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90:(14th to 17th century): The Renaissance was a time of cultural and intellectual awakening in Europe, during which there was a renewed interest in antiquity. Antiquities were valued and collected by scholars, artists and collectors. The trade in antiquities flourished again and some objects were recovered from ancient Roman villas and ruins and kept in private collections. Renaissance princes and nobles collected ancient sculptures, paintings and coins to demonstrate their status and sophistication.
111:(18th and 19th centuries): In the 18th and 19th centuries, the trade in antiquities reached a peak as Classicism and later Neoclassicism influenced art production and aesthetics. Ancient Greek and Roman art served as a model for contemporary artists and formed the basis for art movements such as Classicism and Neoclassicism. Collectors, museums and public institutions acquired antiquities. In the 18th century, there was a flourishing trade in antiquities, particularly in Rome.
84:(ca. 500 AD - 1500 AD): During the Middle Ages, the trade in antiquities became less important as European society was characterized by political instability, cultural change and economic difficulties. Many ancient works of art were destroyed, lost or reused, and trade in them was less pronounced than in antiquity. Nevertheless, some ancient works of art were treasured as valuable relics of the past and kept by aristocratic collectors and churches.
306:). In July 2023, a repatriation ceremony was held at the Indian Consulate in New York City to celebrate the handing over of 105 trafficked antiquities to India. The countries had agreed to prevent illegal trafficking of cultural artefacts during Prime Minister Modi's state visit to US. The artifacts span a period from the 2nd to 19th centuries. Around 50 of them have religious significance.
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193:. Artifacts are often those that have been discovered and unearthed at archeological digs and then transported internationally through a middleman to often unsuspecting collectors, museums, antique dealers, and auction houses. The antiquities trade is much more careful in recent years about establishing the
815:
Lasaponara R., Masini N. R. 2010, Facing the archaeological looting in Peru by local spatial autocorrelation statistics of Very high resolution satellite imagery, Proceedings of ICSSA, The 2010 International
Conference on Computational Science and its Application (Fukuoka-Japan, March 23 – 26, 2010),
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It is believed by many archaeologists and cultural heritage lawyers that the demand created by circulation, marketing, and collectorship of ancient artifacts causes the continuous looting and destruction of archaeological sites around the world. Archaeological artifacts are internationally protected
309:
To combat looting, aerial surveillance - the effectiveness of which depends on the capability to perform systematic prospections - is increasingly being used. It is sometimes impractical, due to military activity, political restrictions, the vastness of the area, difficult environments, etc. Space
96:
period (17th and 18th centuries): Antiquities were also collected and traded during the
Baroque period, with Roman sculptures and Greek vases being particularly sought after. Collectors such as kings, nobles and wealthy citizens expanded their art collections and promoted the trade in antiquities.
65:
Antiquity (ca. 3000 BC - 500 AD): During antiquity, trade in antiquities and artefacts played an important role in the exchange between different civilizations and cultures. Greek and Roman artworks were traded throughout Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. This trade often took place in the
52:
The legal trade in antiquities abide by the laws of the countries in which the artifacts originate. These laws establish how the antiquities may be extracted from the ground and the legal process in which artifacts may leave the country. In many countries excavations and exports were prohibited
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established themselves as major players in the antique art trade, with numerous antique objects being offered at auction. Today, the antiquities trade remains an important part of the global art market, and collectors and institutions continue to collect and research antique objects.
35:
or completely legal. The legal antiquities trade abides by national regulations, allowing for extraction of artifacts for scientific study whilst maintaining archaeological and anthropological context. The illicit antiquities trade involves non-scientific extraction that ignores the
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The protection of antiquities necessitates the formulation and implementation of comprehensive public policies. These policies address issues such as provenance, looting prevention, and repatriation, ensuring the ethical circulation of historical artifacts. On 16 November 1972,
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illicitly obtained and traded on the international market and return them to their countries of origin and preserve their cultural value. Such artifacts include those held by reputable museums which are unaware of their illegal provenance, such as the
97:
The demand for antiquities led to the discovery and excavation of further ancient sites, particularly in Italy and Greece. The sons and daughters of the
European aristocracy, and later also the upper middle classes, visited ancient sites on the
504:
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on the Means of
Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, but a large and increasing trade in illicit antiquities continues. Further complicating matters is the existence of
206:
318:(archaeological looting) in some archaeological areas in southern and northern Peru. The U.S. Government Accountability Office issued a report describing some of the United States’ cultural property protection efforts.
