Apoptosis - Knowledge

1202:, have been mutated to determine the new phenotype. In order to create a tumor necrosis factor (TNF) knockout, an exon containing the nucleotides 3704–5364 was removed from the gene. This exon encodes a portion of the mature TNF domain, as well as the leader sequence, which is a highly conserved region necessary for proper intracellular processing. TNF-/- mice develop normally and have no gross structural or morphological abnormalities. However, upon immunization with SRBC (sheep red blood cells), these mice demonstrated a deficiency in the maturation of an antibody response; they were able to generate normal levels of IgM, but could not develop specific IgG levels. Apaf-1 is the protein that turns on caspase 9 by cleavage to begin the caspase cascade that leads to apoptosis. Since a -/- mutation in the APAF-1 gene is embryonic lethal, a gene trap strategy was used in order to generate an APAF-1 -/- mouse. This assay is used to disrupt gene function by creating an intragenic gene fusion. When an APAF-1 gene trap is introduced into cells, many morphological changes occur, such as spina bifida, the persistence of interdigital webs, and open brain. In addition, after embryonic day 12.5, the brain of the embryos showed several structural changes. APAF-1 cells are protected from apoptosis stimuli such as irradiation. A BAX-1 knock-out mouse exhibits normal forebrain formation and a decreased programmed cell death in some neuronal populations and in the spinal cord, leading to an increase in motor neurons. 1404:

observation known as the "Inverse Warburg hypothesis"). Moreover, there is an inverse epidemiological comorbidity between neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. The progression of HIV is directly linked to excess, unregulated apoptosis. In a healthy individual, the number of CD4+ lymphocytes is in balance with the cells generated by the bone marrow; however, in HIV-positive patients, this balance is lost due to an inability of the bone marrow to regenerate CD4+ cells. In the case of HIV, CD4+ lymphocytes die at an accelerated rate through uncontrolled apoptosis, when stimulated. At the molecular level, hyperactive apoptosis can be caused by defects in signaling pathways that regulate the Bcl-2 family proteins. Increased expression of apoptotic proteins such as BIM, or their decreased proteolysis, leads to cell death and can cause a number of pathologies, depending on the cells where excessive activity of BIM occurs. Cancer cells can escape apoptosis through mechanisms that suppress BIM expression or by increased proteolysis of BIM.

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cre-lox technology, a caspase 8 knock-out has been created that exhibits an increase in peripheral T cells, an impaired T cell response, and a defect in neural tube closure . These mice were found to be resistant to apoptosis mediated by CD95, TNFR, etc. but not resistant to apoptosis caused by UV irradiation, chemotherapeutic drugs, and other stimuli. Finally, a caspase 3 knock-out was characterized by ectopic cell masses in the brain and abnormal apoptotic features such as membrane blebbing or nuclear fragmentation . A remarkable feature of these KO mice is that they have a very restricted phenotype: Casp3, 9, APAF-1 KO mice have deformations of neural tissue and FADD and Casp 8 KO showed defective heart development, however, in both types of KO other organs developed normally and some cell types were still sensitive to apoptotic stimuli suggesting that unknown proapoptotic pathways exist.

1316:, therefore overexpression leads to a decrease in the number of proapoptotic agonists. As a consequence, the balance of anti-apoptotic and proapoptotic effectors is upset in favour of the former, and the damaged cells continue to replicate despite being directed to die. Defects in regulation of apoptosis in cancer cells occur often at the level of control of transcription factors. As a particular example, defects in molecules that control transcription factor NF-κB in cancer change the mode of transcriptional regulation and the response to apoptotic signals, to curtail dependence on the tissue that the cell belongs. This degree of independence from external survival signals, can enable cancer metastasis. 1247:). Supernatant screening for caspases, HMGB1, and cytokeratin 18 release can identify primary from secondary necrotic cells. However, no distinct surface or biochemical markers of necrotic cell death have been identified yet, and only negative markers are available. These include absence of apoptotic markers (caspase activation, cytochrome c release, and oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation) and differential kinetics of cell death markers (phosphatidylserine exposure and cell membrane permeabilization). A selection of techniques that can be used to distinguish apoptosis from necroptotic cells could be found in these references. 515: 1386:

restore apoptosis to treat diseases with deficient cell death and to increase the apoptotic threshold to treat diseases involved with excessive cell death. To stimulate apoptosis, one can increase the number of death receptor ligands (such as TNF or TRAIL), antagonize the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 pathway, or introduce Smac mimetics to inhibit the inhibitor (IAPs). The addition of agents such as Herceptin, Iressa, or Gleevec works to stop cells from cycling and causes apoptosis activation by blocking growth and survival signaling further upstream. Finally, adding p53-

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effects, often in the form of disease or disorder. A discussion of every disease caused by modification of the various apoptotic pathways would be impractical, but the concept overlying each one is the same: The normal functioning of the pathway has been disrupted in such a way as to impair the ability of the cell to undergo normal apoptosis. This results in a cell that lives past its "use-by date" and is able to replicate and pass on any faulty machinery to its progeny, increasing the likelihood of the cell's becoming cancerous or diseased.

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to suppress viral budding. By suppressing viral budding, the researchers were able to trap the HIV virus in the cell and allow for the cell to undergo apoptosis (natural cell death). Associate Professor Mikako Fujita has stated that the approach is not yet available to HIV patients because the research team has to conduct further research on combining the drug therapy that currently exists with this "Lock-in and apoptosis" approach to lead to complete recovery from HIV.

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the human papillomavirus, HPV being responsible for the formation of the cervical tumor from which HeLa cells are derived. HPV E6 causes p53, which regulates the cell cycle, to become inactive. HPV E7 binds to retinoblastoma tumor suppressing proteins and limits its ability to control cell division. These two inhibitory proteins are partially responsible for HeLa cells' immortality by inhibiting apoptosis to occur.

334: 498:) is used in Greek to describe the "dropping off" or "falling off" of petals from flowers, or leaves from trees. To show the derivation clearly, we propose that the stress should be on the penultimate syllable, the second half of the word being pronounced like "ptosis" (with the "p" silent), which comes from the same root "to fall", and is already used to describe the drooping of the upper eyelid. 1276: 1215: 1615:

receptor and inducing a response. Furthermore, many viruses express p53 inhibitors that can bind p53 and inhibit its transcriptional transactivation activity. As a consequence, p53 cannot induce apoptosis, since it cannot induce the expression of proapoptotic proteins. The adenovirus E1B-55K protein and the

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E1B 19K protein. Some viruses express caspase inhibitors that inhibit caspase activity and an example is the CrmA protein of cowpox viruses. Whilst a number of viruses can block the effects of TNF and Fas. For example, the M-T2 protein of myxoma viruses can bind TNF preventing it from binding the TNF

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Researchers from Kumamoto University in Japan have developed a new method to eradicate HIV in viral reservoir cells, named "Lock-in and apoptosis." Using the synthesized compound Heptanoylphosphatidyl L-Inositol Pentakisphophate (or L-Hippo) to bind strongly to the HIV protein PR55Gag, they were able

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The many different types of apoptotic pathways contain a multitude of different biochemical components, many of them not yet understood. As a pathway is more or less sequential in nature, removing or modifying one component leads to an effect in another. In a living organism, this can have disastrous

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play the central role in the transduction of ER apoptotic signals. Caspases are proteins that are highly conserved, cysteine-dependent aspartate-specific proteases. There are two types of caspases: initiator caspases (caspases 2, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12) and effector caspases (caspases 3, 6, and 7). The

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involved in cell survival and inflammatory responses. However, signalling through TNFR1 might also induce apoptosis in a caspase-independent manner. The link between TNF-alpha and apoptosis shows why an abnormal production of TNF-alpha plays a fundamental role in several human diseases, especially in

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For many years, neither "apoptosis" nor "programmed cell death" was a highly cited term. Two discoveries brought cell death from obscurity to a major field of research: identification of the first component of the cell death control and effector mechanisms, and linkage of abnormalities in cell death

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cells is inhibited by proteins produced by the cell; these inhibitory proteins target retinoblastoma tumor-suppressing proteins. These tumor-suppressing proteins regulate the cell cycle, but are rendered inactive when bound to an inhibitory protein. HPV E6 and E7 are inhibitory proteins expressed by

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Inhibition of apoptosis can result in a number of cancers, inflammatory diseases, and viral infections. It was originally believed that the associated accumulation of cells was due to an increase in cellular proliferation, but it is now known that it is also due to a decrease in cell death. The most

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In order for apoptosis to occur within OROV, viral uncoating, viral internalization, along with the replication of cells is necessary. Apoptosis in some viruses is activated by extracellular stimuli. However, studies have demonstrated that the OROV infection causes apoptosis to be activated through

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Cells may also die as direct consequences of viral infections. HIV-1 expression induces tubular cell G2/M arrest and apoptosis. The progression from HIV to AIDS is not immediate or even necessarily rapid; HIV's cytotoxic activity toward CD4+ lymphocytes is classified as AIDS once a given patient's

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and quickly dies. This fact forms the basis for some apoptotic pathways. Apoptotic proteins that target mitochondria affect them in different ways. They may cause mitochondrial swelling through the formation of membrane pores, or they may increase the permeability of the mitochondrial membrane and

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family members. As a result, the malignant cells experience an abnormal response to apoptosis induction: Cycle-regulating genes (such as p53, ras or c-myc) are mutated or inactivated in diseased cells, and further genes (such as bcl-2) also modify their expression in tumors. Some apoptotic factors

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The caspase proteins are integral parts of the apoptosis pathway, so it follows that knock-outs made have varying damaging results. A caspase 9 knock-out leads to a severe brain malformation . A caspase 8 knock-out leads to cardiac failure and thus embryonic lethality . However, with the use of

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On the other hand, loss of control of cell death (resulting in excess apoptosis) can lead to neurodegenerative diseases, hematologic diseases, and tissue damage. Neurons that rely on mitochondrial respiration undergo apoptosis in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. (an

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The main method of treatment for potential death from signaling-related diseases involves either increasing or decreasing the susceptibility of apoptosis in diseased cells, depending on whether the disease is caused by either the inhibition of or excess apoptosis. For instance, treatments aim to

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serves as an ideal model system for the study of the mechanisms of apoptosis. In fact, iodine and thyroxine also stimulate the spectacular apoptosis of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins in amphibian's metamorphosis, and stimulate the evolution of their nervous system transforming the

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that form in the outer-membrane of the mitochondrion. The proapoptotic homodimers are required to make the mitochondrial membrane permeable for the release of caspase activators such as cytochrome c and SMAC. Control of proapoptotic proteins under normal cell conditions of nonapoptotic cells is

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The characterization of the caspases allowed the development of caspase inhibitors, which can be used to determine whether a cellular process involves active caspases. Using these inhibitors it was discovered that cells can die while displaying a morphology similar to apoptosis without caspase

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Before the actual process of cell death is precipitated by enzymes, apoptotic signals must cause regulatory proteins to initiate the apoptosis pathway. This step allows those signals to cause cell death, or the process to be stopped, should the cell no longer need to die. Several proteins are

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that disrupt cellular function and eventually leads to the cells death. In normal cells, CDV activates caspase-8 first, which works as the initiator protein followed by the executioner protein caspase-3. However, apoptosis induced by CDV in HeLa cells does not involve the initiator protein

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scaffold, resulting in Bcl dissociation and thus cell survival. Akt also activates IKKα, which leads to NF-κB activation and cell survival. Active NF-κB induces the expression of anti-apoptotic genes such as Bcl-2, resulting in inhibition of apoptosis. NF-κB has been found to play both an

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and mediate apoptosis. Apoptosis is known to be one of the primary mechanisms of targeted cancer therapy. Luminescent iridium complex-peptide hybrids (IPHs) have recently been designed, which mimic TRAIL and bind to death receptors on cancer cells, thereby inducing their apoptosis.

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Many viruses encode proteins that can inhibit apoptosis. Several viruses encode viral homologs of Bcl-2. These homologs can inhibit proapoptotic proteins such as BAX and BAK, which are essential for the activation of apoptosis. Examples of viral Bcl-2 proteins include the

3298:"The lysosome-associated apoptosis-inducing protein containing the pleckstrin homology (PH) and FYVE domains (LAPF), representative of a novel family of PH and FYVE domain-containing proteins, induces caspase-independent apoptosis via the lysosomal-mitochondrial pathway" 191:, which is a form of traumatic cell death that results from acute cellular injury, apoptosis is a highly regulated and controlled process that confers advantages during an organism's life cycle. For example, the separation of fingers and toes in a developing human 1657:

that ruptures as the cell dies. Additionally, plants do not contain phagocytic cells, which are essential in the process of breaking down and removing apoptotic bodies. Whether this whole process resembles animal apoptosis closely enough to warrant using the name

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Apoptosis is a multi-step, multi-pathway cell-death programme that is inherent in every cell of the body. In cancer, the apoptosis cell-division ratio is altered. Cancer treatment by chemotherapy and irradiation kills target cells primarily by inducing apoptosis.

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Uğuz AC, Naziroğlu M, Espino J, Bejarano I, González D, Rodríguez AB, Pariente JA (December 2009). "Selenium modulates oxidative stress-induced cell apoptosis in human myeloid HL-60 cells through regulation of calcium release and caspase-3 and -9 activities".

850:(DISC), which contains the FADD, caspase-8 and caspase-10. In some types of cells (type I), processed caspase-8 directly activates other members of the caspase family, and triggers the execution of apoptosis of the cell. In other types of cells (type II), the 7065:

Kimball's Biology Pages. Simple explanation of the mechanisms of apoptosis triggered by internal signals (bcl-2), along the caspase-9, caspase-3 and caspase-7 pathway; and by external signals (FAS and TNF), along the caspase 8 pathway. Accessed 25 March

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in a manner that is too rapid for the body's bone marrow to replenish the cells, leading to a compromised immune system. One of the mechanisms by which T-helper cells are depleted is apoptosis, which results from a series of biochemical pathways:

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Many pathways and signals lead to apoptosis, but these converge on a single mechanism that actually causes the death of the cell. After a cell receives stimulus, it undergoes organized degradation of cellular organelles by activated proteolytic

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The initiation of apoptosis is tightly regulated by activation mechanisms, because once apoptosis has begun, it inevitably leads to the death of the cell. The two best-understood activation mechanisms are the intrinsic pathway (also called the

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are vital during mitochondrial respiration e.g. cytochrome C. Pathological inactivation of apoptosis in cancer cells is correlated with frequent respiratory metabolic shifts toward glycolysis (an observation known as the "Warburg hypothesis".

