:
14582:
14580:
14577:
14575:
14572:
14570:
14567:
14565:
14562:
14560:
14557:
14555:
14552:
14550:
14547:
14545:
14542:
14540:
14537:
14535:
14532:
14530:
14527:
14525:
14522:
14521:
14519:
14517:
14513:
14503:
14500:
14498:
14495:
14493:
14490:
14488:
14485:
14483:
14480:
14478:
14475:
14473:
14470:
14468:
14465:
14463:
14460:
14458:
14455:
14453:
14450:
14448:
14445:
14443:
14440:
14438:
14435:
14433:
14430:
14428:
14425:
14423:
14420:
14418:
14415:
14414:
14412:
14410:
14406:
14400:
14397:
14395:
14392:
14390:
14387:
14385:
14382:
14380:
14377:
14375:
14371:
14368:
14366:
14363:
14361:
14358:
14356:
14353:
14351:
14348:
14346:
14343:
14341:
14338:
14336:
14333:
14331:
14328:
14326:
14323:
14322:
14320:
14318:
14314:
14311:
14307:
14302:
14288:
14285:
14283:
14280:
14278:
14275:
14273:
14270:
14268:
14265:
14263:
14260:
14258:
14255:
14253:
14250:
14248:
14245:
14243:
14240:
14238:
14235:
14233:
14230:
14228:
14225:
14223:
14220:
14218:
14215:
14213:
14210:
14208:
14205:
14203:
14200:
14198:
14195:
14193:
14190:
14188:
14185:
14184:
14182:
14178:
14172:
14169:
14167:
14164:
14162:
14159:
14155:
14152:
14150:
14147:
14146:
14145:
14142:
14140:
14137:
14135:
14134:Syrian Desert
14132:
14130:
14127:
14125:
14122:
14120:
14117:
14115:
14112:
14111:
14109:
14105:
14102:
14100:
14096:
14092:
14085:
14080:
14078:
14073:
14071:
14066:
14065:
14062:
14050:
14045:
14040:
14038:
14028:
14027:
14024:
14018:
14015:
14013:
14010:
14008:
14005:
14003:
14000:
13998:
13995:
13993:
13990:
13988:
13985:
13983:
13980:
13979:
13977:
13975:
13971:
13961:
13958:
13954:
13951:
13950:
13949:
13948:United States
13946:
13944:
13941:
13939:
13936:
13934:
13931:
13929:
13926:
13924:
13921:
13919:
13916:
13914:
13911:
13909:
13906:
13904:
13901:
13899:
13896:
13894:
13891:
13889:
13886:
13884:
13881:
13879:
13876:
13874:
13871:
13869:
13866:
13864:
13861:
13859:
13856:
13854:
13851:
13850:
13848:
13846:
13842:
13832:
13829:
13827:
13824:
13822:
13819:
13818:
13817:
13814:
13812:
13809:
13807:
13804:
13802:
13799:
13798:
13797:
13794:
13790:
13787:
13783:
13780:
13778:
13775:
13773:
13770:
13769:
13768:
13765:
13764:
13763:
13760:
13756:
13753:
13751:
13748:
13746:
13743:
13742:
13741:
13738:
13734:
13731:
13729:
13726:
13724:
13721:
13717:
13714:
13712:
13709:
13707:
13704:
13702:
13699:
13698:
13697:
13694:
13693:
13692:
13689:
13688:
13686:
13683:
13678:
13674:
13671:
13669:
13665:
13654:
13651:
13648:
13645:
13642:
13639:
13636:
13633:
13630:
13627:
13624:
13621:
13618:
13615:
13612:
13609:
13606:
13603:
13600:
13597:
13594:
13591:
13588:
13585:
13584:
13582:
13578:
13571:
13568:
13565:
13562:
13559:
13556:
13553:
13550:
13547:
13544:
13541:
13540:Buyid amirate
13538:
13535:
13532:
13529:
13526:
13523:
13520:
13517:
13514:
13513:
13511:
13507:
13500:
13497:
13494:
13491:
13488:
13484:
13480:
13477:
13474:
13471:
13468:
13465:
13462:
13461:Roman Assyria
13459:
13456:
13453:
13450:
13447:
13444:
13441:
13438:
13435:
13432:
13429:
13426:
13423:
13422:
13420:
13414:
13408:
13405:
13403:
13400:
13398:
13395:
13392:
13389:
13387:(911–609 BCE)
13386:
13383:
13380:
13377:
13374:
13371:
13368:
13365:
13364:
13362:
13360:
13355:
13352:
13342:
13338:
13332:
13329:
13327:
13324:
13322:
13319:
13317:
13314:
13312:
13309:
13307:
13304:
13303:
13301:
13299:
13295:
13289:
13288:Syriac script
13286:
13284:
13281:
13279:
13276:
13274:
13271:
13269:
13266:
13264:
13261:
13259:
13256:
13254:
13251:
13250:
13248:
13244:
13240:
13236:
13225:
13222:
13219:
13216:
13213:
13210:
13209:
13207:
13205:
13201:
13194:
13191:
13188:
13185:
13182:
13179:
13176:
13173:
13172:
13170:
13168:
13164:
13161:
13159:
13153:
13148:
13147:Chaldean flag
13143:
13137:
13132:
13126:
13125:Assyrian flag
13121:
13111:
13108:
13106:
13103:
13101:
13098:
13096:
13093:
13092:
13090:
13086:
13081:
13075:
13071:
13064:
13059:
13057:
13052:
13050:
13045:
13044:
13041:
13028:
13024:
13021:
13017:
13014:
13013:
13010:
12996:
12995:
12991:
12989:
12986:
12984:
12981:
12977:
12976:
12972:
12971:
12970:
12969:
12965:
12963:
12962:
12958:
12956:
12955:
12951:
12949:
12946:
12945:
12943:
12941:
12937:
12914:
12911:
12908:
12905:
12903:
12900:
12899:
12898:
12895:
12893:
12890:
12885:
12884:
12883:
12880:
12879:
12878:
12875:
12873:
12870:
12868:
12867:
12863:
12862:
12860:
12856:
12850:
12847:
12845:
12844:
12840:
12839:
12837:
12833:
12830:
12826:
12816:
12813:
12809:
12806:
12801:
12798:
12795:
12794:
12793:
12790:
12789:
12788:
12785:
12784:
12782:
12778:
12772:
12769:
12767:
12764:
12763:
12761:
12757:
12754:
12748:
12745:
12741:
12735:
12732:
12728:
12725:
12723:
12720:
12719:
12718:
12715:
12714:
12712:
12708:
12705:
12703:
12702:Ethio-Semitic
12699:
12696:
12692:
12686:
12683:
12681:
12678:
12676:
12673:
12671:
12668:
12666:
12663:
12661:
12658:
12657:
12655:
12652:
12645:
12642:
12640:
12636:
12622:
12621:
12617:
12615:
12614:
12610:
12608:
12607:
12603:
12601:
12600:
12596:
12592:
12591:
12587:
12585:
12584:
12580:
12579:
12578:
12577:
12573:
12572:
12570:
12566:
12558:
12557:
12553:
12552:
12551:
12550:
12546:
12544:
12543:
12539:
12535:
12532:
12530:
12529:
12525:
12523:
12522:
12518:
12514:
12513:
12509:
12508:
12507:
12506:
12502:
12501:
12500:
12497:
12495:
12494:
12490:
12488:
12487:
12483:
12482:
12480:
12478:
12474:
12464:
12463:Judeo-Aramaic
12461:
12459:
12456:
12455:
12453:
12449:
12439:
12436:
12434:
12431:
12427:
12424:
12422:
12421:
12417:
12416:
12415:
12412:
12411:
12409:
12405:
12395:
12392:
12390:
12387:
12385:
12382:
12380:
12377:
12375:
12372:
12370:
12367:
12365:
12362:
12360:
12357:
12356:
12354:
12350:
12344:
12341:
12336:
12333:
12332:
12331:
12328:
12326:
12323:
12321:
12318:
12316:
12313:
12311:
12308:
12306:
12303:
12301:
12298:
12297:
12295:
12291:
12288:
12286:
12280:
12277:
12275:
12269:
12261:
12260:
12256:
12255:
12254:
12251:
12249:
12248:
12244:
12240:
12239:
12235:
12233:
12232:
12228:
12226:
12225:
12221:
12219:
12218:
12214:
12213:
12212:
12209:
12207:
12206:
12202:
12200:
12199:
12195:
12194:
12192:
12190:
12189:
12184:
12178:
12175:
12173:
12170:
12168:
12167:
12163:
12161:
12160:
12156:
12155:
12153:
12151:
12147:
12141:
12140:
12136:
12134:
12133:
12129:
12127:
12126:
12122:
12120:
12119:
12115:
12114:
12112:
12108:
12105:
12103:
12099:
12096:
12094:
12090:
12080:
12077:
12075:
12072:
12066:
12063:
12062:
12061:
12060:
12059:Siculo-Arabic
12056:
12055:
12054:
12051:
12049:
12046:
12044:
12041:
12040:
12038:
12036:
12032:
12026:
12023:
12021:
12018:
12017:
12015:
12011:
12005:
12004:
12000:
11998:
11997:
11993:
11989:
11988:
11984:
11982:
11981:
11977:
11975:
11974:
11970:
11968:
11967:
11963:
11961:
11960:
11956:
11954:
11953:
11949:
11947:
11946:
11942:
11941:
11940:
11939:
11935:
11933:
11932:
11928:
11926:
11925:
11921:
11920:
11918:
11914:
11911:
11909:
11905:
11902:
11900:
11896:
11890:
11889:
11885:
11881:
11880:
11876:
11875:
11874:
11873:
11869:
11868:
11866:
11864:
11863:
11858:
11850:
11847:
11845:
11842:
11841:
11840:
11837:
11835:
11832:
11831:
11829:
11825:
11821:
11814:
11809:
11807:
11802:
11800:
11795:
11794:
11791:
11785:
11781:
11778:
11775:
11773:
11770:
11767:
11763:
11760:
11758:
11754:
11751:
11748:
11745:
11742:
11741:
11730:
11728:9781628370843
11724:
11720:
11719:
11713:
11709:
11707:9781583306062
11703:
11699:
11698:
11692:
11688:
11686:9783110251586
11682:
11678:
11674:
11669:
11665:
11663:9781841271583
11659:
11655:
11651:
11646:
11642:
11640:9783447107310
11636:
11632:
11631:
11625:
11621:
11619:9789004264410
11615:
11611:
11607:
11602:
11598:
11594:
11589:
11585:
11581:
11576:
11572:
11570:9789155455552
11566:
11562:
11561:
11555:
11551:
11549:9783110251586
11545:
11541:
11537:
11532:
11528:
11526:9783110251586
11522:
11518:
11514:
11509:
11505:
11503:9781725206175
11499:
11495:
11494:
11488:
11484:
11482:9780567132543
11478:
11474:
11473:
11467:
11463:
11462:
11456:
11452:
11450:9783110251586
11446:
11442:
11438:
11433:
11429:
11427:9783110251586
11423:
11419:
11415:
11410:
11406:
11404:9789652262615
11400:
11396:
11395:
11389:
11385:
11383:9789652262608
11379:
11375:
11374:
11368:
11364:
11362:9789652261014
11358:
11354:
11353:
11347:
11343:
11342:
11336:
11332:
11330:9780520303379
11326:
11322:
11321:
11315:
11311:
11309:9781134801398
11305:
11301:
11300:
11294:
11290:
11288:9783447045575
11284:
11280:
11279:
11274:
11270:
11266:
11264:9789004264410
11260:
11256:
11252:
11247:
11243:
11239:
11236:(2): 306–33.
11235:
11231:
11227:
11222:
11218:
11216:9783447052511
11212:
11208:
11207:
11202:
11198:
11194:
11192:9781575060835
11188:
11184:
11183:
11177:
11173:
11172:
11167:
11166:Socin, Albert
11163:
11159:
11155:
11153:9783447057875
11149:
11145:
11141:
11136:
11132:
11131:
11126:
11122:
11118:
11114:
11110:
11106:
11102:
11098:
11094:
11090:
11086:
11082:
11078:
11074:
11070:
11068:9780953824861
11064:
11060:
11056:
11051:
11047:
11045:9783447057875
11041:
11037:
11033:
11028:
11024:
11022:9789062589814
11018:
11014:
11013:
11008:
11004:
11000:
10998:9783110251586
10994:
10990:
10986:
10981:
10977:
10973:
10969:
10965:
10962:(2): 214–23.
10961:
10957:
10953:
10949:
10945:
10941:
10939:9789042908154
10935:
10931:
10930:
10925:
10921:
10917:
10915:9789042908598
10911:
10907:
10906:
10901:
10897:
10893:
10891:9783447057875
10887:
10883:
10879:
10875:
10871:
10867:
10861:
10858:. Zondervan.
10857:
10853:
10848:
10841:
10837:
10830:
10826:
10822:
10818:
10814:
10810:
10805:
10801:
10799:9783110251586
10795:
10791:
10787:
10783:
10779:
10769:on 2019-08-02
10765:
10761:
10754:
10750:
10746:
10742:
10740:9783110251586
10736:
10732:
10728:
10724:
10720:
10716:
10712:
10708:
10704:
10700:
10696:
10692:
10688:
10684:
10680:
10679:
10674:
10670:
10666:
10662:
10658:
10653:
10649:
10647:9783447057875
10643:
10639:
10635:
10630:
10626:
10624:9783110251586
10620:
10616:
10612:
10607:
10603:
10601:9783447057875
10597:
10593:
10589:
10584:
10580:
10578:9781555404307
10574:
10570:
10569:
10564:
10560:
10556:
10554:9783161577192
10550:
10546:
10542:
10537:
10533:
10531:9783110251586
10527:
10523:
10519:
10514:
10510:
10508:9783447057875
10504:
10500:
10496:
10491:
10484:
10481:(2): 115–27.