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The true extent of the trade is unknown as incidents of looting are underreported. It is not unheard of for stolen pieces to be found in auction houses before they have been noticed as missing from their original home.
634:
57:. According to the laws of the countries of origin, there can't be a legal trade with archaeological artifact without official papers. However, most national laws still overturn these regulations.
826:
Lasaponara, R.; Leucci, G.; Masini, N.; Persico, R. (2014). "Investigating archaeological looting using satellite images and georadar: the experience in
Lambayeque in North Peru".
163:
1912 - Egyptian
Antiquities Law No. 14 - ownership, or their value, of discovered antiquities would be split equally between the excavator and the Cairo museum.
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Soderland, Hilary A. and Ian A. Lilley. 2015. "The Fusion of Law and Ethics in
Cultural Heritage Management: The 21st Century Confronts Archaeology."
564:
Davis, Tess (September 2011). "Supply and demand: exposing the illicit trade in
Cambodian antiquities through a study of Sotheby's auction house".
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UNESCO Convention (1970) on the Means of
Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property
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Through the 19th and 20th centuries nation states introduced laws restricting excavation, the export, and ownership of
Antiquities.
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101:(Cavalier Tour or Cavaliers' Journey) and purchased the highest quality ancient works of art possible in the respective countries.
679:"Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property"
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1064:
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Amineddoleh, Leila (2013-10-01). "The Role of Museums in the Trade of Black Market Cultural Heritage Property". Rochester, NY.
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technology could offer a suitable alternative, as in the case of Peru, where an Italian scientific mission directed by
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505:"The illicit trade in antiquities is not the world's third-largest illicit trade: a critical evaluation of a factoid"
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396:
213:. After years of resistance, the United States played a major role in drafting and promoting the 1970 Convention.
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Illicit or illegal antiquities are those found in illegal or unregulated excavations, and traded covertly. The
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adopted the international Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.
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1924 - Law modified to award the excavator ownership of only the artefacts the Cairo Museum doesn't desire.
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has since 2008 been using very high resolution satellite data to observe and monitor the phenomenon of
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Die Schöpfer des Kunstmarkts: Von den Anfängen in der Antike bis zur Digitalisierung in der Gegenwart.
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of cultural artifacts. Some estimates of billions of dollars in annual sales are demonstrably false.
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context of diplomatic relations, military conquests and trade routes. Ancient port cities such as
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The export of antiquities is now heavily controlled by law in almost all countries and by the
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US Department of State, Bureau of Education and Cultural Affairs, Cultural Heritage Center.
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8:
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A World History of Nineteenth-Century Archaeology: Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Past
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and international trade in cultural property of dubious provenance is restricted by the
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Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict
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119:) in and around Rome in 1763. One of his tasks was to control the antiquities trade.
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Thinking about the Elgin Marbles: Critical Essays on Cultural Property, Art and Law.
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512:
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Cultural Heritage in the Crosshairs: Protecting Cultural Property during Conflict.
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665:"Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage"
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348:"Handbook of national regulations concerning the export of cultural property"
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without official licenses already in the 19th century, as for example in the
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635:"Looting and the world's archaeological heritage: the inadequate response"
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397:"The Foreign Interference in Governing the Archeological Work in Egypt"
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Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, auction houses such as
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Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001
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Art as Plunder: The Ancient Origins of Debate about Cultural Property
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1835 - Mohamed Ali's ordinance restricting the export of Antiquities.
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Negotiating culture: Heritage, Ownership, and Intellectual Property.
608:"Islamic State Antiquities Trade Stretches To Europe, United States"
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UNESCO World Heritage at the Switzerland Federal Office of Culture.
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Confédération Internationale des Négociants en Œuvres d’Art (CINOA)
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Loot, Legitimacy, and Ownership: The Ethical Crisis in Archaeology.
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Examples of looting of archaeological sites for the black market:
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1880 - decree declaring all Antiquities the property of the state.