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to the apoptotic mechanisms. An extrinsic pathway for initiation identified in several toxin studies is an increase in calcium concentration within a cell caused by drug activity, which also can cause apoptosis via a calcium binding protease

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can be used to compare apoptotic and necrotic cells. There are also various biochemical techniques for analysis of cell surface markers (phosphatidylserine exposure versus cell permeability by flow cytometry), cellular markers such as

974:. The ratio between anti-apoptotic (Bcl-2) and pro-apoptotic (Bax) proteins determines whether a cell lives or dies. Many families of proteins act as negative regulators categorized into either antiapoptotic factors, such as 1412:

Treatments aiming to inhibit works to block specific caspases. Finally, the Akt protein kinase promotes cell survival through two pathways. Akt phosphorylates and inhibits Bad (a Bcl-2 family member), causing Bad to interact with the

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extended its meaning to "the dropping of the scabs". Cormack was no doubt aware of this usage when he suggested the name. Debate continues over the correct pronunciation, with opinion divided between a pronunciation with the second

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complexes displaces p53 and activates the p53 pathway, leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Many different methods can be used either to stimulate or to inhibit apoptosis in various places along the death signaling pathway.

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In Greek, apoptosis translates to the "falling off" of leaves from a tree. Cormack, professor of Greek language, reintroduced the term for medical use as it had a medical meaning for the Greeks over two thousand years before.

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of mitochondria and therefore make it more permeable. Nitric oxide has been implicated in initiating and inhibiting apoptosis through its possible action as a signal molecule of subsequent pathways that activate apoptosis.

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Formation of membrane protrusions: Some cell types, under specific conditions, may develop different types of long, thin extensions of the cell membrane called membrane protrusions. Three types have been described:

1491:, leading to cell death. Cell death in organisms is necessary for the normal development of cells and the cell cycle maturation. It is also important in maintaining the regular functions and activities of cells. 3408:

Masum AA, Yokoi K, Hisamatsu Y, Naito K, Shashni B, Aoki S (September 2018). "Design and synthesis of a luminescent iridium complex-peptide hybrid (IPH) that detects cancer cells and induces their apoptosis".

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Liu Y, McKalip A, Herman B (May 2000). "Human papillomavirus type 16 E6 and HPV-16 E6/E7 sensitize human keratinocytes to apoptosis induced by chemotherapeutic agents: roles of p53 and caspase activation".

1170:, on their cell surface. Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the inner leaflet surface of the plasma membrane, but is redistributed during apoptosis to the extracellular surface by a protein known as 1467:

HIV decreases the production of molecules involved in marking the cell for apoptosis, giving the virus time to replicate and continue releasing apoptotic agents and virions into the surrounding tissue.

226:, or enzymes that degrade proteins. The two pathways both activate initiator caspases, which then activate executioner caspases, which then kill the cell by degrading proteins indiscriminately. 267:

delivered a more precise description of the process of programmed cell death. However, it was not until 1965 that the topic was resurrected. While studying tissues using electron microscopy,

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Musicco M, Adorni F, Di Santo S, Prinelli F, Pettenati C, Caltagirone C, et al. (July 2013). "Inverse occurrence of cancer and Alzheimer disease: a population-based incidence study".

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Liu HC, Chen GG, Vlantis AC, Tse GM, Chan AT, van Hasselt CA (March 2008). "Inhibition of apoptosis in human laryngeal cancer cells by E6 and E7 oncoproteins of human papillomavirus 16".

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Long-term live cell imaging (12h) of multinucleated mouse pre-Adipocyte trying to undergo mitosis. Due to the excess of genetic material the cell fails to replicate and dies by apoptosis.

666:(IAPs) thereby deactivating them, and preventing the IAPs from arresting the process and therefore allowing apoptosis to proceed. IAP also normally suppresses the activity of a group of 5523:

Bernstein C, Bernstein H, Payne CM, Garewal H (June 2002). "DNA repair/pro-apoptotic dual-role proteins in five major DNA repair pathways: fail-safe protection against carcinogenesis".

766:. The binding of TNF-alpha to TNFR1 has been shown to initiate the pathway that leads to caspase activation via the intermediate membrane proteins TNF receptor-associated death domain ( 1626:

that pinch off from the surface of the dying cell, and the fact that they are engulfed by phagocytes prevents the initiation of a host response. This favours the spread of the virus.

5385:"Predominant suppression of apoptosome by inhibitor of apoptosis protein in non-small cell lung cancer H460 cells: therapeutic effect of a novel polyarginine-conjugated Smac peptide" 305:

to human disease, in particular cancer. This occurred in 1988 when it was shown that BCL2, the gene responsible for follicular lymphoma, encoded a protein that inhibited cell death.

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at the University of Queensland was able to distinguish apoptosis from traumatic cell death. Following the publication of a paper describing the phenomenon, Kerr was invited to join

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the cell kills itself because of signals from other cells. Weak external signals may also activate the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis. Both pathways induce cell death by activating

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LaFerla FM, Tinkle BT, Bieberich CJ, Haudenschild CC, Jay G (January 1995). "The Alzheimer's A beta peptide induces neurodegeneration and apoptotic cell death in transgenic mice".

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Sebbagh M, Renvoizé C, Hamelin J, Riché N, Bertoglio J, Bréard J (April 2001). "Caspase-3-mediated cleavage of ROCK I induces MLC phosphorylation and apoptotic membrane blebbing".

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caspase-8. HeLa cell apoptosis caused by CDV follows a different mechanism than that in vero cell lines. This change in the caspase cascade suggests CDV induces apoptosis via the

619:. The mechanism of this release is enigmatic, but appears to stem from a multitude of Bax/Bak homo- and hetero-dimers of Bax/Bak inserted into the outer membrane. Once cytochrome 554:

concentration, for example, by damage to the membrane, can all trigger the release of intracellular apoptotic signals by a damaged cell. A number of cellular components, such as

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Tixeira R, Caruso S, Paone S, Baxter AA, Atkin-Smith GK, Hulett MD, Poon IK (March 2017). "Defining the morphologic features and products of cell disassembly during apoptosis".

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at G1, or interphase, to give the cell time to repair; however, it will induce apoptosis if damage is extensive and repair efforts fail. Any disruption to the regulation of the

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Krysko DV, Vanden Berghe T, Parthoens E, D'Herde K, Vandenabeele P (2008). "Chapter 16 Methods for Distinguishing Apoptotic from Necrotic Cells and Measuring Their Clearance".

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Darzynkiewicz Z, Juan G, Li X, Gorczyca W, Murakami T, Traganos F (January 1997). "Cytometry in cell necrobiology: analysis of apoptosis and accidental cell death (necrosis)".

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fragmentation in HeLa cells. It can be interpreted by counting, measuring, and analyzing the cells of the Sub/G1 cell population. When HeLA cells are infected with OROV, the

1107:. Initially these are smaller surface blebs. Later these can grow into larger so-called dynamic membrane blebs. An important regulator of apoptotic cell membrane blebbing is 2787:

Goldstein JC, Waterhouse NJ, Juin P, Evan GI, Green DR (March 2000). "The coordinate release of cytochrome c during apoptosis is rapid, complete and kinetically invariant".

1526:(CDV) is known to cause apoptosis in central nervous system and lymphoid tissue of infected dogs in vivo and in vitro. Apoptosis caused by CDV is typically induced via the 6672:

Wang XW, Gibson MK, Vermeulen W, Yeh H, Forrester K, Stürzbecher HW, et al. (December 1995). "Abrogation of p53-induced apoptosis by the hepatitis B virus X gene".

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Razaghi A, Heimann K, Schaeffer PM, Gibson SB (February 2018). "Negative regulators of cell death pathways in cancer: perspective on biomarkers and targeted therapies".

1447:. This does not directly cause cell death but primes the cell for apoptosis should the appropriate signal be received. In parallel, these enzymes activate proapoptotic 1182:. During apoptosis cellular RNA and DNA are separated from each other and sorted to different apoptotic bodies; separation of RNA is initiated as nucleolar segregation. 7045: 1539:, excluding the need for the initiator caspase-8. The executioner protein is instead activated by the internal stimuli caused by viral infection not a caspase cascade. 7082: 4555:

Vandivier RW, Henson PM, Douglas IS (June 2006). "Burying the dead: the impact of failed apoptotic cell removal (efferocytosis) on chronic inflammatory lung disease".

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Gong J, Traganos F, Darzynkiewicz Z (May 1994). "A selective procedure for DNA extraction from apoptotic cells applicable for gel electrophoresis and flow cytometry".

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Gonzalez D, Bejarano I, Barriga C, Rodriguez AB, Pariente JA (2010). "Oxidative Stress-Induced Caspases are Regulated in Human Myeloid HL-60 Cells by Calcium Signal".

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is released from the membrane of the mitochondria, into the cytosol of the cells. This type of interaction shows that apoptosis is activated via an intrinsic pathway.

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In addition to its importance as a biological phenomenon, defective apoptotic processes have been implicated in a wide variety of diseases. Excessive apoptosis causes

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Susin SA, Lorenzo HK, Zamzami N, Marzo I, Snow BE, Brothers GM, et al. (February 1999). "Molecular characterization of mitochondrial apoptosis-inducing factor".

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Apoptosis progresses quickly and its products are quickly removed, making it difficult to detect or visualize on classical histology sections. During karyorrhexis,

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Nishi T, Tsukiyama-Kohara K, Togashi K, Kohriyama N, Kai C (November 2004). "Involvement of apoptosis in syncytial cell death induced by canine distemper virus".

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Mailhos C, Howard MK, Latchman DS (April 1994). "A common pathway mediates retinoic acid and PMA-dependent programmed cell death (apoptosis) of neuronal cells".

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Mailhos C, Howard MK, Latchman DS (April 1994). "A common pathway mediates retinoic acid and PMA-dependent programmed cell death (apoptosis) of neuronal cells".

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is activated by intracellular signals generated when cells are stressed and depends on the release of proteins from the intermembrane space of mitochondria. The

293:. Kerr, Wyllie and Currie credited James Cormack, a professor of Greek language at University of Aberdeen, with suggesting the term apoptosis. Kerr received the 1579:

The Oropouche virus also causes disruption in cultured cells – cells that are cultivated in distinct and specific conditions. An example of this can be seen in

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Coleman ML, Sahai EA, Yeo M, Bosch M, Dewar A, Olson MF (April 2001). "Membrane blebbing during apoptosis results from caspase-mediated activation of ROCK I".

674:, which carry out the degradation of the cell. Therefore, the actual degradation enzymes can be seen to be indirectly regulated by mitochondrial permeability. 1178:

by cells possessing the appropriate receptors, such as macrophages. The removal of dying cells by phagocytes occurs in an orderly manner without eliciting an

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that removes the pieces of the dead cell. Instead of an immune response, the dying cell synthesizes substances to break itself down and places them in a

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Halicka HD, Bedner E, Darzynkiewicz Z (November 2000). "Segregation of RNA and separate packaging of DNA and RNA in apoptotic bodies during apoptosis".

6749: 6198: 854:-DISC starts a feedback loop that spirals into increasing release of proapoptotic factors from mitochondria and the amplified activation of caspase-8. 1511:

Expression of viral proteins coupled to MHC proteins on the surface of the infected cell, allowing recognition by cells of the immune system (such as

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gene, resulting in the increase of p53 protein level and enhancement of cancer cell-apoptosis. p53 prevents the cell from replicating by stopping the

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Farhana L, Dawson MI, Fontana JA (June 2005). "Apoptosis induction by a novel retinoid-related molecule requires nuclear factor-kappaB activation".

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A cell initiates intracellular apoptotic signaling in response to a stress, which may bring about cell suicide. The binding of nuclear receptors by

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We are most grateful to Professor James Cormack of the Department of Greek, University of Aberdeen, for suggesting this term. The word "apoptosis" (

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Vaux DL, Cory S, Adams JM (September 1988). "Bcl-2 gene promotes haemopoietic cell survival and cooperates with c-myc to immortalize pre-B cells".

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Because apoptosis cannot stop once it has begun, it is a highly regulated process. Apoptosis can be initiated through one of two pathways. In the

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cells each day due to apoptosis. For the average human child between 8 and 14 years old, each day the approximate loss is 20 to 30 billion cells.

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Kerr JF (October 1965). "A histochemical study of hypertrophy and ischaemic injury of rat liver with special reference to changes in lysosomes".

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Li MO, Sarkisian MR, Mehal WZ, Rakic P, Flavell RA (November 2003). "Phosphatidylserine receptor is required for clearance of apoptotic cells".

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in plants has a number of molecular similarities to that of animal apoptosis, but it also has differences, notable ones being the presence of a

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Before the apoptotic cell is disposed of, there is a process of disassembly. There are three recognized steps in apoptotic cell disassembly:

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Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2008). "Chapter 18 Apoptosis: Programmed Cell Death Eliminates Unwanted Cells".

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HeLa cells are an immortalized cancer cell line used frequently in research. The cell line was established by removing cells directly from

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Krysko DV, Vanden Berghe T, D'Herde K, Vandenabeele P (March 2008). "Apoptosis and necrosis: detection, discrimination and phagocytosis".

1683:). Inside the mitochondria, AIF is anchored to the inner membrane. In order to be released, the protein is cleaved by a calcium-dependent 1353:

common of these diseases is cancer, the disease of excessive cellular proliferation, which is often characterized by an overexpression of

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cleavage. The active effector caspases then proteolytically degrade a host of intracellular proteins to carry out the cell death program.

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Niu XY, Peng ZL, Duan WQ, Wang H, Wang P (2006). "Inhibition of HPV 16 E6 oncogene expression by RNA interference in vitro and in vivo".

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Vashistha H, Husain M, Kumar D, Yadav A, Arora S, Singhal PC (2008). "HIV-1 expression induces tubular cell G2/M arrest and apoptosis".

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Released viral particles and proteins present in extracellular fluid are able to induce apoptosis in nearby "bystander" T helper cells.

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is rapidly and globally degraded by a mechanism that is not yet fully characterized. mRNA decay is triggered very early in apoptosis.

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Polster BM, Pevsner J, Hardwick JM (March 2004). "Viral Bcl-2 homologs and their role in virus replication and associated diseases".

558:, may also help regulate apoptosis. Single cell fluctuations have been observed in experimental studies of stress induced apoptosis. 60:. The optical thickness is color-coded. With increasing thickness, color changes from gray to yellow, red, purple and finally black. 2387: 2009: 5281:

Wlodkowic D, Telford W, Skommer J, Darzynkiewicz Z (2011). "Apoptosis and beyond: cytometry in studies of programmed cell death".