10480:
10476:
10469:
10464:
10460:
10458:9780704403901
10454:
10450:
10449:
10443:
10439:
10435:
10431:
10426:
10422:
10420:9781597510172
10416:
10412:
10411:
10405:
10401:
10399:9783110251586
10395:
10391:
10387:
10386:"Neo-Mandaic"
10382:
10378:
10376:9780802877482
10372:
10368:
10364:
10360:
10356:
10352:
10347:
10343:
10341:9789004285101
10337:
10333:
10332:
10326:
10322:
10320:9783110251586
10316:
10312:
10308:
10303:
10299:
10297:9783110251586
10293:
10289:
10285:
10280:
10276:
10274:9783447057875
10270:
10266:
10262:
10257:
10253:
10247:
10243:
10239:
10235:
10231:
10229:9780521200912
10225:
10221:
10217:
10213:
10209:
10205:
10199:
10195:
10190:
10186:
10184:9783447057875
10180:
10176:
10172:
10167:
10163:
10161:9789004228023
10157:
10153:
10152:
10147:
10143:
10136:
10132:
10128:
10121:
10117:
10113:
10106:
10102:
10098:
10091:
10087:
10083:
10079:
10075:
10071:
10067:
10063:
10059:
10056:(4): 281–85.
10055:
10051:
10047:
10043:
10039:
10035:
10033:9783110251586
10029:
10025:
10021:
10016:
10012:
10010:9789068317404
10006:
10002:
10001:
9995:
9991:
9989:9780802848468
9985:
9981:
9980:
9975:
9971:
9967:
9963:
9959:
9955:
9951:
9947:
9943:
9939:
9935:
9931:
9929:9783110251586
9925:
9921:
9917:
9916:"Old Aramaic"
9912:
9908:
9906:9780195079937
9902:
9898:
9894:
9889:
9885:
9881:
9877:
9873:
9870:(4): 710–12.
9869:
9865:
9861:
9857:
9853:
9849:
9847:9781575060200
9843:
9839:
9835:
9831:
9827:
9823:
9816:
9811:
9801:on 2019-08-02
9797:
9793:
9786:
9781:
9777:
9775:9781139438285
9771:
9767:
9766:
9760:
9756:
9754:9781139425872
9750:
9746:
9745:
9739:
9735:
9731:
9726:
9722:
9720:9789004264410
9716:
9712:
9708:
9703:
9699:
9697:9789004264410
9693:
9689:
9685:
9680:
9676:
9674:9783110251586
9670:
9666:
9662:
9658:
9654:
9647:
9643:
9636:
9631:
9624:
9620:
9618:9781463214104
9614:
9610:
9606:
9603:(1): 63–112.
9602:
9598:
9591:
9587:
9583:
9579:
9575:
9571:
9567:
9563:
9559:
9555:
9551:
9547:
9544:(1): 157–59.
9543:
9539:
9535:
9531:
9527:
9523:
9521:9783110251586
9517:
9513:
9509:
9504:
9500:
9496:
9492:
9488:
9484:
9480:
9476:
9472:
9468:
9463:
9459:
9457:9781725272026
9453:
9449:
9448:
9443:
9439:
9435:
9433:9783525535738
9429:
9425:
9424:
9418:
9414:
9412:9780199730049
9408:
9404:
9399:
9394:
9389:
9385:
9381:
9377:
9372:
9368:
9364:
9360:
9355:
9351:
9349:9783110251586
9345:
9341:
9337:
9332:
9328:
9324:
9320:
9316:
9312:
9308:
9304:
9300:
9296:
9291:
9287:
9285:9781107244566
9281:
9277:
9276:
9270:
9269:
9255:
9254:
9249:
9242:
9241:
9236:
9231:
9227:
9226:
9221:
9209:
9205:
9184:
9180:
9174:
9160:
9156:
9150:
9135:
9131:
9125:
9117:
9110:
9102:
9096:
9092:
9085:
9077:
9071:
9064:
9059:
9052:
9047:
9040:
9035:
9028:
9023:
9021:9781317929338
9017:
9013:
9012:
9004:
8997:
8992:
8985:
8980:
8978:9781463238933
8974:
8970:
8963:
8956:
8952:
8950:9789004343047
8946:
8942:
8936:
8929:
8924:
8917:
8913:
8911:9781134109456
8907:
8903:
8896:
8889:
8884:
8877:
8872:
8865:
8860:
8844:
8837:
8830:
8825:
8823:9783161508363
8819:
8815:
8808:
8792:
8788:
8784:
8777:
8771:
8766:
8760:
8755:
8749:
8744:
8738:
8733:
8731:
8723:
8722:Fitzmyer 1980
8718:
8710:
8706:
8702:
8698:
8694:
8687:
8679:
8673:
8669:
8668:
8660:
8652:
8650:9789004300156
8646:
8642:
8641:
8633:
8625:
8623:9780226600055
8619:
8615:
8614:
8606:
8591:
8589:9781860646751
8585:
8581:
8580:
8572:
8566:, p. 28.
8565:
8560:
8553:
8548:
8541:
8536:
8529:
8524:
8517:
8512:
8505:
8500:
8494:
8489:
8482:
8477:
8471:
8466:
8460:
8456:
8451:
8443:
8437:
8433:
8426:
8419:
8414:
8399:(winter): 6–9
8398:
8394:
8387:
8379:
8373:
8369:
8365:
8361:
8355:
8347:
8343:
8339:
8335:
8331:
8327:
8320:
8304:
8300:
8293:
8286:
8281:
8274:
8269:
8263:, p. 14.
8262:
8257:
8250:
8245:
8238:
8233:
8227:, p. 11.
8226:
8221:
8214:
8209:
8207:
8198:
8196:9783110805451
8192:
8188:
8187:
8179:
8160:
8153:
8146:
8139:
8134:
8127:
8126:Fitzmyer 1997
8122:
8115:
8110:
8103:
8098:
8091:
8086:
8079:
8078:Fitzmyer 1997
8074:
8066:
8060:
8056:
8055:
8047:
8031:
8027:
8021:
8015:
8009:
8002:
7997:
7990:
7989:Kapeliuk 2012
7985:
7978:
7977:Weninger 2012
7973:
7971:
7969:
7961:
7956:
7949:
7944:
7937:
7932:
7928:
7924:
7920:
7917:(2): 98–115.
7916:
7912:
7908:
7902:
7895:
7890:
7883:
7878:
7871:
7866:
7852:
7848:
7842:
7828:
7824:
7818:
7811:
7806:
7799:
7794:
7779:
7775:
7769:
7753:
7749:
7745:
7739:
7733:
7728:
7722:
7721:Genesis 22:21
7717:
7711:
7710:Genesis 10:22
7706:
7699:
7694:
7693:
7688:
7684:
7678:
7668:
7666:
7658:
7653:
7647:
7643:
7642:
7634:
7627:
7622:
7615:
7610:
7603:
7598:
7591:
7585:
7578:
7572:
7562:
7558:
7552:
7545:
7540:
7533:
7528:
7521:
7516:
7508:
7502:
7495:
7485:
7483:9781575068879
7479:
7475:
7471:
7467:
7463:
7456:
7449:
7447:
7443:
7437:
7436:
7428:
7421:
7417:
7413:
7409:
7405:
7401:
7397:
7390:
7383:
7379:
7373:
7369:
7368:
7360:
7352:
7351:
7346:
7340:
7334:
7330:
7327:
7321:
7313:
7309:
7305:
7301:
7294:
7286:
7282:
7276:
7270:, p. 53.