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1874 - Law asserting discovered Antiquities belonged to the state.
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served as important centers for the trade in art and other goods.
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186:
93:
541:"CINOA - FIGHTING BOGUS INFORMATION ABOUT THE ART MARKET – 2021"
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Alphen aan den Rijn, The Netherlands: Kluwer Law International.
862:"Cultural Property: Protection of Iraqi and Syrian Antiquities"
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75:
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International Law, Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects.
404:
International Journal of Tourism, Archaeology, and Hospitality
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has been returned to Italy by the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
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International Association of Dealers in Ancient Art (IADAA)
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Criminology and Archaeology: Studies in Looted Antiquities.
372:"FAQ – International Association of Dealers in Ancient Art"
71:
1049:
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Archaeology, Cultural Heritage, and the Antiquities Trade.
1044:
The Antiquities Trade: A reflection on the past 25 years.
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1869 - Law further restricting export of Antiquities.
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920:Kila, Joris D., and James A. Zeidler, eds. 2013.
115:was appointed superintendent of all antiquities (
16:Exchange of classical and pre-classical artifacts
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1050:The International Art and Antique Loss Register
936:The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage.
927:Mackenzie, Simon, and Penny Green, eds. 2009.
285:There has been a growing effort to repatriate
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485:
147:The Antiquities trade was regulated through:
731:J. Paul Getty Museum Returns to Italy (2007)
185:trade of illicit antiquities is supplied by
727:J Paul Getty Museum Returns to Italy (2005)
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440:
766:"U.S. hands over 105 antiquities to India"
723:J Paul Getty Museum Returns to Italy 1999
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31:from around the world. This trade may be
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952:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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651:10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120551
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983:Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
917:Boston: Univ. of Massachusetts Press.
633:Brodie, Neil; Renfrew, Colin (2005).
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882:Gainesville: Univ. Press of Florida.
733:, Trafficking Culture Encyclopedia.
503:Yates, Donna; Brodie, Neil (2023).
481:Archaeological Institute of America
431:, Trafficking Culture Encyclopedia.
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934:Metcalf, William E. (ed.):. 2012.
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913:La Follette, Laetitia, ed. 2013.
828:Journal of Archaeological Science
226:Archaeological looting in Romania
793:"Protecting Peru's ancient past"
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889:. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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908:The Silk Road – A New History.
885:Diaz-Andreu, Margarita. 2007.
816:Springer, Berlin, pp. 261-269;
791:Cabitza, Mattia (2011-12-15).
745:"Euphronios (Sarpedon) Krater"
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1085:Art and cultural repatriation
639:Annual Review of Anthropology
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1018:Resources in other libraries
979:Vrdoljak, Ana Filipa. 2006.
964:Journal of Field Archaeology
612:International Business Times
566:Crime, Law and Social Change
260:Etruscan terracotta warriors
44:context from the artifacts.
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117:Commissario delle AntichitĂ
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113:Johann Joachim Winckelmann
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1013:Resources in your library
976:Princeton, NJ and Oxford.
974:The Roman Market Economy.
948:Miles, Margaret M. 2010.
848:10.1016/j.jas.2013.10.032
772:. The Hindu. 17 July 2023
578:10.1007/s10611-011-9321-6
941:Merryman, John H. 2009.
899:Häußler, Harriet. 2022.
878:Brodie, Neil, ed. 2006.
256:archaeological forgeries
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29:archaeological artifacts
906:Hansen, Valerie. 2015.
892:Finley, Moses I. 1973.
1042:Joanna van der Lande.
955:Renfrew, Colin. 2009.
667:. UNESCO. 31 May 2023.
462:Cite journal requires
395:Elkasef, Doaa (2022).
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251:1970 UNESCO Convention
177:Archaeological looting
328:Antiquities Coalition
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972:Temin, Peter. 2017.
924:Boston: E. J. Brill.
894:The Ancient Economy.
518:10.15184/aqy.2023.90
931:Portland, OR: Hart.
840:2014JArSc..42..216L
429:Illicit Antiquities
231:Maya stelae looting
23:is the exchange of
1090:Trade by commodity
959:London: Duckworth.
352:unesdoc.unesco.org
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304:Euphronios Krater
279:Euphronios Krater
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