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Kihlmark M, Imreh G, Hallberg E (October 2001). "Sequential degradation of proteins from the nuclear envelope during apoptosis".

5570: 2832:"Real-Time dynamics of Ca2+, caspase-3/7, and morphological changes in retinal ganglion cell apoptosis under elevated pressure" 57: 289:. Kerr had initially used the term programmed cell necrosis, but in the article, the process of natural cell death was called 113: 4779: 4642: 2585: 2023: 1992: 1906: 309: 203:

are able to engulf and remove before the contents of the cell can spill out onto surrounding cells and cause damage to them.

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Negative regulation of apoptosis inhibits cell death signaling pathways, helping tumors to evade cell death and developing

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have been made in the apoptosis pathways to test the function of each of the proteins. Several caspases, in addition to

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Viruses can remain intact from apoptosis in particular in the latter stages of infection. They can be exported in the

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activation leaves short DNA fragments, regularly spaced in size. These give a characteristic "laddered" appearance on

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incompletely understood, but in general, Bax or Bak are activated by the activation of BH3-only proteins, part of the

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occurs because cells between the digits undergo apoptosis. Unlike necrosis, apoptosis produces cell fragments called

4500:"A novel mechanism of generating extracellular vesicles during apoptosis via a beads-on-a-string membrane structure" 8295: 8290: 8138: 1527: 1235: 758:, and is the major extrinsic mediator of apoptosis. Most cells in the human body have two receptors for TNF-alpha: 536: 535:

is activated by extracellular ligands binding to cell-surface death receptors, which leads to the formation of the

3510:"Bcl-2 inhibits Bax translocation from cytosol to mitochondria during drug-induced apoptosis of human tumor cells" 8220: 7012: 5941:

Mochizuki H, Goto K, Mori H, Mizuno Y (May 1996). "Histochemical detection of apoptosis in Parkinson's disease".

1142: 883: 8488: 5384: 5232: 3939:"Apoptosis Triggers Specific, Rapid, and Global mRNA Decay with 3' Uridylated Intermediates Degraded by DIS3L2" 3725:

Venturi, Sebastiano (2014). "Iodine, PUFAs and Iodolipids in Health and Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective".

2679: 1135:

is an important component of membrane channels involved in the formation of apoptopodia and beaded apoptopodia.

1022:

A cell undergoing apoptosis shows a series of characteristic morphological changes. Early alterations include:

975: 588: 7092: 5476:"Integration of interferon-alpha/beta signalling to p53 responses in tumour suppression and antiviral defence" 1292:

A recently described example of this concept in action can be seen in the development of a lung cancer called

324:

for their work identifying genes that control apoptosis. The genes were identified by studies in the nematode

196: 5231:

Vanden Berghe T, Grootjans S, Goossens V, Dondelinger Y, Krysko DV, Takahashi N, Vandenabeele P (June 2013).

1680: 821: 786:

inhibits the activation of caspase-8. Binding of this receptor can also indirectly lead to the activation of

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van Doorn WG, Beers EP, Dangl JL, Franklin-Tong VE, Gallois P, Hara-Nishimura I, et al. (August 2011).

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Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology

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Dickman M, Williams B, Li Y, de Figueiredo P, Wolpert T (October 2017). "Reassessing apoptosis in plants".

1427: 1328:

accumulates when DNA is damaged due to a chain of biochemical factors. Part of this pathway includes alpha-

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The nuclear envelope becomes discontinuous and the DNA inside it is fragmented in a process referred to as

8272: 7461: 2889:

Bejarano I, Espino J, González-Flores D, Casado JG, Redondo PC, Rosado JA, et al. (September 2009).

1728: 276: 173: 713:

Overview of TNF (left) and Fas (right) signalling in apoptosis, an example of direct signal transduction

8209: 7730: 7713: 7696: 7602: 7305: 7070: 7034: 6403:"Apoptosis induced by Oropouche virus infection in HeLa cells is dependent on virus protein expression" 3551:"Building blocks of the apoptotic pore: how Bax and Bak are activated and oligomerize during apoptosis" 1487:

Viral induction of apoptosis occurs when one or several cells of a living organism are infected with a

871: 612: 555: 7029: 6401:

Acrani GO, Gomes R, Proença-Módena JL, da Silva AF, Carminati PO, Silva ML, et al. (April 2010).

2744:

Chiarugi A, Moskowitz MA (July 2002). "Cell biology. PARP-1--a perpetrator of apoptotic cell death?".

8438: 7926: 7921: 7735: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7285: 7280: 7275: 7270: 7265: 7260: 7121: 4441:

Poon IK, Chiu YH, Armstrong AJ, Kinchen JM, Juncadella IJ, Bayliss DA, Ravichandran KS (March 2014).

1676: 940: 285: 17: 6641: 5695:

Del Puerto HL, Martins AS, Milsted A, Souza-Fagundes EM, Braz GF, Hissa B, et al. (June 2011).

4643:"Cell corpse engulfment mediated by C. elegans phosphatidylserine receptor through CED-5 and CED-12" 8372: 8018: 7708: 5863:

Boehm I (June 2006). "Apoptosis in physiological and pathological skin: implications for therapy".

5084:

Lozano GM, Bejarano I, Espino J, González D, Ortiz A, García JF, Rodríguez AB, Pariente JA (2009).

4185:"An evaluation of renal tubular DNA laddering in response to oxygen deprivation and oxidant injury" 3986:

Böhm I (May 2003). "Disruption of the cytoskeleton after apoptosis induction with autoantibodies".

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and causes febrile illness, characterized by the onset of a sudden fever known as Oropouche fever.

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Hay S, Kannourakis G (July 2002). "A time to kill: viral manipulation of the cell death program".

2603:"Saturated fatty acid-induced apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. A role for cardiolipin" 2041:"A minimal model of signaling network elucidates cell-to-cell stochastic variability in apoptosis" 719:

Two theories of the direct initiation of apoptotic mechanisms in mammals have been suggested: the

488:

In the original Kerr, Wyllie & Currie paper, there is a footnote regarding the pronunciation:

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Azevedo RS, Nunes MR, Chiang JO, Bensabath G, Vasconcelos HB, Pinto AY, et al. (June 2007).

1312:. XIAPs bind to the processed form of caspase-9 and suppress the activity of apoptotic activator 1171: 1166:. Dying cells that undergo the final stages of apoptosis display phagocytotic molecules, such as 592:

cause apoptotic effectors to leak out. There is also a growing body of evidence indicating that

341: 268: 6491:

Santos RI, Rodrigues AH, Silva ML, Mortara RA, Rossi MA, Jamur MC, et al. (December 2008).

4761: 1418:

antiapoptotic role and a proapoptotic role depending on the stimuli utilized and the cell type.

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Everett H, McFadden G (April 1999). "Apoptosis: an innate immune response to virus infection".

6115:"Mechanisms of CD4+ T lymphocyte cell death in human immunodeficiency virus infection and AIDS" 5571:"Apoptosis: its origin, history, maintenance and the medical implications for cancer and aging" 1557: 1523: 1354: 662: 630: 326: 297:

on March 14, 2000, for his description of apoptosis. He shared the prize with Boston biologist

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Kim JH, Lee CH (September 2009). "Atromentin-induced apoptosis in human leukemia U937 cells".

6493:"Oropouche virus entry into HeLa cells involves clathrin and requires endosomal acidification" 4498:

Atkin-Smith GK, Tixeira R, Paone S, Mathivanan S, Collins C, Liem M, et al. (June 2015).

4029:

Susin SA, Daugas E, Ravagnan L, Samejima K, Zamzami N, Loeffler M, et al. (August 2000).

1862:) die per day. That is, about 5 out of every 1,000 cells (0.5%) die each day due to apoptosis. 8264: 8090: 7984: 7946: 7826: 7772: 7750: 7703: 7584: 7335: 2891:"Role of Calcium Signals on Hydrogen Peroxide-Induced Apoptosis in Human Myeloid HL-60 Cells" 1826: 1642: 1227: 1179: 839: 724: 137: 53: 6826:"BAX-induced cell death may not require interleukin 1 beta-converting enzyme-like proteases" 2223:"Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics" 1344:

or interferon genes will result in impaired apoptosis and the possible formation of tumors.

652:

Mitochondria also release proteins known as SMACs (second mitochondria-derived activator of

7955: 7951: 7903: 6837: 6236: 5650: 5585: 5532: 5487: 5383:

Yang L, Mashima T, Sato S, Mochizuki M, Sakamoto H, Yamori T, et al. (February 2003).

5341: 4903: 4654: 4599: 4511: 4454: 3607: 3202: 3151: 2843: 2322: 2062: 1565: 787: 153: 52:

exploding into a cascade of apoptotic bodies. The sub images were extracted from a 61-hour

5474:

Takaoka A, Hayakawa S, Yanai H, Stoiber D, Negishi H, Kikuchi H, et al. (July 2003).

5154: 4391:"A novel role for microtubules in apoptotic chromatin dynamics and cellular fragmentation" 8: 8478: 8073: 8013: 7996: 7682: 7006: 6996: 6986: 1806: 1746: 1587: 1536: 1512: 1104: 157: 131: 6964: 6841: 6240: 6223:

Tateishi H, Monde K, Anraku K, Koga R, Hayashi Y, Ciftci HI, et al. (August 2017).

5654: 5597: 5589: 5536: 5491: 5442: 5345: 4907: 4858: 4658: 4603: 4515: 4458: 3611: 3206: 3155: 3053:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

2847: 2379: 2326: 2283: 2066: 550:, increased intracellular concentration of free fatty acids and increased intracellular 8463: 7755: 7647: 7597: 7402: 6908: 6806: 6725: 6700: 6517: 6492: 6468: 6443: 6257: 6224: 6179: 6060: 6012: 5985: 5966: 5923: 5771: 5723: 5696: 5609: 5451: 5426: 5365: 5309: 5290: 5066: 5023: 4975: 4950: 4890:

Marino MW, Dunn A, Grail D, Inglese M, Noguchi Y, Richards E, et al. (July 1997).

4867: 4842: 4742: 4678: 4641:

Wang X, Wu YC, Fadok VA, Lee MC, Gengyo-Ando K, Cheng LC, et al. (November 2003).

4623: 4532: 4499: 4475: 4442: 4415: 4390: 4371: 4328: 4285: 4055: 4030: 4011: 3963: 3938: 3937:

Thomas MP, Liu X, Whangbo J, McCrossan G, Sanborn KB, Basar E, et al. (May 2015).

3919: 3871: 3846: 3822: 3797: 3675: 3650: 3631: 3575: 3550: 3475: 3434: 3349: 3341: 3267: 3226: 3175: 3121: 3073: 3048: 2915: 2890: 2866: 2831: 2812: 2769: 2726: 2671: 2545: 2346: 2295: 2247: 2222: 2134: 2109: 2085: 2052: 2040: 1607: 1268: 1167: 1153:. The plasma membrane protrusions may help bring apoptotic bodies closer to phagocytes. 792: 597: 6566: 6541: 6337: 5544: 5164: 1949: 7863: 7592: 6935: 6900: 6865: 6860: 6825: 6798: 6730: 6681: 6654: 6606: 6571: 6522: 6473: 6424: 6376: 6341: 6306: 6262: 6171: 6136: 6095: 6052: 6017: 5958: 5954: 5915: 5880: 5845: 5809: 5805: 5763: 5728: 5666: 5617: 5601: 5548: 5505: 5456: 5396: 5357: 5314: 5294: 5252: 5213: 5178: 5168: 5135: 5085: 5058: 5054: 5015: 5011: 4980: 4931: 4926: 4891: 4872: 4823: 4775: 4734: 4670: 4615: 4572: 4537: 4480: 4420: 4363: 4320: 4277: 4206: 4165: 4130: 4095: 4060: 4003: 3968: 3911: 3876: 3827: 3775: 3734: 3680: 3635: 3623: 3580: 3531: 3458: 3426: 3390: 3319: 3250: 3218: 3167: 3113: 3078: 3029: 2988: 2920: 2871: 2804: 2761: 2718: 2663: 2624: 2601:

Hardy S, El-Assaad W, Przybytkowski E, Joly E, Prentki M, Langelier Y (August 2003).

2581: 2549: 2537: 2529: 2338: 2287: 2252: 2174: 2139: 2090: 2019: 1988: 1953: 1902: 1616: 1494:

Viruses can trigger apoptosis of infected cells via a range of mechanisms including:

1240: 1223: 667: 547: 514: 462: 317: 298: 233:, whereas an insufficient amount results in uncontrolled cell proliferation, such as 6912: 6557: 6183: 6064: 5970: 5927: 5369: 5332:

Thompson CB (March 1995). "Apoptosis in the pathogenesis and treatment of disease".

5070: 5027: 4746: 4682: 4627: 4375: 4289: 4015: 3754:"Apoptosis and differentiation of Xenopus tail-derived myoblasts by thyroid hormone" 3479: 3438: 3271: 3230: 3179: 3125: 2773: 2730: 2675: 2350: 2299: 1936:

Böhm I, Schild H (2003). "Apoptosis: the complex scenario for a silent cell death".

1679:) from the mitochondria and its translocation into the nucleus mediated by its NLS ( 1214: 660:

following the increase in permeability of the mitochondria membranes. SMAC binds to

562:

involved, but two main methods of regulation have been identified: the targeting of

7989: 7960: 7889: 7785: 7718: 6892: 6855: 6845: 6810: 6790: 6720: 6712: 6646: 6598: 6561: 6553: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6463: 6455: 6419: 6414: 6402: 6368: 6333: 6296: 6252: 6244: 6163: 6126: 6087: 6044: 6007: 5997: 5950: 5907: 5872: 5837: 5801: 5775: 5755: 5718: 5708: 5658: 5613: 5593: 5540: 5495: 5446: 5438: 5349: 5304: 5286: 5244: 5205: 5160: 5127: 5050: 5007: 4970: 4962: 4921: 4911: 4862: 4854: 4815: 4767: 4724: 4716: 4662: 4607: 4564: 4527: 4519: 4470: 4462: 4410: 4402: 4355: 4332: 4312: 4269: 4237: 4196: 4157: 4122: 4087: 4050: 4042: 3995: 3958: 3950: 3923: 3903: 3866: 3858: 3817: 3809: 3765: 3707: 3670: 3662: 3615: 3570: 3562: 3521: 3505: 3467: 3418: 3380: 3330: 3309: 3259: 3210: 3159: 3105: 3068: 3060: 3019: 2978: 2947: 2910: 2902: 2861: 2851: 2816: 2796: 2753: 2710: 2655: 2614: 2521: 2330: 2279: 2242: 2234: 2166: 2129: 2121: 2080: 2070: 1945: 1516: 1502: 1454:

HIV may increase the level of cellular proteins that prompt Fas-mediated apoptosis.