7269:
7264:
7257:
7252:
7245:
7240:
7238:
7236:
7234:
7225:
7221:
7216:
7211:
7207:
7203:
7199:
7192:
7185:
7180:
7173:
7168:
7162:, p. 45.
7161:
7156:
7149:
7144:
7142:
7134:
7129:
7127:
7119:
7114:
7107:
7102:
7095:
7090:
7083:
7078:
7071:
7066:
7059:
7054:
7046:
7042:
7036:
7029:
7024:
7022:
7014:
7009:
7002:
7001:Lipiński 2000
6997:
6995:
6978:
6974:
6968:
6961:
6957:
6955:0-8028-2402-1
6951:
6947:
6940:
6932:
6928:
6924:
6918:
6914:
6913:
6905:
6898:
6893:
6886:
6881:
6874:
6869:
6863:, p. 56.
6862:
6857:
6850:
6845:
6838:
6833:
6827:, p. 64.
6826:
6825:Lipiński 2001
6821:
6814:
6809:
6807:
6805:
6797:
6792:
6790:
6782:
6777:
6770:
6765:
6758:
6753:
6744:
6741:
6738:
6735:
6733:
6732:Lipiński 2000
6730:
6728:
6725:
6723:
6722:Sokoloff 1983
6720:
6719:
6715:
6708:
6707:Aufrecht 2001
6703:
6696:
6692:
6686:
6682:
6678:
6671:
6664:
6659:
6651:
6645:
6641:
6637:
6633:
6627:
6617:
6613:
6611:9783447053136
6607:
6603:
6598:
6595:
6591:
6589:9783447053136
6585:
6581:
6580:
6574:
6571:
6567:
6565:9783447033268
6561:
6557:
6552:
6549:
6545:
6543:9783447033268
6539:
6535:
6530:
6527:
6523:
6521:9783643152619
6517:
6513:
6512:
6506:
6503:
6498:
6496:9783110199192
6492:
6488:
6484:
6480:
6479:
6473:
6470:
6466:
6464:9783446239005
6460:
6456:
6451:
6450:
6446:
6439:
6434:
6432:
6424:
6420:
6418:9781538124185
6414:
6410:
6403:
6396:
6394:
6388:
6386:9783030303983
6382:
6378:
6371:
6362:
6355:
6350:
6348:9781463236649
6344:
6340:
6336:
6333:Mario Kozah;
6329:
6325:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6284:
6281:
6279:
6276:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6264:
6261:
6259:
6256:
6255:
6250:
6244:
6239:
6236:
6230:
6225:
6218:
6216:
6212:
6208:
6204:
6195:
6193:
6190:
6187:
6184:
6183:
6180:
6178:הֻכתב huḵtaḇ
6177:
6174:
6171:
6168:
6167:
6164:
6162:
6159:
6156:
6153:
6152:
6149:
6147:כֻתּב kuttaḇ
6146:
6143:
6140:
6137:
6136:
6133:
6131:
6128:
6125:
6122:
6121:
6118:
6115:
6112:
6109:
6106:
6105:
6101:
6098:
6095:
6092:
6089:
6088:
6085:
6083:
6077:
6075:
6071:
6066:
6062:
6058:
6053:
6051:
6047:
6043:
6038:
6034:
6030:
6026:
6022:
6018:
6013:
6011:
6007:
6002:
6000:
5996:
5992:
5988:
5973:
5970:
5967:
5964:
5961:
5960:
5956:
5953:
5950:
5947:
5944:
5943:
5939:
5936:
5933:
5930:
5927:
5926:
5922:
5919:
5916:
5913:
5910:
5909:
5905:
5902:
5899:
5896:
5893:
5892:
5888:
5885:
5882:
5879:
5878:
5867:
5864:
5862:
5858:
5854:
5853:preformatives
5850:
5846:
5842:
5838:
5834:
5830:
5826:
5816:
5814:
5810:
5806:
5802:
5798:
5794:
5790:
5780:
5774:
5771:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5760:
5757:
5754:
5753:kṯāḇaṯ malkṯâ
5751:
5748:
5747:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5732:
5731:diphthongized
5728:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5692:
5688:
5685:The final א-
5678:
5676:טביא ṭāḇayyâ
5675:
5672:
5669:
5666:
5665:
5661:
5658:
5655:
5652:
5651:
5647:
5644:
5641:
5635:
5634:
5630:
5627:
5624:
5621:
5618:
5617:
5614:
5612:
5608:
5604:
5599:
5597:
5593:
5589:
5588:direct object
5585:
5581:
5577:
5568:
5564:
5561:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5545:
5542:
5537:
5533:
5532:genitive case
5529:
5527:
5522:
5518:
5517:
5512:
5509:
5505:
5501:
5497:
5496:
5495:
5493:
5488:
5484:
5482:
5477:
5475:
5471:
5467:
5454:
5450:
5447:
5443:
5440:
5436:
5433:
5429:
5426:
5422:
5421:
5420:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5397:
5393:
5390:
5387:
5383:
5379:
5376:
5372:
5368:
5364:
5360:
5357:
5354:
5350:
5346:
5342:
5339:
5312:
5300:
5296:
5292:
5288:
5285:
5282:
5279:
5278:
5277:
5269:
5267:
5263:
5259:
5255:
5251:
5247:
5243:
5239:
5235:
5223:
5216:
5209:
5202:
5201:
5200:
5198:
5193:
5191:
5186:
5181:
5179:
5158:
5134:
5130:
5123:
5119:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5101:
5097:
5090:
5086:
5085:
5084:
5082:
5078:
5072:
5070:
5066:
5062:
5054:
5050:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5032:
5028:
5024:
5021:
5017:
5014:
5010:
5006:
5002:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4988:
4984:
4981:
4977:
4973:
4969:
4966:
4962:
4958:
4957:
4956:
4954:
4950:
4941:
4939:
4937:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4926:
4924:
4922:
4920:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4904:
4901:
4897:
4895:
4892:
4888:
4886:
4884:
4882:
4878:
4875:
4872:
4868:
4865:
4861:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4850:
4847:
4843:
4840:
4836:
4833:
4829:
4828:
4824:
4820:
4817:
4813:
4810:
4806:
4803:
4799:
4796:
4792:
4789:
4785:
4782:
4778:
4775:
4771:
4768:
4764:
4762:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4746:
4744:
4742:
4739:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4726:
4723:
4719:
4718:
4714:
4710:
4707:
4703:
4700:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4687:
4684:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4671:
4668:
4664:
4662:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4651:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4631:
4629:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4612:
4611:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4562:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4520:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4497:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4470:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4434:
4428:
4422:
4414:
4409:in "father",
4408:
4404:
4398:
4392:
4387:
4381:
4377:
4374:
4370:
4367:
4363:
4362:
4361:
4352:
4347:
4344:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4321:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4311:
4307:
4303:
4300:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4279:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4269:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4255:
4247:
4245:
4241:
4237:
4233:
4229:
4219:
4207:
4203:
4201:
4197:
4180:
4177:
4174:
4173:
4170:
4167:
4164:
4161:
4160:
4157:
4154:
4151:
4148:
4147:
4144:
4141:
4138:
4137:
4133:
4130:
4126:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4112:
4111:
4107:
4106:
4102:
4101:
4097:
4094:
4091:
4088:
4087:
4084:
4083:
4079:
4078:
4074:
4073:
4069:
4066:
4063:
4060:
4059:
4056:
4055:
4051:
4050:
4046:
4045:
4041:
4038:
4035:
4032:
4031:
4028:
4025:
4022:
4018:
4015:
4011:
4010:
4007:
4005:
3996:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3952:
3942:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3913:
3911:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3886:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3863:
3861:
3857:
3850:
3848:
3827:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3794:
3789:
3780:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3712:
3705:
3701:
3696:
3687:
3685:
3682:, is written
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3642:
3632:
3630:
3624:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3584:
3577:
3572:
3563:
3561:
3557:
3551:
3541:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3491:
3481:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3465:
3455:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3402:
3400:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3380:Lord's Prayer
3365:
3346:
3345:
3339:
3335:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3310:
3308:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3288:Lord's Prayer
3273:
3256:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3217:
3208:
3206:
3205:William Fulco
3202:
3201:
3192:
3189:
3186:
3185:
3184:
3182:
3178:
3176:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3161:New Testament
3157:
3155:
3153:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3137:
3131:
3127:
3122:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3095:
3094:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3055:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3030:
3027:
3019:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2995:
2994:
2990:
2985:This section
2983:
2979:
2974:
2973:
2969:
2959:
2957:
2951:
2949:
2948:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2930:
2926:
2925:Book of Enoch
2922:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2903:
2893:
2891:
2887:
2882:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2837:
2831:
2828:
2824:
2819:
2809:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2790:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2743:
2734:
2732:
2727:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2707:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2652:
2648:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2616:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2592:
2588:
2580:
2572:
2568:
2565:11th century
2563:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2529:
2524:
2515:
2513:
2509:
2508:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2486:
2480:
2477:
2474:
2471:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2451:
2442:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2419:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2393:
2391:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2355:
2350:
2348:
2343:
2341:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2332:
2327:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2316:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2242:
2241:
2240:
2236:
2235:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2224:Ben-Hadad III
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2190:
2189:
2186:
2185:Aramean kings
2183:
2182:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2161:Aram-Damascus
2159:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2152:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2144:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2130:
2129:
2128:
2125:
2122:
2121:
2117:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2068:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2048:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2007:
2005:
2001:
2000:Mount Lebanon
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1947:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1926:
1910:
1907:
1896:
1893:
1882:
1879:
1868:
1865:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1853:
1843:
1840:
1829:
1826:
1815:
1812:
1801:
1798:
1791:
1788:
1787:
1786:
1785:(1920–2016):
1784:
1772:
1769:
1758:
1755:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1743:
1740:
1737:
1734:
1729:
1728:Periodization
1716:
1715:
1710:Periodization
1707:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1676:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1644:
1637:
1632:
1623:
1619:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1602:
1597:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1429:script, from
1428:
1423:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1392:
1390:
1386:
1370:
1366:
1365:New Testament
1362:
1352:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1336:name of Syria
1333:
1329:
1328:ancient Greek
1324:
1322:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1231:
1228:, and in the
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1200:. In 1819–21
1199:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1005:lingua franca
1002:
998:
994:
990:
985:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
946:
944:
940:
935:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
882:and parts of
881:
877:
873:
869:
868:lingua franca
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
820: 500 BC
812:
803:
801:
797:
790:
785:
784:Holger Gzella
782:. Aramaicist
781:
777:
772:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
745:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
712:, as well as
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
682:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
631:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
596:
584:
579:
567:
563:
557:
553:
546:
542:
533:
529:
527:
523:
519:
515:
513:
512:
507:
504:
501: –
499:
494:
491: –
489:
484:
481: –
479:
474:
471: –
469:
464:
461: –
459:
454:
451: –
449:
444:
441: –
439:
434:
431: –
429:
424:
421: –
419:
414:
411: –
409:
404:
401: –
399:
394:
391: –
389:
384:
381: –
379:
374:
371: –
369:
364:
361: –
359:
354:
351: –
349:
344:
341: –
339:
334:
331: –
329:
324:
321: –
319:
314:
311: –
309:
304:
301: –
299:
293:
290:
285:
280:
277:
273:
270:Historically
267:
263:
258:
254:
249:
245:
242:
238:
232:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
210:
209:
205:
193:
190:
189:
188:
185:
184:
183:
180:
179:
178:
177:Proto-Semitic
175:
174:
173:
169:
163:
147:
144:
143:
142:Proto-Aramoid
141:
140:
139:
136:
135:
134:
131:
130:
129:
126:
125:
124:
121:
120:
119:
115:
111:
105:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
79:
75:
71:
54:
49:
44:
40:
33:
19:
14700:Royal titles
14625:Architecture
14533:
14462:Neo-Assyrian
14309:(Pre)history
14129:Persian Gulf
13564:Qara Qoyunlu
13427:(312–63 BCE)
13238:
13158:Christianity
13015:
12992:
12973:
12966:
12959:
12952:
12864:
12841:
12618:
12611:
12604:
12597:
12588:
12581:
12574:
12554:
12547:
12540:
12526:
12519:
12510:
12503:
12491:
12484:
12418:
12389:Urmia Jewish
12257:
12252:
12245:
12236:
12229:
12222:
12215:
12210:
12203:
12196:
12186:
12164:
12157:
12137:
12130:
12123:
12116:
12101:
12074:Mesopotamian
12057:
12001:
11994:
11985:
11978:
11971:
11964:
11957:
11950:
11943:
11936:
11929:
11924:Proto-Arabic
11922:
11886:
11877:
11870:
11860:
11717:
11696:
11676:
11653:
11629:
11609:
11596:
11583:
11559:
11539:
11516:
11492:
11471:
11460:
11440:
11417:
11393:
11372:
11351:
11340:
11319:
11298:
11277:
11254:
11233:
11229:
11205:
11181:
11170:
11143:
11129:
11112:
11088:
11084:
11058:
11035:
11011:
10988:
10959:
10955:
10928:
10904:
10881:
10855:
10835:
10819:(3): 505–31.
10816:
10812:
10789:
10771:. Retrieved
10764:the original
10759:
10730:
10698:
10694:
10677:
10664:
10660:
10637:
10614:
10591:
10567:
10544:
10521:
10498:
10478:
10474:
10447:
10440:(3): 211–25.
10437:
10433:
10409:
10389:
10366:
10354:
10330:
10310:
10287:
10264:
10241:
10219:
10193:
10174:
10150:
10135:the original
10130:
10126:
10105:the original
10100:
10096:
10053:
10049:
10023:
9999:
9978:
9949:
9945:
9919:
9896:
9867:
9863:
9837:
9821:
9803:. Retrieved
9796:the original
9791:
9764:
9743:
9733:
9710:
9687:
9664:
9641:
9600:
9596:
9577:
9573:
9541:
9537:
9511:
9477:(2): 65–90.