1037: 995: 939:

There also exists a caspase-independent apoptotic pathway that is mediated by AIF (

804: 800: 416: 365: 264: 7379: 6091: 4686: 927:. Effector caspases are then activated by these active initiator caspases through 7868: 7116: 7099: 7077: 7062: 7024: 6602: 6301: 6284: 6048: 5662: 3954: 3096:

Fesik SW, Shi Y (November 2001). "Structural biology. Controlling the caspases".

2856: 2075: 2015: 1896: 1872: 1821: 1543: 1470:

The infected CD4+ cell may also receive the death signal from a cytotoxic T cell.

1305: 1072: 971: 272: 80: 6650: 6372: 6285:"Recent advances in apoptosis, mitochondria and drug resistance in cancer cells" 5248: 5209: 3999: 3651:"Optogenetic Control of Apoptosis in Targeted Tissues of Xenopus laevis Embryos" 8001: 7808: 7678: 6830:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

6248: 5876: 5697:"Canine distemper virus induces apoptosis in cervical tumor derived cell lines" 4896:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4707:

Savill J, Gregory C, Haslett C (November 2003). "Cell biology. Eat me or die".

3711: 2951: 2525: 1704: 1231: 953: 682: 543: 313: 61: 39: 8039: 7050: 7002: 6992: 6982: 6794: 6225:"A clue to unprecedented strategy to HIV eradication: "Lock-in and apoptosis"" 6167: 4771: 4273: 3907: 3752:

Tamura K, Takayama S, Ishii T, Mawaribuchi S, Takamatsu N, Ito M (June 2015).

3422: 3334: 3263: 2714: 2512:

Nirmala, J. Grace; Lopus, Manu (2020). "Cell death mechanisms in eukaryotes".

2443: 2125: 1556:

was initiated in 1996, when it was observed that apoptosis was induced by the

1379:

Further information on a clinical pathology test that measures apoptosis:

1243:(flow cytometry), caspase activation, Bid cleavage, and cytochrome c release ( 8457: 7803: 7531: 6850: 6002: 4568: 3798:"Understanding Apoptosis and Apoptotic Pathways Targeted Cancer Therapeutics" 3738: 3483: 3275: 2533: 1650: 1619:

HBx protein are examples of viral proteins that can perform such a function.

1435: 1259:

A section of mouse liver showing several apoptotic cells, indicated by arrows

1255: 1191: 1163: 1091: 1076: 903: 846:(FasL). The interaction between Fas and FasL results in the formation of the 584: 563: 524: 466: 263:

was first to describe the principle of apoptosis in 1842. In 1885, anatomist

181: 8357: 7122:

DeathBase: a database of proteins involved in cell death, curated by experts

7017: 5986:"Alzheimer's disease: the amyloid hypothesis and the Inverse Warburg effect" 5713: 5353: 4916: 4720: 4666: 4611: 4242: 4225: 4091: 3471: 3385: 3368: 3214: 3163: 3109: 2906: 2757: 2414: 2170: 8195: 8174: 8116: 8028: 7793: 7789: 7553: 6904: 6802: 6734: 6658: 6610: 6526: 6477: 6459: 6428: 6380: 6345: 6310: 6266: 6175: 6140: 6099: 6056: 6021: 5884: 5849: 5842:

10.1002/(sici)1097-4644(20000801)78:2<334::aid-jcb15>3.3.co;2-6

5813: 5767: 5732: 5670: 5605: 5552: 5509: 5460: 5400: 5318: 5256: 5217: 5182: 4984: 4876: 4827: 4819: 4738: 4674: 4619: 4576: 4541: 4484: 4424: 4367: 4324: 4281: 4161: 4134: 4126: 4099: 4064: 4007: 3972: 3915: 3880: 3831: 3779: 3684: 3584: 3535: 3526: 3509: 3430: 3394: 3323: 3314: 3297: 3222: 3171: 3117: 3082: 3064: 3033: 3024: 3007: 2992: 2983: 2966: 2924: 2875: 2808: 2765: 2722: 2667: 2628: 2619: 2602: 2541: 2291: 2143: 2094: 1957: 1761: 1595: 1548: 1313: 1244: 1209: 1175: 1150: 1064: 1048: 1027: 979: 827: 605: 593: 473:), but articulated when used in combining forms preceded by a vowel, as in 337: 321: 242: 238: 165: 149: 6869: 6685: 6575: 6131: 6114: 5962: 5919: 5361: 5195: 5139: 5062: 5019: 4935: 4760:

Krysko DV, Vandenabeele P (2009-01-14). Krysko DV, Vandenabeele P (eds.).

4210: 4169: 4046: 3813: 3627: 3338:. If this is an intentional citation to a retracted paper, please replace 2342: 2256: 2178: 1563:

OROV is a disease that is transmitted between humans by the biting midge (

1162:

The removal of dead cells by neighboring phagocytic cells has been termed

93: 8416: 8023: 7836: 7574: 7543: 7013:

Apoptosis MiniCOPE Dictionary – list of apoptosis terms and acronyms

6896: 5233:"Determination of apoptotic and necrotic cell death in vitro and in vivo" 5230: 5156:

Programmed Cell Death, General Principles for Studying Cell Death, Part A

5132:

10.1002/(sici)1097-0320(19970101)27:1<1::aid-cyto2>3.0.co;2-l

3862: 3566: 2659: 1786: 1776: 1771: 1583:, whereby the cells begin to degenerate shortly after they are infected. 1560:

into the kidney cells of baby hamsters and into the brains of baby mice.

1116: 928: 923:

activation of initiator caspases requires binding to specific oligomeric

482: 350: 161: 6716: 5500: 5475: 4763:

Phagocytosis of dying cells: from molecular mechanisms to human diseases

4466: 4443:"Unexpected link between an antibiotic, pannexin channels and apoptosis" 4201: 4184: 3770: 3753: 3296:

Chen W, Li N, Chen T, Han Y, Li C, Wang Y, et al. (December 2005).

3193:

Chen G, Goeddel DV (May 2002). "TNF-R1 signaling: a beautiful pathway".

3142:

Wajant H (May 2002). "The Fas signaling pathway: more than a paradigm".

2238: 1675:

activation. Later studies linked this phenomenon to the release of AIF (

330:

and homologues of these genes function in humans to regulate apoptosis.

8098: 7976: 7495: 7168: 5152: 4966: 4523: 3666: 2191: 1816: 1796: 1781: 1740: 1733: 1611: 1580: 1380: 1337: 1329: 1132: 902:

family are established. This balance is the proportion of proapoptotic

843: 755: 638: 474: 7137: 5911: 5759: 5694: 4406: 1033:

The cytoplasm appears dense, and the organelles appear tightly packed.

8362: 8330: 8325: 8184: 8179: 8162: 8006: 7568: 7558: 7241: 7237: 7227: 7223: 7219: 7209: 7205: 7195: 7191: 7131: 6358: 4359: 4316: 3847:"BCL-2 family proteins: changing partners in the dance towards death" 3503: 2800: 2334: 1756: 1751: 1646: 1573: 1451:, which does directly activate the mitochondrial events of apoptosis. 1309: 747: 642: 587:

are essential to multicellular life. Without them, a cell ceases to

260: 200: 45: 5280: 5260: 4729: 2643: 1263: 645:, which in turn cleaves and activates pro-caspase into the effector 623:

is released it binds with Apoptotic protease activating factor – 1 (

8421: 7798: 7623: 7563: 7548: 7517: 7503: 7233: 7215: 7201: 7187: 6930:

Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2015).

2888: 1846:

Note that the average human adult has more than 13 trillion cells (

1791: 1737: 1698: 1570: 1531: 1293: 1103:

Membrane blebbing: The cell membrane shows irregular buds known as

1080: 1041: 751: 223: 188: 169: 8377: 5897: 3619: 2057: 1036:

Chromatin undergoes condensation into compact patches against the

999: 611:

is released from mitochondria through the actions of the proteins

583:

The intrinsic pathway is also known as the mitochondrial pathway.

7780: 7632: 7539: 7512: 7171: 6400: 4497: 1801: 1766: 1713: 1684: 1654: 1279:

Neonatal cardiomyocytes ultrastructure after anoxia-reoxygenation

1012: 919: 704: 695: 671: 657: 653: 572: 551: 470: 230: 219: 7109: 6750:"Programmed cell death in plants resembles apoptosis of animals" 6698: 2937: 1030:

and the breakdown of the proteinaceous cytoskeleton by caspases.

1005: 641:. The apoptosome cleaves the pro-caspase to its active form of 8367: 8352: 8237: 7471: 7387: 7373: 7369: 7365: 7357: 7315: 7310: 7179: 5283:

Recent Advances in Cytometry, Part B - Advances in Applications

4224:

Smith A, Parkes MA, Atkin-Smith GK, Tixeira R, Poon IK (2017).

2600: 1901:. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. 1723: 1718: 1631: 1414: 1040:(also known as the perinuclear envelope) in a process known as 1026:

Cell shrinkage and rounding occur because of the retraction of

888: 730: 625: 333: 234: 192: 7105:

Robert Horvitz's Short Clip: Discovering Programmed Cell Death

6780: 5522: 3751: 958:

aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous

870:

activation in mammalian cells a balance between proapoptotic (

8431: 8426: 8342: 8313: 8232: 7446: 7441: 7330: 7325: 7320: 7037:

Apoptosis protocols, articles, news, and recent publications.

6591:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research

6034: 4223: 4183:

Iwata M, Myerson D, Torok-Storb B, Zager RA (December 1994).

3893: 1627: 1488: 1195: 1108: 987: 983: 924: 908: 894: 808: 783: 779: 775: 767: 763: 759: 493: 354: 145: 144:

and in some eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms such as

49: 6361:

Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases

5983: 5641:

Warburg O (February 1956). "On the origin of cancer cells".

5083: 4182: 1275: 507: 8411: 8347: 8320: 8157: 8150: 8145: 7475: 7466: 7436: 7415: 7353: 6490: 6441: 5473: 5117: 4345: 4028: 2786: 2699: 1431: 1387: 1367: 1301: 1199: 1068: 1016: 991: 959: 771: 437: 425: 419: 383: 374: 177: 124: 5285:. Methods in Cell Biology. Vol. 103. pp. 55–98. 4892:"Characterization of tumor necrosis factor-deficient mice" 4805: 1898:

Means to an End: Apoptosis and other Cell Death Mechanisms

1519:) that then induce the infected cell to undergo apoptosis. 546:, heat, radiation, nutrient deprivation, viral infection, 241:

and caspases promote apoptosis, while some members of the

7456: 7420: 7410: 7383: 7361: 6153: 5159:. Methods in Enzymology. Vol. 442. pp. 307–41. 4147: 3936: 3698:

Venturi S (2011). "Evolutionary Significance of Iodine".

3049:"Pore formation by dimeric Bak and Bax: an unusual pore?" 2270:

O'Rourke MG, Ellem KA (2000). "John Kerr and apoptosis".

1811: 1591: 1458: 1325: 1111:(rho associated coiled-coil-containing protein kinase 1). 1015:. In addition to the destruction of cellular organelles, 478: 443: 389: 368: 7677: 7089:

magazine (Spring 2007). Article on apoptosis and cancer.

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Methods for distinguishing apoptotic from necrotic cells

934: 596:

is able to induce apoptosis by helping to dissipate the

27:

Type of programmed cell death in multicellular organisms

6222: 5940: 4389:

Moss DK, Betin VM, Malesinski SD, Lane JD (June 2006).

4388: 3648: 2007: 1332:

and beta-interferon, which induce transcription of the

283:. In 1972, the trio published a seminal article in the 6671: 6588: 4889: 4554: 4113:

Nagata S (April 2000). "Apoptotic DNA fragmentation".

3369:"Apoptosis in the development and treatment of cancer" 3005: 2386:. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. 2020. 566:

functionality, or directly transducing the signal via

353:

used the term to mean "the falling off of the bones".

7126: 6283:

Indran IR, Tufo G, Pervaiz S, Brenner C (June 2011).

6196: 5564: 5562: 5040: 4997: 4589: 4077: 1602:

intracellular stimuli and involves the mitochondria.

465:

is typically silent at the beginning of a word (e.g.

446: 440: 401: 392: 386: 6077: 4706: 4302: 4031:"Two distinct pathways leading to nuclear apoptosis" 3844: 1694: 1131:(the latter having a beads-on-a-string appearance). 434: 428: 422: 380: 371: 6747: 6701:"Morphological classification of plant cell deaths" 6289:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics

3724: 3548: 2493: 2481: 2469: 2457: 2380:"The American Heritage Dictionary entry: apoptosis" 2357: 965: 431: 377: 7093:Xiaodong Wang's lecture: Introduction to Apoptosis 6823: 5559: 4759: 4583: 3246:"Connection Map for Tumor Necrosis Factor Pathway" 3006:Brüne B, von Knethen A, Sandau KB (October 1999). 344:in 2002, for his pioneering research on apoptosis. 6444:"Reemergence of Oropouche fever, northern Brazil" 6112: 5984:Demetrius LA, Magistretti PJ, Pellerin L (2014). 5745: 3845:Kale J, Osterlund EJ, Andrews DW (January 2018). 2743: 2269: 1461:glycoprotein marker present on the cell membrane. 8455: 6824:Xiang J, Chao DT, Korsmeyer SJ (December 1996). 6542:"Regulation of apoptosis by viral gene products" 5826: 5090:Anatolian Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 3549:Westphal D, Kluck RM, Dewson G (February 2014). 2220: 1669: 946: 8069: 6323: 5791: 4951:"Regulation of the Apaf-1-caspase-9 apoptosome" 4948: 4436: 4434: 4255: 4253: 4071: 3791: 3789: 2374: 2372: 1964: 6626: 6539: 4640: 2967:"Nitric oxide: NO apoptosis or turning it ON?" 2110:"Apoptosis: A Review of Programmed Cell Death" 1931: 1929: 180:decay. The average adult human loses 50 to 70 8055: 7663: 7153: 6071: 6028: 5794:International Journal of Gynecological Cancer 4189:Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 3295: 3289: 3046: 3008:"Nitric oxide (NO): an effector of apoptosis" 2829: 2312: 2221:Kerr JF, Wyllie AH, Currie AR (August 1972). 2192:Agency for Science, Technology and Research. 1095:Different steps in apoptotic cell disassembly 1086: 1006:Proteolytic caspase cascade: Killing the cell 799:also includes death receptors (DRs), such as 778:/2 can inhibit TNF-α signaling by binding to 8397: 6934:(6th ed.). Garland Science. p. 2. 6817: 6774: 6113:Alimonti JB, Ball TB, Fowke KR (July 2003). 5977: 5690: 5688: 5686: 5684: 5682: 5680: 5634: 5516: 5325: 4548: 4491: 4431: 4382: 4339: 4296: 4250: 4022: 3838: 3786: 2693: 2635: 2511: 2369: 2038: 1985:Apoptosis in Carcinogenesis and Chemotherapy 739:(TNFR) family coupled to extrinsic signals. 279:, who was Currie's graduate student, at the 152:events lead to characteristic cell changes ( 5934: 5891: 5820: 5568: 5424: 4106: 3795: 3649:Jewhurst K, Levin M, McLaughlin KA (2014). 3591: 3192: 3089: 2895:International Journal of Biomedical Science 2641: 2575: 2571: 2569: 2567: 2565: 2563: 2561: 2559: 2428: 2216: 2214: 1926: 1271:to show cells undergoing apoptosis (orange) 1051:. The nucleus breaks into several discrete 770:) and Fas-associated death domain protein ( 63:See the video at The Cell: An Image Library 8062: 8048: 7670: 7656: 7160: 7146: 7041:Database of proteins involved in apoptosis 6396: 6394: 6392: 6390: 6278: 6276: 3454:"Connection Map for Fas Signaling Pathway" 3352:|...|intentional=yes}} 3237: 2194:"Prof Andrew H. Wyllie – Lecture Abstract" 1935: 830:(First apoptosis signal) – (also known as 295:Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize 248: 7452:Cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein 6885:Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 6859: 6849: 6724: 6640: 6565: 6516: 6467: 6418: 6300: 6256: 6130: 6011: 6001: 5722: 5712: 5677: 5499: 5450: 5308: 4974: 4925: 4915: 4866: 4840: 4728: 4531: 4474: 4414: 4241: 4200: 4054: 3962: 3870: 3821: 3769: 3674: 3574: 3525: 3504:Murphy KM, Ranganathan V, Farnsworth ML, 3445: 3384: 3313: 3243: 3072: 3047:Uren RT, Iyer S, Kluck RM (August 2017). 3023: 2982: 2914: 2865: 2855: 2830:Lee JK, Lu S, Madhukar A (October 2010). 2618: 2402: 2246: 2159:The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology 2133: 2084: 2074: 2056: 1250: 6582: 6533: 6435: 6317: 5331: 5224: 5189: 4949:Bratton SB, Salvesen GS (October 2010). 3366: 3095: 2556: 2211: 2185: 2011:Molecular Biology of the Cell (textbook) 1833: 1398: 1274: 1262: 1254: 1213: 1157: 1090: 686:Overview of signal transduction pathways 681: 637:to create a protein complex known as an 527:pathway) and the extrinsic pathway. The 513: 502: 332: 210:the cell kills itself because it senses 7167: 7083:"Finding Cancer's Self-Destruct Button" 6922: 6622: 6620: 6484: 6387: 6273: 5640: 5467: 5146: 4843:"The role of mitochondria in apoptosis" 4753: 3697: 1552:. The study of apoptosis brought on by 1319: 1298:X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein 735:model, both involving receptors of the 14: 8456: 6882: 6748:Collazo C, Chacón O, Borrás O (2006). 6352: 6106: 5787: 5785: 4700: 4634: 4112: 3451: 3141: 3137: 3135: 2580:. Philadelphia: W.B Saunders Company. 2107: 1590:, it can be observed that OROV causes 1443:HIV enzymes deactivate anti-apoptotic 1141:: The cell breaks apart into multiple 807:. These receptors bind to the protein 58:quantitative phase-contrast microscopy 8043: 7651: 7141: 6665: 6540:Teodoro JG, Branton PE (March 1997). 6199:"AIDS Defining Criteria | Riley" 5862: 4176: 3186: 2964: 2737: 2642:Mattson MP, Chan SL (December 2003). 1982: 1894: 1854:), of which at most only 70 billion ( 1434:is due primarily to the depletion of 1283: 1185: 982:proteins or prosurvival factors like 935:Caspase-independent apoptotic pathway 6617: 5943:Journal of the Neurological Sciences 5376: 4035:The Journal of Experimental Medicine 3985: 3411:Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry 2306: 2156: 1457:HIV proteins decrease the amount of 1174:. These molecules mark the cell for 857: 677: 578: 136:'falling off') is a form of 7917:Transcription preinitiation complex 7051:Apoptosis Video (WEHI on YouTube ) 6929: 5782: 5739: 5443:10.20892/j.issn.2095-3941.2017.0029 4859:10.1146/annurev-genet-102108-134850 4226:"Cell disassembly during apoptosis" 3497: 3302:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 3132: 2940:Current Signal Transduction Therapy 2607:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 2578:Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease 2499: 2487: 2475: 2463: 2363: 2284:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2000.tb139362.x 1970: 518:Control of the apoptotic mechanisms 156:) and death. These changes include 24: 8216:Bcl-2 homologous antagonist killer 7885:Signal transducing adaptor protein 5291:10.1016/B978-0-12-385493-3.00004-8 3758:Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 2958: 1482: 1421: 842:of the TNF family which binds the 506: 25: 8500: 6950: 3367:Gerl R, Vaux DL (February 2005). 2409:Apoptosis Interest Group (1999). 2390:from the original on 26 July 2021 1475:CD4+ cell count falls below 200. 8296:Tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 8291:Tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 8139:Death-inducing signaling complex 7127:European Cell Death Organization 6957: 6876: 6741: 6692: 6216: 6190: 6147: 5830:Journal of Cellular Biochemistry 5806:10.1111/j.1525-1438.2006.00384.x 5748:Journal of Cellular Biochemistry 3802:Advanced Pharmaceutical Bulletin 3796:Jan R, Chaudhry GE (June 2019). 2644:"Calcium orchestrates apoptosis" 2272:The Medical Journal of Australia 1697: 1662:(as opposed to the more general 1236:transmission electron microscopy 966:Negative regulators of apoptosis 848:death-inducing signaling complex 703: 694: 537:death-inducing signaling complex 415: 364: 38: 8221:Bcl-2-associated death promoter 6629:The Journal of General Virology 6558:10.1128/jvi.71.3.1739-1746.1997 6119:The Journal of General Virology 5856: 5418: 5407:from the original on 2012-12-20 5274: 5111: 5100:from the original on 2022-04-30 5077: 5034: 4991: 4942: 4883: 4841:Wang C, Youle RJ (2009-12-01). 4834: 4799: 4788:from the original on 2022-04-30 4217: 4141: 3979: 3930: 3887: 3745: 3718: 3691: 3642: 3542: 3401: 3360: 3040: 2999: 2931: 2882: 2823: 2780: 2703:The Journal of Membrane Biology 2682:from the original on 2019-11-21 2594: 2505: 2263: 1915:from the original on 2020-07-26 1865: 1407: 663:proteins that inhibit apoptosis 245:of proteins inhibit apoptosis. 6705:Cell Death and Differentiation 6509:10.1016/j.virusres.2008.08.016 6420:10.1016/j.virusres.2009.12.013 5425:Vlahopoulos SA (August 2017). 3851:Cell Death and Differentiation 3555:Cell Death and Differentiation 3514:Cell Death and Differentiation 3012:Cell Death and Differentiation 2971:Cell Death and Differentiation 2150: 2101: 2039:Raychaudhuri S (August 2010). 2032: 2001: 1976: 1888: 1840: 1546:(OROV) is found in the family 1059:due to the degradation of DNA. 815: 797:TNF-alpha receptor superfamily 742: 13: 1: 8255: 8081: 6932:Molecular Biology of the Cell 6338:10.1016/S0966-842X(99)01487-0 6092:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-4124 5598:10.1088/1478-3975/13/3/031001 5545:10.1016/S1383-5742(02)00009-1 5431:Cancer Biology & Medicine 5165:10.1016/S0076-6879(08)01416-X 1950:10.1016/S1536-1632(03)00024-6 1670:Caspase-independent apoptosis 1374: 1347: 1324:The tumor-suppressor protein 1079:differentiate apoptosis from 947:Apoptosis model in amphibians 822:Activation-induced cell death 754:produced mainly by activated 255:History of apoptosis research 6603:10.1016/j.bbamcr.2003.11.001 6448:Emerging Infectious Diseases 6302:10.1016/j.bbabio.2011.03.010 6049:10.1212/WNL.0b013e31829c5ec1 5955:10.1016/0022-510X(95)00336-Z 5663:10.1126/science.123.3191.309 5055:10.1016/0006-8993(94)90339-5 5012:10.1016/0006-8993(94)90339-5 3955:10.1016/j.celrep.2015.04.026 2857:10.1371/journal.pone.0013437 2076:10.1371/journal.pone.0011930 1882: 1428:human immunodeficiency virus 1361: 125: 7: 8273:Tumor necrosis factor alpha 7462:Maturation promoting factor 7132:Apoptosis signaling pathway 7056:The Mechanisms of Apoptosis 6651:10.1099/0022-1317-83-7-1547 6373:10.1016/j.cimid.2004.01.007 6201:. IU Health. Archived from 6197:Indiana University Health. 5249:10.1016/j.ymeth.2013.02.011 5210:10.1016/j.ymeth.2007.12.001 4000:10.1080/0891693031000105617 2576:Cotran RS, Kumar C (1998). 2514:Cell Biology and Toxicology 1736:induces apoptosis in human 1729:Apoptotic DNA fragmentation 1690: 1681:nuclear localization signal 914: 10: 8505: 7603:Postreplication checkpoint 6249:10.1038/s41598-017-09129-w 5877:10.2174/156652406777435390 5865:Current Molecular Medicine 5569:Kaczanowski S (May 2016). 4808:Experimental Cell Research 4115:Experimental Cell Research 3712:10.2174/187231311796765012 3508:, Lock RB (January 2000). 2952:10.2174/157436210791112172 2526:10.1007/s10565-019-09496-2 1569:). It is referred to as a 1378: 1087:Apoptotic cell disassembly 1044:, a hallmark of apoptosis. 819: 556:poly ADP ribose polymerase 494: 477:or the orders of insects: 252: 112: 50:DU145 prostate cancer cell 8439:Apoptosis-inducing factor 8390: 8304: 8281: 8263: 8254: 8193: 8134: 8125: 8107: 8089: 8080: 7969: 7939: 7902: 7877: 7854: 7845: 7817: 7771: 7764: 7689: 7611: 7583: 7530: 7494: 7485: 7429: 7401: 7344: 7251: 7178: 7030:Apoptosis Research Portal 7003:Apoptosis & Caspase 7 6993:Apoptosis & Caspase 8 6983:Apoptosis & Caspase 3 6795:10.1038/s41477-017-0020-x 6168:10.1080/08860220802134672 4847:Annual Review of Genetics 4772:10.1007/978-1-4020-9293-0 4274:10.1007/s10495-017-1345-7 3908:10.1007/s10495-018-1440-4 3423:10.1016/j.bmc.2018.08.016 3335:10.1016/j.jbc.2021.100764 3264:10.1126/stke.3822007tw132 2715:10.1007/s00232-009-9212-2 2436:"Definition of apoptosis" 2227:British Journal of Cancer 2126:10.1080/01926230701320337 1987:. Netherlands: Springer. 1677:apoptosis-inducing factor 1637: 1436:CD4+ T-helper lymphocytes 1267:A section of mouse liver 941:apoptosis-inducing factor 286:British Journal of Cancer 86: 74: 69: 37: 32: 8484:Medical aspects of death 7997:Neuroendocrine signaling 6851:10.1073/pnas.93.25.14559 6003:10.3389/fphys.2014.00522 4569:10.1378/chest.129.6.1673 3700:Current Chemical Biology 5990:Frontiers in Physiology 5714:10.1186/1743-422X-8-334 5354:10.1126/science.7878464 4955:Journal of Cell Science 4917:10.1073/pnas.94.15.8093 4721:10.1126/science.1092533 4667:10.1126/science.1087641 4612:10.1126/science.1087621 4395:Journal of Cell Science 4230:WikiJournal of Medicine 4150:Analytical Biochemistry 4092:10.1242/jcs.114.20.3643 4080:Journal of Cell Science 3472:10.1126/stke.3802007tr1 3215:10.1126/science.1071924 3164:10.1126/science.1071553 3110:10.1126/science.1062236 2965:Brüne B (August 2003). 2907:10.59566/IJBS.2009.5246 2758:10.1126/science.1074592 2171:10.1002/path.1700900210 1630:can cause apoptosis in 1426:The progression of the 342:Nobel Prize in Medicine 310:Nobel Prize in Medicine 249:Discovery and etymology 142:multicellular organisms 7859:cAMP-dependent pathway 7585:Cell cycle checkpoints 6763:: 1–10. Archived from 6757:Biotecnología Aplicada 6460:10.3201/eid1306.061114 6326:Trends in Microbiology 4820:10.1006/excr.2000.5027 4162:10.1006/abio.1994.1184 4127:10.1006/excr.2000.4834 3527:10.1038/sj.cdd.4400597 3315:10.1074/jbc.M502190200 3065:10.1098/rstb.2016.0218 3025:10.1038/sj.cdd.4400582 2984:10.1038/sj.cdd.4401261 2620:10.1074/jbc.m300190200 2108:Elmore S (June 2007). 1610:BHRF1 protein and the 1524:Canine distemper virus 1280: 1272: 1260: 1251:Implication in disease 1219: 1096: 886:) and anti-apoptotic ( 687: 519: 511: 500: 345: 281:University of Aberdeen 170:chromatin condensation 88:Anatomical terminology 8489:Programmed cell death 7985:Synaptic transmission 7981:Neurocrine signaling 7904:Transcription factors 7751:PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway 7612:Other cellular phases 7336:CDK-activating kinase 6132:10.1099/vir.0.19110-0 4504:Nature Communications 4243:10.15347/wjm/2017.008 4047:10.1084/jem.192.4.571 3814:10.15171/apb.2019.024 3655:Journal of Cell Death 3386:10.1093/carcin/bgh283 3344:|...}} 3329:(Retracted, see 2114:Toxicologic Pathology 1834:Explanatory footnotes 1827:PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway 1664:programmed cell death 1643:Programmed cell death 1399:Hyperactive apoptosis 1308:in cells of the H460 1278: 1266: 1258: 1228:time-lapse microscopy 1217: 1180:inflammatory response 1158:Removal of dead cells 1094: 1083:or toxic cell death. 840:transmembrane protein 788:transcription factors 725:tumor necrosis factor 685: 633:, which then bind to 517: 510: 503:Activation mechanisms 490: 336: 166:nuclear fragmentation 138:programmed cell death 56:video, created using 54:time-lapse microscopy 6923:General bibliography 6897:10.4014/jmb.0811.617 4961:(Pt 19): 3209–3214. 4401:(Pt 11): 2362–2374. 4086:(Pt 20): 3643–3653. 3863:10.1038/cdd.2017.186 3567:10.1038/cdd.2013.139 3244:Goeddel, DV (2007). 2660:10.1038/ncb1203-1041 1566:Culicoides paraensis 1508:Interaction with p53 1320:Dysregulation of p53 1232:flow fluorocytometry 237:. Some factors like 8474:Cellular senescence 8014:Mechanotransduction 8002:Exocrine signalling 7809:Signaling molecules 7683:Signal transduction 7007:The Proteolysis Map 6997:The Proteolysis Map 6987:The Proteolysis Map 6842:1996PNAS...9314559X 6836:(25): 14559–14563. 6717:10.1038/cdd.2011.36 6635:(Pt 7): 1547–1564. 6546:Journal of Virology 6241:2017NatSR...7.8957T 6125:(Pt 7): 1649–1661. 5655:1956Sci...123..309W 5590:2016PhBio..13c1001K 5537:2002MRRMR.511..145B 5501:10.1038/nature01850 5492:2003Natur.424..516T 5346:1995Sci...267.1456T 5340:(5203): 1456–1462. 4908:1997PNAS...94.8093M 4715:(5650): 1516–1517. 4659:2003Sci...302.1563W 4653:(5650): 1563–1566. 4604:2003Sci...302.1560O 4598:(5650): 1560–1563. 4516:2015NatCo...6.7439A 4467:10.1038/nature13147 4459:2014Natur.507..329P 4348:Nature Cell Biology 4305:Nature Cell Biology 4202:10.1681/ASN.V561307 3771:10.1530/JME-14-0327 3612:1999Natur.397..441S 3308:(49): 40985–40995. 3207:2002Sci...296.1634C 3201:(5573): 1634–1635. 3156:2002Sci...296.1635W 3150:(5573): 1635–1636. 3104:(5546): 1477–1478. 2848:2010PLoSO...513437L 2789:Nature Cell Biology 2648:Nature Cell Biology 2613:(34): 31861–31870. 2417:on 28 December 2006 2327:1988Natur.335..440V 2239:10.1038/bjc.1972.33 2067:2010PLoSO...511930R 1875:, a cancer patient. 1807:Mitotic catastrophe 1649:and the lack of an 1588:gel electrophoresis 793:autoimmune diseases 589:respire aerobically 454:). In English, the 8024:Ion channel gating 7756:Integrin receptors 7690:Signaling pathways 7598:Spindle checkpoint 7403:P53 p63 p73 family 7134:created by Cusabio 7115:2013-10-23 at the 7110:The Bcl-2 Database 7098:2013-10-29 at the 7076:2008-09-16 at the 7061:2018-03-09 at the 7023:2021-04-25 at the 6967:has a profile for 6229:Scientific Reports 4967:10.1242/jcs.073643 4524:10.1038/ncomms8439 3667:10.4137/JCD.S18368 3059:(1726): 20160218. 2278:(11–12): 616–617. 1608:Epstein-Barr virus 1530:, which activates 1284:Defective pathways 1281: 1273: 1261: 1220: 1186:Pathway knock-outs 1168:phosphatidylserine 1129:beaded apoptopodia 1097: 688: 668:cysteine proteases 656:) into the cell's 604:During apoptosis, 598:membrane potential 520: 512: 346: 8451: 8450: 8447: 8446: 8386: 8385: 8250: 8249: 8246: 8245: 8074:signaling pathway 8037: 8036: 8019:Phototransduction 7977:Intracrine action 7935: 7934: 7898: 7897: 7786:Neurotransmitters 7645: 7644: 7641: 7640: 7593:Restriction point 7071:Apoptosis pathway 7009: – animation 6999: – animation 6989: – animation 6973: 6680:(24): 6012–6016. 6086:(11): 4909–4917. 5912:10.1038/ng0195-21 5760:10.1002/jcb.21490 5649:(3191): 309–314. 5525:Mutation Research 5486:(6948): 516–523. 4902:(15): 8093–8098. 4781:978-1-4020-9292-3 4453:(7492): 329–334. 4407:10.1242/jcs.02959 3606:(6718): 441–446. 3452:Wajant H (2007). 3417:(17): 4804–4816. 2752:(5579): 200–201. 2654:(12): 1041–1043. 2587:978-0-7216-7335-6 2411:"About apoptosis" 2025:978-0-8153-4105-5 1994:978-1-4020-9597-9 1983:Karam JA (2009). 1908:978-0-87969-888-1 1617:hepatitis B virus 1537:intrinsic pathway 1528:extrinsic pathway 1517:cytotoxic T cells 1241:DNA fragmentation 1224:live cell imaging 1057:nucleosomal units 925:activator protein 898:) members of the 858:Common components 727:) model and the 678:Extrinsic pathway 579:Intrinsic pathway 533:extrinsic pathway 529:intrinsic pathway 463:consonant cluster 409:) and the second 318:H. Robert Horvitz 299:H. Robert Horvitz 259:German scientist 216:extrinsic pathway 208:intrinsic pathway 174:DNA fragmentation 135: 123: 102: 101: 97: 16:(Redirected from 8496: 8395: 8394: 8261: 8260: 8132: 8131: 8087: 8086: 8064: 8057: 8050: 8041: 8040: 7990:Chemical synapse 7890:Scaffold protein 7852: 7851: 7847:Second messenger 7773:Receptor ligands 7769: 7768: 7672: 7665: 7658: 7649: 7648: 7492: 7491: 7162: 7155: 7148: 7139: 7138: 6971: 6961: 6960: 6945: 6917: 6916: 6880: 6874: 6873: 6863: 6853: 6821: 6815: 6814: 6778: 6772: 6771: 6769: 6754: 6745: 6739: 6738: 6728: 6711:(8): 1241–1246. 6696: 6690: 6689: 6669: 6663: 6662: 6644: 6624: 6615: 6614: 6597:(2–3): 211–227. 6586: 6580: 6579: 6569: 6552:(3): 1739–1746. 6537: 6531: 6530: 6520: 6503:(1–2): 139–143. 6488: 6482: 6481: 6471: 6439: 6433: 6432: 6422: 6398: 6385: 6384: 6356: 6350: 6349: 6321: 6315: 6314: 6304: 6280: 6271: 6270: 6260: 6220: 6214: 6213: 6211: 6210: 6194: 6188: 6187: 6151: 6145: 6144: 6134: 6110: 6104: 6103: 6075: 6069: 6068: 6032: 6026: 6025: 6015: 6005: 5981: 5975: 5974: 5938: 5932: 5931: 5895: 5889: 5888: 5860: 5854: 5853: 5824: 5818: 5817: 5789: 5780: 5779: 5754:(4): 1125–1143. 5743: 5737: 5736: 5726: 5716: 5701:Virology Journal 5692: 5675: 5674: 5638: 5632: 5631: 5629: 5628: 5622: 5616:. Archived from 5578:Physical Biology 5575: 5566: 5557: 5556: 5520: 5514: 5513: 5503: 5471: 5465: 5464: 5454: 5422: 5416: 5415: 5413: 5412: 5380: 5374: 5373: 5329: 5323: 5322: 5312: 5278: 5272: 5271: 5269: 5268: 5259:. Archived from 5228: 5222: 5221: 5193: 5187: 5186: 5150: 5144: 5143: 5115: 5109: 5108: 5106: 5105: 5081: 5075: 5074: 5038: 5032: 5031: 4995: 4989: 4988: 4978: 4946: 4940: 4939: 4929: 4919: 4887: 4881: 4880: 4870: 4838: 4832: 4831: 4803: 4797: 4796: 4794: 4793: 4757: 4751: 4750: 4732: 4704: 4698: 4697: 4695: 4694: 4685:. Archived from 4638: 4632: 4631: 4587: 4581: 4580: 4563:(6): 1673–1682. 4552: 4546: 4545: 4535: 4495: 4489: 4488: 4478: 4438: 4429: 4428: 4418: 4386: 4380: 4379: 4360:10.1038/35070019 4343: 4337: 4336: 4317:10.1038/35070009 4300: 4294: 4293: 4257: 4248: 4247: 4245: 4221: 4215: 4214: 4204: 4195:(6): 1307–1313. 4180: 4174: 4173: 4145: 4139: 4138: 4110: 4104: 4103: 4075: 4069: 4068: 4058: 4026: 4020: 4019: 3983: 3977: 3976: 3966: 3949:(7): 1079–1089. 3934: 3928: 3927: 3891: 3885: 3884: 3874: 3842: 3836: 3835: 3825: 3793: 3784: 3783: 3773: 3749: 3743: 3742: 3733:(1–3): 185–205. 3722: 3716: 3715: 3695: 3689: 3688: 3678: 3646: 3640: 3639: 3595: 3589: 3588: 3578: 3546: 3540: 3539: 3529: 3501: 3495: 3494: 3492: 3491: 3482:. Archived from 3449: 3443: 3442: 3405: 3399: 3398: 3388: 3364: 3358: 3357: 3355: 3353: 3345: 3327: 3317: 3293: 3287: 3286: 3284: 3283: 3274:. Archived from 3241: 3235: 3234: 3190: 3184: 3183: 3139: 3130: 3129: 3093: 3087: 3086: 3076: 3044: 3038: 3037: 3027: 3003: 2997: 2996: 2986: 2962: 2956: 2955: 2935: 2929: 2928: 2918: 2886: 2880: 2879: 2869: 2859: 2827: 2821: 2820: 2801:10.1038/35004029 2784: 2778: 2777: 2741: 2735: 2734: 2697: 2691: 2690: 2688: 2687: 2639: 2633: 2632: 2622: 2598: 2592: 2591: 2573: 2554: 2553: 2509: 2503: 2497: 2491: 2485: 2479: 2473: 2467: 2461: 2455: 2454: 2452: 2451: 2442:. Archived from 2432: 2426: 2425: 2423: 2422: 2413:. Archived from 2406: 2400: 2399: 2397: 2395: 2384:ahdictionary.com 2376: 2367: 2361: 2355: 2354: 2335:10.1038/335440a0 2310: 2304: 2303: 2267: 2261: 2260: 2250: 2218: 2209: 2208: 2206: 2205: 2196:. Archived from 2189: 2183: 2182: 2154: 2148: 2147: 2137: 2105: 2099: 2098: 2088: 2078: 2060: 2036: 2030: 2029: 2018:. p. 1115. 2014:(5th ed.). 2005: 1999: 1998: 1980: 1974: 1968: 1962: 1961: 1938:Mol Imaging Biol 1933: 1924: 1923: 1921: 1920: 1895:Green D (2011). 1892: 1876: 1869: 1863: 1861: 1859: 1853: 1851: 1844: 1707: 1702: 1701: 1685:calpain protease 1624:apoptotic bodies 1586:With the use of 1503:protein kinase R 1498:Receptor binding 1245:Western blotting 1149:, which undergo 1147:apoptotic bodies 1053:chromatin bodies 1038:nuclear envelope 707: 698: 568:adaptor proteins 497: 496: 453: 452: 449: 448: 445: 442: 439: 436: 433: 430: 427: 424: 421: 405: 399: 398: 395: 394: 391: 388: 385: 382: 379: 376: 373: 370: 265:Walther Flemming 197:apoptotic bodies 130: 128: 118: 116: 94:edit on Wikidata 91: 42: 30: 29: 21: 8504: 8503: 8499: 8498: 8497: 8495: 8494: 8493: 8454: 8453: 8452: 8443: 8382: 8300: 8277: 8242: 8228:Anti-apoptotic: 8189: 8121: 8103: 8076: 8068: 8038: 8033: 7965: 7931: 7894: 7873: 7869:Lipid signaling 7841: 7813: 7760: 7685: 7676: 7646: 7637: 7627: 7607: 7579: 7526: 7521: 7507: 7487: 7481: 7425: 7397: 7340: 7247: 7174: 7166: 7117:Wayback Machine 7100:Wayback Machine 7078:Wayback Machine 7069:WikiPathways – 7063:Wayback Machine 7046:Apoptosis Video 7025:Wayback Machine 6979: 6978: 6977: 6962: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6942: 6925: 6920: 6881: 6877: 6822: 6818: 6789:(10): 773–779. 6779: 6775: 6767: 6752: 6746: 6742: 6697: 6693: 6674:Cancer Research 6670: 6666: 6642:10.1.1.322.6923 6625: 6618: 6587: 6583: 6538: 6534: 6489: 6485: 6440: 6436: 6399: 6388: 6357: 6353: 6322: 6318: 6281: 6274: 6221: 6217: 6208: 6206: 6195: 6191: 6152: 6148: 6111: 6107: 6080:Cancer Research 6076: 6072: 6033: 6029: 5982: 5978: 5939: 5935: 5900:Nature Genetics 5896: 5892: 5861: 5857: 5825: 5821: 5790: 5783: 5744: 5740: 5693: 5678: 5639: 5635: 5626: 5624: 5620: 5573: 5567: 5560: 5521: 5517: 5472: 5468: 5423: 5419: 5410: 5408: 5389:Cancer Research 5381: 5377: 5330: 5326: 5301: 5279: 5275: 5266: 5264: 5229: 5225: 5194: 5190: 5175: 5151: 5147: 5116: 5112: 5103: 5101: 5082: 5078: 5039: 5035: 4996: 4992: 4947: 4943: 4888: 4884: 4839: 4835: 4804: 4800: 4791: 4789: 4782: 4758: 4754: 4705: 4701: 4692: 4690: 4639: 4635: 4588: 4584: 4553: 4549: 4496: 4492: 4439: 4432: 4387: 4383: 4344: 4340: 4301: 4297: 4258: 4251: 4222: 4218: 4181: 4177: 4146: 4142: 4111: 4107: 4076: 4072: 4027: 4023: 3984: 3980: 3935: 3931: 3892: 3888: 3843: 3839: 3794: 3787: 3750: 3746: 3727:Human Evolution 3723: 3719: 3696: 3692: 3647: 3643: 3596: 3592: 3547: 3543: 3502: 3498: 3489: 3487: 3450: 3446: 3406: 3402: 3365: 3361: 3347: 3339: 3337: 3328: 3294: 3290: 3281: 3279: 3242: 3238: 3191: 3187: 3140: 3133: 3094: 3090: 3045: 3041: 3018:(10): 969–975. 3004: 3000: 2963: 2959: 2936: 2932: 2887: 2883: 2828: 2824: 2785: 2781: 2742: 2738: 2698: 2694: 2685: 2683: 2640: 2636: 2599: 2595: 2588: 2574: 2557: 2510: 2506: 2502:, p. 1024. 2498: 2494: 2490:, p. 1032. 2486: 2482: 2478:, p. 1023. 2474: 2470: 2466:, p. 1029. 2462: 2458: 2449: 2447: 2440:www.webster.com 2434: 2433: 2429: 2420: 2418: 2407: 2403: 2393: 2391: 2378: 2377: 2370: 2366:, p. 1021. 2362: 2358: 2321:(6189): 440–2. 