9474:
9470:
9446:
9422:
9402:
9383:
9379:
9366:
9362:
9339:
9302:
9298:
9274:
9252:
9239:
9223:
9219:
9208:
9186:. Retrieved
9183:biblehub.com
9182:
9173:
9162:. Retrieved
9159:biblehub.com
9158:
9149:
9137:. Retrieved
9133:
9124:
9115:
9109:
9090:
9084:
9070:
9063:Jastrow 2012
9058:
9046:
9034:
9025:
9010:
9003:
8991:
8982:
8968:
8962:
8954:
8940:
8935:
8923:
8915:
8901:
8895:
8883:
8871:
8859:
8847:. Retrieved
8836:
8827:
8813:
8807:
8795:. Retrieved
8791:the original
8787:Miami Herald
8786:
8776:
8765:
8754:
8743:
8717:
8692:
8686:
8666:
8659:
8639:
8632:
8612:
8605:
8593:. Retrieved
8578:
8571:
8559:
8547:
8535:
8523:
8516:Nöldeke 1871
8511:
8499:
8488:
8476:
8465:
8450:
8431:
8425:
8418:Collins 1993
8413:
8401:. Retrieved
8396:
8386:
8367:
8363:
8354:
8332:(3/4): 457.
8329:
8325:
8319:
8307:. Retrieved
8302:
8292:
8285:Gzella 2012b
8280:
8273:Gzella 2012a
8268:
8256:
8244:
8239:, p. x.
8232:
8220:
8185:
8178:
8166:. Retrieved
8159:the original
8145:
8133:
8121:
8109:
8097:
8085:
8073:
8052:
8046:
8034:. Retrieved
8029:
8020:
8013:
8008:
7996:
7984:
7955:
7943:
7934:
7914:
7910:
7901:
7889:
7884:, p. 4.
7877:
7865:
7854:. Retrieved
7850:
7841:
7830:. Retrieved
7827:biblehub.com
7826:
7817:
7805:
7793:
7781:. Retrieved
7777:
7768:
7756:. Retrieved
7752:the original
7747:
7738:
7727:
7716:
7705:
7696:
7690:
7677:
7655:
7640:
7633:
7626:Joosten 2010
7621:
7614:Joosten 2008
7609:
7597:
7584:
7571:
7551:
7546:, p. 7.
7544:Andrade 2013
7539:
7527:
7515:
7493:
7487:. Retrieved
7465:
7455:
7439:
7434:
7427:
7419:
7399:
7395:
7389:
7381:
7366:
7359:
7349:
7339:
7320:
7303:
7299:
7293:
7284:
7275:
7263:
7251:
7205:
7201:
7191:
7179:
7167:
7155:
7113:
7101:
7094:Kitchen 1965
7089:
7077:
7065:
7053:
7044:
7035:
7008:
6981:. Retrieved
6976:
6967:
6959:
6945:
6939:
6911:
6904:
6897:Coghill 2007
6892:
6880:
6868:
6856:
6849:Daniels 1996
6844:
6832:
6820:
6776:
6764:
6752:
6737:Creason 2008
6714:
6702:
6694:
6680:
6670:
6658:
6639:
6626:
6615:
6601:
6593:
6578:
6569:
6555:
6547:
6533:
6525:
6510:
6500:
6477:
6468:
6454:
6445:
6422:
6408:
6402:
6393:Beth Qatraye
6390:
6376:
6370:
6361:
6352:
6338:
6328:
6200:
6078:
6064:
6060:
6056:
6054:
6041:
6036:
6032:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6017:preformative
6014:
6009:
6005:
6003:
5999:Semitic root
5994:
5990:
5984:
5857:afformatives
5822:
5813:conjugations
5786:
5778:
5772:
5770:כתבתה דמלכתא
5769:
5761:
5759:כתבתא דמלכתא
5758:
5752:
5749:
5744:
5739:
5734:
5722:
5714:
5710:
5706:
5702:
5698:
5686:
5684:
5679:טבתא ṭāḇāṯâ
5610:
5606:
5600:
5591:
5580:Case endings
5573:
5566:
5562:
5559:
5551:
5547:
5540:
5535:
5525:
5524:
5520:
5514:
5507:
5503:
5499:
5489:
5485:
5480:
5478:
5473:
5469:
5465:
5463:
5452:
5445:
5438:
5431:
5424:
5416:
5406:
5391:
5385:
5381:
5374:
5370:
5366:
5358:
5351:rather than
5340:
5313:) have lost
5286:
5281:Vowel change
5280:
5275:
5265:
5261:
5257:
5252:(usually an
5249:
5246:approximants
5241:
5237:
5231:
5194:
5190:glottal stop
5187:
5184:
5175:
5121:
5111:glottal stop
5099:
5081:velarization
5073:
5064:
5060:
5058:
5052:
5048:
5045:
5041:
5037:
5033:
5030:
5026:
5019:
5015:
5012:
5008:
5004:
5000:
4997:
4993:
4992:Dental set:
4986:
4982:
4979:
4975:
4971:
4967:
4964:
4960:
4959:Labial set:
4946:
4552:
4547:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4521:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4498:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4471:
4466:
4463:glottal stop
4458:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4426:
4406:
4402:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4379:
4372:
4371:Close front
4365:
4359:
4224:
4212:and ⟨
4194:
4178:
4168:
4155:
4142:
4117:
4109:
4108:
4104:
4103:
4099:
4098:
4095:
4081:
4080:
4076:
4075:
4071:
4070:
4067:
4053:
4052:
4048:
4047:
4043:
4042:
4039:
4026:
4023:
4020:
4002:
3999:Sample texts
3954:
3929:
3914:
3887:
3881:, which was
3864:
3860:Mizrahi Jews
3853:
3844:
3761:Mizrahi Jews
3714:
3683:
3679:
3653:descent, in
3644:
3629:Dura-Europos
3625:
3621:Hebrew Bible
3586:
3553:
3523:
3493:
3467:
3444:Central Asia
3405:
3396:
3383:
3341:
3329:9th century
3304:
3291:
3223:
3214:
3198:
3196:
3180:
3172:
3168:
3158:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3133:
3123:
3056:
3037:
3022:
3013:
2998:Please help
2986:
2952:
2945:
2928:
2917:
2905:
2883:
2878:
2865:
2838:
2834:
2796:
2763:Jordan River
2758:
2749:
2740:
2728:
2713:
2696:
2679:
2663:
2655:
2646:
2644:
2617:
2576:
2567:Hebrew Bible
2505:
2487:
2484:
2448:
2431:
2427:
2416:
2394:
2378:
2363:
2089:
2069:
2050:
2008:
1949:
1895:Late Aramaic
1851:
1828:Late Aramaic
1780:
1741:
1738:
1726:
1704:Latin script
1677:
1646:
1636:Syriac Serto
1620:
1605:
1593:
1531:
1525:
1522:
1491:
1444:
1426:
1384:
1360:
1348:
1334:. Since the
1325:
1280:
1267:
1263:
1255:
1251:
1234:
1230:Book of Ruth
1205:
1195:
1126:Mizrahi Jews
1112:
1037:
1019:, including
989:Neo-Assyrian
986:
958:Hebrew Bible
947:
936:
892:Ancient Iran
825:
773:
769:Mizrahi Jews
746:
704:, Ekronite,
683:
675:Samaritanism
667:Mizrahi Jews
632:
561:
560:
544:
526:Linguasphere
509:
145:
128:West Semitic
118:Afro-Asiatic
14803:Hittitology
14793:Assyriology
14714:Archaeology
14584:Old Persian
14394:Jemdet Nasr
13923:New Zealand
13918:Netherlands
13682:Settlements
13595:(1555–1917)
13572:(1453–1501)
13566:(1375–1468)
13560:(1335–1432)
13554:(1258–1335)
13548:(1098–1268)
13509:Middle ages
13449:Roman Syria
13443:Syrian Wars
13080:Middle East
12954:Hadramautic
12940:Old Arabian
12877:West Gurage
12787:East Gurage
12433:Neo-Mandaic
12211:Palestinian
12118:Old Aramaic
11273:Sabar, Yona
11162:Prym, Eugen
9952:(1): 5–21.
9580:(1): 11–23.
9218:. The form
9139:18 November
8864:Healey 2012
8552:Gzella 2015
8213:Arnold 2012
8090:Gzella 2015
7960:Streck 2012
7778:fsmitha.com
7602:Wevers 2001
7590:Geographica
7577:Geographica
7244:Häberl 2012
7208:: 115–130.
7133:Folmer 2012
7118:Gzella 2015
7082:Gzella 2015
7028:Gzella 2015
6885:Macuch 1990
6837:Gzella 2015
6813:Burtea 2012
6781:Berlin 2011
6757:Gzella 2021
6743:Gzella 2015
6663:Gzella 2021
6116:כתיב kəṯîḇ
5991:ground stem
5673:טבתא ṭāḇtâ
5667:det./emph.
5645:טבין ṭāḇîn
5596:preposition
5349:glottalized
5347:often have
5025:Velar set:
4881:Approximant
4449:became the
4405:, like the
4378:Close back
4232:Azerbaijani
4092:(Swadaya):
3939:Neo-Mandaic
3808:Neo-Mandaic
3769:Arabization
3737:Mesopotamia
3670:dialect of
3659:Transjordan
3599:, moved to
3048:Koine Greek
2879:Beth-Hadiab
2871:Diatessaron
2714:Babylonian
2645:The use of
2591:Hellenistic
2556:Afghanistan
2409:Elephantine
2399:, found at
2255:Bit Bahiani
2209:Ben-Hadad I
2166:Paddan Aram
2023:Mesopotamia
1946:Old Aramaic
1928:One of the
1920:Old Aramaic
1909:Neo-Aramaic
1901:200 AD, to
1887:333 BC, to
1873:538 BC, to
1857:Old Aramaic
1834:200 AD, to
1820:200 BC, to
1806:700 BC, to
1790:Old Aramaic
1763:200 AD, to
1747:Old Aramaic
1371:. However,
1351:Koine Greek
1160:in western
1108:Manichaeism
1096:Neo-Mandaic
1033:Khwarezmian
876:Mesopotamia
856:Mesopotamia
822:. From Iraq
787: [
645:and nearby
608:Mesopotamia
433:Old Aramaic
182:Old Aramaic
166:Early forms
89:Mesopotamia
14833:Categories
14767:Divination
14477:Achaemenid
14442:Isin-Larsa
14335:Trialetian
14330:Mousterian
14317:Prehistory
13806:Diyarbakır
13777:Tell Tamer
13772:Al-Hasakah
13668:By country
13580:Modern era
13570:Aq Qoyunlu
13542:(945–1055)
13536:(905–1383)
13530:(750–1258)
13345:(including
13321:Folk dance
12983:Rijal Alma
12968:Qatabanian
12606:Himyaritic
12549:Phoenician
12110:Historical
12079:Peninsular
11980:Taymanitic
11931:Old Arabic
11916:Historical
10773:2021-02-08
9805:2021-02-08
9188:2020-07-31
9164:2020-07-31
8797:10 October
8770:Mark 15:34
8748:John 20:16
8595:10 October
8564:Beyer 1986
8481:Hasel 1981
8441:1874780749
8403:10 October
8309:10 October
8261:Beyer 1986
8249:Fales 2012
8225:Beyer 1986
8168:10 October
8138:Butts 2019
8114:Beyer 1986
8102:Butts 2019
8036:10 October
8001:Chyet 1997
7856:2020-07-31
7832:2020-07-31
7783:10 October
7758:10 October
7651:9004116419
7555:Josephus,
7489:2022-10-05
7268:Beyer 1986
7184:Casey 1999
7172:Beyer 1986
7160:Green 1992
7058:Ruzer 2014
6931:1018201352
6861:Beyer 1986
6727:Beyer 1986
6438:Brock 1989
6320:References
6203:participle
5962:1st m./f.
5875:Imperfect
5750:כתבת מלכתא
5662:טבת ṭāḇāṯ
5656:טבת ṭāḇaṯ
5648:טבן ṭāḇān
5628:masc. pl.
5622:masc. sg.
5607:malkâ ṭāḇâ
5552:determined
5448:, I wrote.
5409:morphology
5355:emphatics.
5295:allophones
5244:, and the
5178:media help
5069:allophones
4602:Pharyngeal
4557:Consonants
4524:diphthongs
4522:Two basic
4441:and short
4119:Matthew 28
3898:Lake Urmia
3847:media help
3560:Samaritans
3430:, and the
3399:media help
3334:Estrangela
3307:media help
3232:, and the
3107:diphthongs
3016:April 2017
2909:Phoenician
2873:came from
2806:Estrangela
2699:vernacular
2620:Hasmonaean
2612:Hellenized
2401:Persepolis
2366:Achaemenid
2300:Til Barsip
2295:Tell Halaf
2260:Coba Höyük
2171:Aram Rehob
2045:See also:
1736:language.
1572:al-Hasakah
1514:Azerbaijan
1311:Bronze Age
1258:where the
1248:Septuagint
1244:Posidonius
1134:Iraqi Jews
884:Asia Minor
798:spoken by
749:endangered
710:Phoenician
294:Variously:
14640:Cuneiform
14516:Languages
14325:Acheulean
14212:Babylonia
14149:Euphrates
14099:Geography
13997:Dawronoye
13928:Palestine
13858:Australia
13831:Tur Abdin
13711:Tel Keppe
13631:(1914–20)
13619:(19th c.)
13601:(16th c.)
13589:(1508–55)
13552:Ilkhanate
13501:(502–628)
13495:(226–651)
13493:Asoristan
13463:(116–118)
13418:antiquity
13416:Classical
13349:contexts)
13246:languages
13027:varieties
13018:indicate
12897:Sebat Bet
12647:Eastern (
12599:Deir Alla
12477:Canaanite
12384:Trans-Zab
12369:Inter-Zab
12293:Christian
12247:Palmyrene
12238:Samaritan
12205:Nabataean
12093:Northwest
12048:Levantine
12020:Classical
11945:Dadanitic
11203:(2006) .