2311: 2307: 2268: 2264: 2219: 2212: 2203: 2201: 2190: 2186: 2155: 2151: 2106: 2102: 2037: 2033: 2026: 2016:Garland Science 2006: 2002: 1995: 1981: 1977: 1969: 1965: 1934: 1927: 1918: 1916: 1909: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1880: 1879: 1873:Henrietta Lacks 1870: 1866: 1857: 1855: 1849: 1847: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1822:Pseudoapoptosis 1703: 1696: 1693: 1672: 1640: 1558:La Crosse virus 1544:Oropouche virus 1485: 1483:Viral infection 1430:infection into 1424: 1422:HIV progression 1410: 1401: 1383: 1377: 1364: 1350: 1322: 1286: 1253: 1212: 1188: 1160: 1089: 1073:electrophoresis 1008: 972:drug resistance 968: 949: 937: 917: 860: 824: 818: 745: 717: 716: 715: 714: 710: 709: 708: 700: 699: 680: 581: 544:glucocorticoids 505: 418: 414: 403: 367: 363: 312:was awarded to 273:Alastair Currie 257: 251: 214:, while in the 187:In contrast to 140:that occurs in 98: 65: 62: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8502: 8492: 8491: 8486: 8481: 8476: 8471: 8469:Cell signaling 8466: 8449: 8448: 8445: 8444: 8442: 8441: 8435: 8434: 8429: 8424: 8419: 8414: 8409: 8403: 8401: 8392: 8388: 8387: 8384: 8383: 8381: 8380: 8375: 8370: 8365: 8360: 8355: 8350: 8345: 8339: 8338: 8333: 8328: 8323: 8317: 8316: 8310: 8308: 8302: 8301: 8299: 8298: 8293: 8287: 8285: 8279: 8278: 8276: 8275: 8269: 8267: 8258: 8252: 8251: 8248: 8247: 8244: 8243: 8241: 8240: 8235: 8230: 8224: 8223: 8218: 8212: 8207: 8205:Pro-apoptotic: 8201: 8199: 8191: 8190: 8188: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8171: 8170: 8165: 8160: 8154: 8153: 8148: 8142: 8141: 8135: 8129: 8123: 8122: 8120: 8119: 8113: 8111: 8105: 8104: 8102: 8101: 8095: 8093: 8084: 8078: 8077: 8067: 8066: 8059: 8052: 8044: 8035: 8034: 8032: 8031: 8026: 8021: 8016: 8011: 8010: 8009: 7999: 7994: 7993: 7992: 7987: 7979: 7973: 7971: 7970:Other concepts 7967: 7966: 7964: 7963: 7958: 7949: 7943: 7941: 7937: 7936: 7933: 7932: 7930: 7929: 7924: 7919: 7914: 7908: 7906: 7900: 7899: 7896: 7895: 7893: 7892: 7887: 7881: 7879: 7875: 7874: 7872: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7855: 7849: 7843: 7842: 7840: 7839: 7834: 7829: 7823: 7821: 7815: 7814: 7812: 7811: 7806: 7804:Growth factors 7801: 7796: 7783: 7777: 7775: 7766: 7762: 7761: 7759: 7758: 7753: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7722: 7721: 7716: 7706: 7701: 7699: 7693: 7691: 7687: 7686: 7679:Cell signaling 7675: 7674: 7667: 7660: 7652: 7643: 7642: 7639: 7638: 7636: 7635: 7630: 7625: 7621: 7615: 7613: 7609: 7608: 7606: 7605: 7600: 7595: 7589: 7587: 7581: 7580: 7578: 7577: 7572: 7566: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7536: 7534: 7528: 7527: 7525: 7524: 7519: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7498: 7489: 7483: 7482: 7480: 7479: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7433: 7431: 7427: 7426: 7424: 7423: 7418: 7413: 7407: 7405: 7399: 7398: 7396: 7395: 7377: 7350: 7348: 7342: 7341: 7339: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7257: 7255: 7249: 7248: 7246: 7245: 7231: 7213: 7199: 7184: 7182: 7176: 7175: 7165: 7164: 7157: 7150: 7142: 7136: 7135: 7129: 7124: 7119: 7107: 7102: 7090: 7080: 7067: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7038: 7035:Apoptosis Info 7032: 7027: 7015: 7010: 7000: 6990: 6963: 6956: 6955: 6954: 6952: 6951:External links 6949: 6947: 6946: 6941:978-0815344322 6940: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6918: 6891:(9): 946–950. 6875: 6816: 6773: 6770:on 2009-03-03. 6740: 6691: 6664: 6616: 6581: 6532: 6497:Virus Research 6483: 6454:(6): 912–915. 6434: 6407:Virus Research 6386: 6367:(6): 445–455. 6351: 6332:(4): 160–165. 6316: 6295:(6): 735–745. 6272: 6215: 6189: 6162:(6): 655–664. 6146: 6105: 6070: 6043:(4): 322–328. 6027: 5976: 5949:(2): 120–123. 5933: 5890: 5871:(4): 375–394. 5855: 5836:(2): 334–349. 5819: 5800:(2): 743–751. 5781: 5738: 5676: 5633: 5558: 5531:(2): 145–178. 5515: 5466: 5437:(3): 254–270. 5417: 5395:(4): 831–837. 5375: 5324: 5299: 5273: 5243:(2): 117–129. 5223: 5204:(3): 205–221. 5188: 5173: 5145: 5110: 5076: 5043:Brain Research 5033: 5000:Brain Research 4990: 4941: 4882: 4833: 4814:(2): 248–256. 4798: 4780: 4752: 4699: 4633: 4582: 4547: 4490: 4430: 4381: 4354:(4): 346–352. 4338: 4311:(4): 339–345. 4295: 4268:(3): 475–477. 4249: 4216: 4175: 4156:(2): 314–319. 4140: 4105: 4070: 4041:(4): 571–580. 4021: 3994:(3): 183–189. 3978: 3929: 3886: 3837: 3808:(2): 205–218. 3785: 3764:(3): 185–192. 3744: 3717: 3690: 3641: 3590: 3561:(2): 196–205. 3541: 3520:(1): 102–111. 3496: 3459:Science's STKE 3444: 3400: 3379:(2): 263–270. 3373:Carcinogenesis 3359: 3288: 3258:(382): tw132. 3251:Science's STKE 3236: 3185: 3131: 3088: 3039: 2998: 2977:(8): 864–869. 2957: 2946:(2): 181–186. 2930: 2901:(3): 246–256. 2881: 2842:(10): e13437. 2822: 2795:(3): 156–162. 2779: 2736: 2709:(1–3): 15–23. 2692: 2634: 2593: 2586: 2555: 2520:(2): 145–164. 2504: 2492: 2480: 2468: 2456: 2427: 2401: 2368: 2356: 2305: 2262: 2233:(4): 239–257. 2210: 2184: 2165:(2): 419–435. 2149: 2120:(4): 495–516. 2100: 2031: 2024: 2000: 1993: 1975: 1963: 1925: 1907: 1886: 1884: 1881: 1878: 1877: 1864: 1838: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1829: 1824: 1819: 1814: 1809: 1804: 1799: 1794: 1789: 1784: 1779: 1774: 1769: 1764: 1759: 1754: 1749: 1744: 1731: 1726: 1721: 1716: 1710: 1709: 1708: 1705:Biology portal 1692: 1689: 1671: 1668: 1666:) is unclear. 1639: 1636: 1521: 1520: 1513:natural killer 1509: 1506: 1501:Activation of 1499: 1484: 1481: 1472: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1462: 1455: 1452: 1423: 1420: 1409: 1406: 1400: 1397: 1376: 1373: 1363: 1360: 1349: 1346: 1321: 1318: 1285: 1282: 1252: 1249: 1211: 1208: 1187: 1184: 1159: 1156: 1155: 1154: 1136: 1112: 1088: 1085: 1061: 1060: 1045: 1034: 1031: 1007: 1004: 967: 964: 954:Xenopus laevis 948: 945: 936: 933: 916: 913: 859: 856: 820:Main article: 817: 814: 744: 741: 712: 711: 702: 701: 693: 692: 691: 690: 689: 679: 676: 580: 577: 504: 501: 314:Sydney Brenner 253:Main article: 250: 247: 162:cell shrinkage 100: 99: 90: 84: 83: 78: 72: 71: 67: 66: 43: 35: 34: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8501: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8480: 8477: 8475: 8472: 8470: 8467: 8465: 8462: 8461: 8459: 8440: 8437: 8436: 8433: 8430: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8418: 8415: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8404: 8402: 8400: 8399:Intracellular 8396: 8393: 8389: 8379: 8376: 8374: 8371: 8369: 8366: 8364: 8361: 8359: 8356: 8354: 8351: 8349: 8346: 8344: 8341: 8340: 8337: 8334: 8332: 8329: 8327: 8324: 8322: 8319: 8318: 8315: 8312: 8311: 8309: 8307: 8306:Intracellular 8303: 8297: 8294: 8292: 8289: 8288: 8286: 8284: 8280: 8274: 8271: 8270: 8268: 8266: 8262: 8259: 8257: 8253: 8239: 8236: 8234: 8231: 8229: 8226: 8225: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8213: 8211: 8208: 8206: 8203: 8202: 8200: 8198: 8197: 8192: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8172: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8155: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8143: 8140: 8137: 8136: 8133: 8130: 8128: 8127:Intracellular 8124: 8118: 8115: 8114: 8112: 8110: 8106: 8100: 8097: 8096: 8094: 8092: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8079: 8075: 8072: 8065: 8060: 8058: 8053: 8051: 8046: 8045: 8042: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8022: 8020: 8017: 8015: 8012: 8008: 8005: 8004: 8003: 8000: 7998: 7995: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7983: 7982: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7974: 7972: 7968: 7962: 7959: 7957: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7944: 7942: 7938: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7909: 7907: 7905: 7901: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7882: 7880: 7876: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7856: 7853: 7850: 7848: 7844: 7838: 7835: 7833: 7832:Intracellular 7830: 7828: 7825: 7824: 7822: 7820: 7816: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7800: 7797: 7795: 7794:Neurohormones 7791: 7790:Neuropeptides 7787: 7784: 7782: 7779: 7778: 7776: 7774: 7770: 7767: 7763: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7741:Fas apoptosis 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7711: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7698: 7695: 7694: 7692: 7688: 7684: 7680: 7673: 7668: 7666: 7661: 7659: 7654: 7653: 7650: 7634: 7631: 7629: 7622: 7620: 7617: 7616: 7614: 7610: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7590: 7588: 7586: 7582: 7576: 7573: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7541: 7538: 7537: 7535: 7533: 7529: 7523: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7502: 7501: 7499: 7497: 7493: 7490: 7484: 7477: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7434: 7432: 7428: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7408: 7406: 7404: 7400: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7378: 7375: 7371: 7367: 7363: 7359: 7355: 7352: 7351: 7349: 7347: 7346:CDK inhibitor 7343: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7258: 7256: 7254: 7250: 7243: 7239: 7235: 7232: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7214: 7211: 7207: 7203: 7200: 7197: 7193: 7189: 7186: 7185: 7183: 7181: 7177: 7173: 7170: 7163: 7158: 7156: 7151: 7149: 7144: 7143: 7140: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7114: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7097: 7094: 7091: 7088: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7075: 7072: 7068: 7064: 7060: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7022: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7008: 7004: 7001: 6998: 6994: 6991: 6988: 6984: 6981: 6980: 6975: 6974: 6966: 6943: 6937: 6933: 6928: 6927: 6914: 6910: 6906: 6902: 6898: 6894: 6890: 6886: 6879: 6871: 6867: 6862: 6857: 6852: 6847: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6820: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6800: 6796: 6792: 6788: 6784: 6783:Nature Plants 6777: 6766: 6762: 6758: 6751: 6744: 6736: 6732: 6727: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6706: 6702: 6695: 6687: 6683: 6679: 6675: 6668: 6660: 6656: 6652: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6634: 6630: 6623: 6621: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6600: 6596: 6592: 6585: 6577: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6551: 6547: 6543: 6536: 6528: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6502: 6498: 6494: 6487: 6479: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6461: 6457: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6438: 6430: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6397: 6395: 6393: 6391: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6370: 6366: 6362: 6355: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6320: 6312: 6308: 6303: 6298: 6294: 6290: 6286: 6279: 6277: 6268: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6219: 6205:on 2013-05-26 6204: 6200: 6193: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6156:Renal Failure 6150: 6142: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6109: 6101: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6074: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6031: 6023: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5980: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5937: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5901: 5894: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5859: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5823: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5788: 5786: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5742: 5734: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5691: 5689: 5687: 5685: 5683: 5681: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5637: 5623:on 2019-04-28 5619: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5584:(3): 031001. 5583: 5579: 5572: 5565: 5563: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5519: 5511: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5470: 5462: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5421: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5379: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5328: 5320: 5316: 5311: 5306: 5302: 5300:9780123854933 5296: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5277: 5263:on 2019-11-05 5262: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5227: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5192: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5174:9780123743121 5170: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5157: 5149: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5114: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5080: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5037: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4994: 4986: 4982: 4977: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4945: 4937: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4886: 4878: 4874: 4869: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4853:(1): 95–118. 4852: 4848: 4844: 4837: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4802: 4787: 4783: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4764: 4756: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4703: 4689:on 2021-04-14 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4637: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4586: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4551: 4543: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4494: 4486: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4437: 4435: 4426: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4385: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4342: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4299: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4256: 4254: 4244: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4220: 4212: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4179: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4144: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4109: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4074: 4066: 4062: 4057: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4025: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3982: 3974: 3970: 3965: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3933: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3902:(2): 93–112. 3901: 3897: 3890: 3882: 3878: 3873: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3841: 3833: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3792: 3790: 3781: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3748: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3721: 3713: 3709: 3706:(3): 155–62. 