10976:162559782
10926:(2001) .
10689:(1884b).
10675:(1884a).
10196:, BRILL,
10078:161323237
9976:(1997) .
9815:"Aramaic"
9661:"Mandaic"
9499:162226854
9369:: 145–55.
9327:163755644
9134:rinyo.org
9051:Khan 2012
8759:Mark 7:34
8737:Mark 5:41
8643:. BRILL.
8470:2:4b–7:28
8299:"Aramaic"
7882:Hamp 2005
7810:Frye 1997
7798:Frye 1992
7532:Kopp 1821
7520:Kopp 1821
7501:cite book
7444:founder,
7224:2081-1330
7070:Buth 2014
7013:Khan 2007
6873:Naby 2004
6677:"Aramaic"
6502:intimate…
6070:reflexive
5886:Singular
5880:Singular
5841:preterite
5837:aspectual
5833:imperfect
5670:טבא ṭāḇâ
5659:טבי ṭāḇê
5642:טבה ṭāḇâ
5631:fem. pl.
5625:fem. sg.
5611:malkâ ṭāḇ
5516:construct
5197:sibilants
5131:ק Qôp, a
5087:ח Ḥêṯ, a
4953:fricative
4767:voiceless
4761:Fricative
4667:voiceless
4582:Post-alv.
4457:and back
4293:Close-mid
4187:Phonology
4127:English (
4012:English (
4004:Matthew 2
3965:Jubb'adin
3931:Mandaeans
3921:Tur Abdin
3867:Assyrians
3856:Assyrians
3757:Mandaeans
3753:Assyrians
3704:Near East
3655:Palestine
3613:midrashim
3597:Jerusalem
3526:Nabataean
3499:Mandaeans
3181:Rabbounei
3126:loanwords
3097:", and "'
3071:Jerusalem
3059:Hasmonean
2987:does not
2890:Mandaeism
2793:Palmyrene
2746:Nabataean
2660:logograms
2290:Tell Aran
2214:Hadadezer
2204:Tabrimmon
2176:Aram Soba
2100:Canaanite
2081:Euphrates
1956:languages
1733:polysemic
1673:Mandaeans
1616:Euphrates
1552:Tel Keppe
1502:Near East
1451:Babylonia
1361:Hebraïstí
1301:. In the
1291:word root
1283:endonymic
1142:Near East
1138:Mandaeans
1122:Assyrians
1100:Mandaeism
1009:logograms
943:Sanhedrin
765:Mandaeans
761:Assyrians
734:West Asia
679:Mandaeism
659:Assyrians
647:Jubb'adin
628:varieties
511:Glottolog
289:ISO 639-3
248:Christian
14786:Academia
14740:Religion
14609:Urartian
14604:Sumerian
14589:Parthian
14524:Akkadian
14497:Sasanian
14487:Parthian
14482:Seleucid
14432:Simurrum
14422:Akkadian
14355:Khiamian
14345:Natufian
14257:Simurrum
14242:Kassites
14237:Hittites
14192:Adiabene
13974:Politics
13845:Diaspora
13826:Mazıdağı
13782:Qamishli
13755:Sanandaj
13728:Shaqlawa
13716:Bartella
13701:Qaraqosh
13677:Homeland
13475:(5th c.)
13457:(15–116)
13455:Adiabene
13402:Arameans
13357:Ancient
13331:Clothing
13273:Hertevin
13088:Identity
12975:Awsanian
12858:Tt-group
12734:Tigrinya
12613:Samalian
12590:Galilean
12583:Ugaritic
12528:Medieval
12521:Mishnaic
12505:Biblical
12486:Ammonite
12379:Sanandaj
12364:Betanure
12337:Chaldean
12334:Assyrian
12320:Qaraqosh
12310:Hértevin
12224:Galilean
12198:Lebanese
12053:Maghrebi
12013:Literary
11987:Thamudic
11973:Safaitic
11959:Hasaitic
11952:Dumaitic
11872:Akkadian
11827:Branches
11780:Archived
11753:Archived
11275:(2002).
11168:(1881).
11127:(1904).
11107:(1886).
11097:43366019
11079:(1871).
11009:(1999).
10950:(1990).
10902:(2000).
10876:(2008).
10840:Archived
10827:(1965).
10784:(2012).
10751:(2007).
10725:(2012).
10695:Hebraica
10667:: 53–72.
10518:"Syriac"
10483:Archived
10365:(2021).
10214:(1985).
10148:(2012).
10118:(1999).
10088:(1997).
10044:(1992).
9940:(1980).
9858:(1993).
9832:(1997).
9659:(2012).
9646:Archived
9623:Archived
9568:(1989).
9558:23962351
9532:(1971).
9444:(1967).
9386:: 1–20.
9250:(1903).
9237:(1879).
9230:Eusebius
8709:25066933
8455:4:8–6:18
7911:Hebraica
7685:(1835).
7588:Strabo,
7575:Strabo,
7402:: 1–14.
7329:Archived
7148:Bae 2004
6796:Tal 2012
6298:Peshitta
6263:Arameans
6221:See also
6027:, or -ש
5872:Perfect
5849:unmarked
5715:yəhûḏāyê
5584:Ugaritic
5582:, as in
5548:emphatic
5541:bar nāšâ
5500:absolute
5373:becomes
5345:Caucasus
5305:, using
5117:), or ,
4577:Alveolar
4314:Open-mid
4210:/ /
4206:Help:IPA
3977:Damascus
3961:Maaloula
3875:Akkadian
3871:diaspora
3791:Amen in
3619:for the
3609:targumim
3420:Peshitta
3113:and the
3111:Damascus
3075:Ein Gedi
2956:Peshitta
2942:Josephus
2875:Adiabene
2716:Targumic
2710:Targumic
2680:parthawi
2678:' (<
2672:Parthian
2552:Kandahar
2526:Coin of
2370:Darius I
2194:Irhuleni
2124:Arameans
2057:Damascus
1964:Assyrian
1952:dialects
1686:and the
1544:Bartella
1540:Bakhdida
1496:and the
1483:Caucasus
1479:Anatolia
1471:Akkadian
1447:Arameans
1431:Thrissur
1427:Madnhāyā
1374:Ἑβραϊστί
1356:Ἑβραϊστί
1344:semantic
1321:Chaldean
1295:Arameans
1287:exonymic
1236:Josephus
1021:Parthian
932:Caucasus
872:Assyrian
828:Arameans
796:language
740:and the
718:Ugaritic
692:such as
663:Mandeans
643:Maaloula
622:and the
595:arāmāˀiṯ
518:aram1259
257:Mandaean
207:Dialects
43:Ethiopia
14772:Prayers
14757:Deities
14721:Looting
14564:Kassite
14559:Hurrian
14554:Hittite
14544:Elamite
14539:Eblaite
14534:Aramaic
14529:Amorite
14452:Kassite
14427:Gutians
14409:History
14374:Samarra
14370:Hassuna
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13637:(1919–)
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13214:(1552–)
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13020:extinct
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