3705: 3701: 3694: 3686: 3682: 3677: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3620:10.1038/17135 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3594: 3586: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3545: 3537: 3533: 3528: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3500: 3486:on 2009-05-03 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3460: 3455: 3448: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3404: 3396: 3392: 3387: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3363: 3351: 3343: 3336: 3332: 3325: 3321: 3316: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3292: 3278:on 2009-07-10 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3252: 3247: 3240: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3189: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3138: 3136: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3092: 3084: 3080: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3043: 3035: 3031: 3026: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3002: 2994: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2961: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2934: 2926: 2922: 2917: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2885: 2877: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2826: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2783: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2740: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2696: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2638: 2630: 2626: 2621: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2597: 2589: 2583: 2579: 2572: 2570: 2568: 2566: 2564: 2562: 2560: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2508: 2501: 2496: 2489: 2484: 2477: 2472: 2465: 2460: 2446:on 2007-07-03 2445: 2441: 2437: 2431: 2416: 2412: 2405: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2375: 2373: 2365: 2360: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2309: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2266: 2258: 2254: 2249: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2217: 2215: 2200:on 2007-11-13 2199: 2195: 2188: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2153: 2145: 2141: 2136: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2104: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2082: 2077: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2059: 2054: 2051:(8): e11930. 2050: 2046: 2042: 2035: 2027: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2012: 2004: 1996: 1990: 1986: 1979: 1972: 1967: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1932: 1930: 1914: 1910: 1904: 1900: 1899: 1891: 1887: 1874: 1868: 1843: 1839: 1828: 1825: 1823: 1820: 1818: 1815: 1813: 1810: 1808: 1805: 1803: 1800: 1798: 1795: 1793: 1790: 1788: 1785: 1783: 1780: 1778: 1775: 1773: 1770: 1768: 1765: 1763: 1760: 1758: 1755: 1753: 1750: 1748: 1745: 1742: 1739: 1735: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1725: 1722: 1720: 1717: 1715: 1712: 1711: 1706: 1700: 1695: 1688: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1667: 1665: 1661: 1656: 1652: 1651:immune system 1648: 1644: 1635: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1620: 1618: 1613: 1609: 1603: 1599: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1584: 1582: 1577: 1575: 1572: 1568: 1567: 1561: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1550: 1545: 1540: 1538: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1507: 1504: 1500: 1497: 1496: 1495: 1492: 1490: 1480: 1476: 1469: 1466: 1463: 1460: 1456: 1453: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1441: 1440: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1419: 1416: 1405: 1396: 1392: 1389: 1382: 1372: 1369: 1366:Apoptosis in 1359: 1356: 1345: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1317: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1306:overexpressed 1303: 1299: 1295: 1290: 1277: 1270: 1265: 1257: 1248: 1246: 1242: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1216: 1207: 1203: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1183: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1164:efferocytosis 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1139:Fragmentation 1137: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1125:feet of death 1122: 1118: 1113: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1101: 1100: 1093: 1084: 1082: 1078: 1077:DNA laddering 1074: 1070: 1066: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1032: 1029: 1025: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1018: 1014: 1003: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 963: 961: 956: 955: 944: 942: 932: 930: 926: 921: 912: 910: 905: 901: 897: 896: 891: 890: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 855: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 823: 813: 810: 806: 802: 798: 794: 789: 785: 781: 777: 773: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 740: 738: 734: 732: 726: 722: 706: 697: 684: 675: 673: 669: 665: 664: 659: 655: 650: 648: 644: 640: 636: 635:pro-caspase-9 632: 628: 627: 622: 618: 614: 610: 609: 602: 599: 595: 590: 586: 576: 574: 569: 565: 559: 557: 553: 549: 545: 540: 538: 534: 530: 526: 525:mitochondrial 516: 509: 499: 489: 486: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 461: 458:of the Greek 457: 451: 412: 408: 407: 397: 361: 356: 352: 343: 339: 335: 331: 329: 328: 323: 319: 315: 311: 306: 302: 300: 296: 292: 288: 287: 282: 278: 277:Andrew Wyllie 275:, as well as 274: 270: 266: 262: 256: 246: 244: 240: 239:Fas receptors 236: 232: 227: 225: 221: 217: 213: 209: 204: 202: 198: 194: 190: 185: 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 133: 127: 121: 115: 110: 109:Ancient Greek 106: 95: 89: 85: 82: 79: 77: 73: 68: 64: 59: 55: 51: 47: 41: 36: 31: 19: 8227: 8204: 8196:Bcl-2 family 8194: 8175:Cytochrome c 8117:Fas receptor 8070: 8029:Gap junction 7864:Ca signaling 7827:Cell surface 7740: 7618: 7554:Prometaphase 7086: 6969: 6931: 6888: 6884: 6878: 6833: 6829: 6819: 6786: 6782: 6776: 6765:the original 6760: 6756: 6743: 6708: 6704: 6694: 6677: 6673: 6667: 6632: 6628: 6594: 6590: 6584: 6549: 6545: 6535: 6500: 6496: 6486: 6451: 6447: 6437: 6413:(1): 56–63. 6410: 6406: 6364: 6360: 6354: 6329: 6325: 6319: 6292: 6288: 6232: 6228: 6218: 6207:. Retrieved 6203:the original 6192: 6159: 6155: 6149: 6122: 6118: 6108: 6083: 6079: 6073: 6040: 6036: 6030: 5993: 5989: 5979: 5946: 5942: 5936: 5906:(1): 21–30. 5903: 5899: 5893: 5868: 5864: 5858: 5833: 5829: 5822: 5797: 5793: 5751: 5747: 5741: 5704: 5700: 5646: 5642: 5636: 5625:. Retrieved 5618:the original 5581: 5577: 5528: 5524: 5518: 5483: 5479: 5469: 5434: 5430: 5420: 5409:. Retrieved 5392: 5388: 5378: 5337: 5333: 5327: 5282: 5276: 5265:. Retrieved 5261:the original 5240: 5236: 5226: 5201: 5197: 5191: 5155: 5148: 5123: 5119: 5113: 5102:. Retrieved 5093: 5089: 5079: 5046: 5042: 5036: 5003: 4999: 4993: 4958: 4954: 4944: 4899: 4895: 4885: 4850: 4846: 4836: 4811: 4807: 4801: 4790:. Retrieved 4766:. Springer. 4762: 4755: 4712: 4708: 4702: 4691:. Retrieved 4687:the original 4650: 4646: 4636: 4595: 4591: 4585: 4560: 4556: 4550: 4507: 4503: 4493: 4450: 4446: 4398: 4394: 4384: 4351: 4347: 4341: 4308: 4304: 4298: 4265: 4261: 4233: 4229: 4219: 4192: 4188: 4178: 4153: 4149: 4143: 4121:(1): 12–18. 4118: 4114: 4108: 4083: 4079: 4073: 4038: 4034: 4024: 3991: 3988:Autoimmunity 3987: 3981: 3946: 3943:Cell Reports 3942: 3932: 3899: 3895: 3889: 3857:(1): 65–80. 3854: 3850: 3840: 3805: 3801: 3761: 3757: 3747: 3730: 3726: 3720: 3703: 3699: 3693: 3658: 3654: 3644: 3603: 3599: 3593: 3558: 3554: 3544: 3517: 3513: 3506:Kavallaris M 3499: 3488:. Retrieved 3484:the original 3466:(380): tr1. 3463: 3457: 3447: 3414: 3410: 3403: 3376: 3372: 3362: 3348:{{ 3340:{{ 3305: 3301: 3291: 3280:. Retrieved 3276:the original 3255: 3249: 3239: 3198: 3194: 3188: 3147: 3143: 3101: 3097: 3091: 3056: 3052: 3042: 3015: 3011: 3001: 2974: 2970: 2960: 2943: 2939: 2933: 2898: 2894: 2884: 2839: 2835: 2825: 2792: 2788: 2782: 2749: 2745: 2739: 2706: 2702: 2695: 2684:. Retrieved 2651: 2647: 2637: 2610: 2606: 2596: 2577: 2517: 2513: 2507: 2495: 2483: 2471: 2459: 2448:. Retrieved 2444:the original 2439: 2430: 2419:. Retrieved 2415:the original 2404: 2392:. Retrieved 2383: 2359: 2318: 2314: 2308: 2275: 2271: 2265: 2230: 2226: 2202:. Retrieved 2198:the original 2187: 2162: 2158: 2152: 2117: 2113: 2103: 2048: 2044: 2034: 2010: 2003: 1984: 1978: 1973:, p. 2. 1966: 1941: 1937: 1917:. Retrieved 1897: 1890: 1867: 1842: 1762:Cytotoxicity 1673: 1663: 1659: 1641: 1623: 1621: 1604: 1600: 1596:cytochrome C 1585: 1578: 1564: 1562: 1554:Bunyaviridae 1553: 1549:Bunyaviridae 1547: 1541: 1522: 1493: 1486: 1477: 1473: 1449:procaspase-8 1448: 1444: 1425: 1411: 1402: 1393: 1384: 1365: 1351: 1341: 1333: 1323: 1314:cytochrome c 1297: 1291: 1287: 1221: 1204: 1189: 1176:phagocytosis 1161: 1151:phagocytosis 1146: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1098: 1075:. Tests for 1065:endonuclease 1062: 1056: 1052: 1049:karyorrhexis 1028:lamellipodia 1021: 1009: 969: 952: 950: 938: 918: 899: 893: 887: 867: 863: 861: 851: 847: 835: 831: 828:fas receptor 825: 746: 737:TNF receptor 736: 728: 720: 718: 661: 651: 646: 634: 624: 620: 607: 603: 594:nitric oxide 585:Mitochondria 582: 564:mitochondria 560: 541: 532: 528: 521: 491: 487: 459: 455: 413:pronounced ( 410: 359: 347: 338:John Sulston 325: 322:John Sulston 307: 303: 290: 284: 258: 243:Bcl-2 family 228: 222:, which are 215: 207: 205: 186: 104: 103: 7940:By distance 7878:Assistants: 7837:Co-receptor 7575:Cytokinesis 7544:Preprophase 7488:checkpoints 6972:(Q29892216) 6235:(1): 8957. 5126:(1): 1–20. 5049:(1): 7–12. 5006:(1): 7–12. 1944:(1): 2–14. 1787:Necrobiosis 1777:Homeostasis 1772:Ferroptosis 1222:Label-free 1121:apoptopodia 1117:microtubule 929:proteolytic 816:Fas pathway 756:macrophages 743:TNF pathway 721:TNF-induced 606:cytochrome 483:lepidoptera 467:pterodactyl 351:Hippocrates 212:cell stress 150:Biochemical 70:Identifiers 8479:Immunology 8458:Categories 8099:Fas ligand 8007:Pheromones 7947:Juxtacrine 7496:Interphase 7486:Phases and 7169:Cell cycle 6970:Apoptosis 6209:2013-01-20 5707:(1): 334. 5627:2019-12-26 5411:2008-09-04 5267:2019-11-05 5104:2016-03-08 5096:(1): 1–7. 4792:2017-08-28 4693:2017-02-26 3490:2004-01-01 3282:2004-01-01 2686:2018-05-18 2450:2007-08-11 2421:2006-12-15 2204:2007-03-30 1919:2020-05-25 1817:Paraptosis 1797:Necrotaxis 1782:Immunology 1741:U937 cells 1734:Atromentin 1612:adenovirus 1581:HeLa cells 1408:Treatments 1381:MiCK assay 1375:Treatments 1348:Inhibition 1338:cell cycle 1330:interferon 1192:knock-outs 1172:scramblase 1133:Pannexin 1 1071:gel after 904:homodimers 862:Following 844:Fas ligand 639:apoptosome 475:helicopter 327:C. elegans 201:phagocytes 154:morphology 8464:Apoptosis 8331:Caspase 3 8326:Caspase 8 8185:Caspase 3 8180:Caspase 9 8163:Caspase 8 8071:Apoptosis 7961:Endocrine 7956:Paracrine 7952:Autocrine 7819:Receptors 7799:Cytokines 7619:Apoptosis 7569:Telophase 7559:Metaphase 7354:INK4a/ARF 6637:CiteSeerX 6037:Neurology 5120:Cytometry 4262:Apoptosis 3896:Apoptosis 3739:0393-9375 3661:: 25–31. 3636:204991081 3350:retracted 3342:retracted 2550:208869679 2534:1573-6822 2058:1009.2294 1883:Citations 1757:Cisplatin 1752:Autophagy 1747:Autolysis 1660:apoptosis 1647:cell wall 1574:arbovirus 1362:HeLa cell 1310:cell line 951:The frog 748:TNF-alpha 733:-mediated 647:caspase-3 643:caspase-9 495:ἀπόπτωσις 308:The 2002 291:apoptosis 269:John Kerr 261:Carl Vogt 224:proteases 126:apóptōsis 120:romanized 114:ἀπόπτωσις 105:Apoptosis 48:-treated 46:etoposide 33:Apoptosis 18:Apoptotic 8422:Survivin 8283:Receptor 8256:TNF path 8109:Receptor 8082:Fas path 7781:Hormones 7731:JAK-STAT 7719:MAPK/ERK 7714:TGF beta 7564:Anaphase 7549:Prophase 7172:proteins 7113:Archived 7096:Archived 7074:Archived 7059:Archived 7021:Archived 6913:11552839 6905:19809251 6803:28947814 6735:21494263 6659:12075073 6611:14996505 6527:18840482 6478:17553235 6429:20080135 6381:15325517 6346:10217831 6311:21453675 6267:28827668 6184:25787186 6176:18661417 6141:12810858 6100:15930313 6065:22792702 6057:23843468 6022:25642192 5971:44329454 5928:20016461 5885:16900661 5850:10842327 5814:16681755 5768:17668439 5733:21718481 5671:13298683 5606:27172135 5553:12052432 5510:12872134 5461:28884042 5405:Archived 5401:12591734 5370:12991980 5319:21722800 5257:23473780 5218:18314051 5183:18662577 5098:Archived 5071:22542598 5028:22542598 4985:20844150 4877:19659442 4828:11035919 4786:Archived 4747:13402617 4739:14645835 4730:1842/448 4683:25672278 4675:14645848 4628:36252352 4620:14645847 4577:16778289 4542:26074490 4510:: 7439. 4485:24646995 4425:16723742 4376:36187702 4368:11283607 4325:11283606 4290:34648758 4282:28102458 4135:10739646 4100:11707516 4065:10952727 4016:37887253 4008:12911286 3973:25959823 3916:29322476 3881:29149100 3832:31380246 3780:25791374 3685:25374461 3585:24162660 3536:10713725 3480:84909531 3439:52149418 3431:30177492 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