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1548:, Mexico, was famed for dense black coral beds that have been harvested since the 1960s leading to widespread black coral population declines. Despite improvements in management in Cozumel, including no harvesting permits issued since the mid-1990s, the black coral population had failed to recover when assessed in 2016. Though it is illegal to move black corals across international borders without authorization, as they are listed in
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been closely examined, colonies will grow roughly 6.4 cm (2.52 in) every year. Sexual reproduction occurs after 10 to 12 years of growth; the colony will then reproduce annually for the rest of its life. The male to female polyp ratio is 1:1, with females producing anywhere from 1.2 million to 16.9 million
1306:
in their center which serves as the mouth for the coral. The disk is surrounded by the tentacles, which stings and digests food. The reason many corals are fan-shaped is to catch meiofauna. Many corals only have polyps on the downstream side of the coral, allowing them to catch nearly the same number
1206:
spikes are roughly 0.5 mm (0.0197 in) in size, and vary widely in terms of size, length, proportion, and sharpness. A layer of "bark" forms around the skeleton as the coral grows. The polyps that live inside this bark are less than 2 mm (0.0787 in) and are gelatinous and have six
1459:
into its polyp form and creates skeletal material to attach itself to the seafloor. It will then begin to bud, which will create new polyps and eventually form a colony. In areas with ideal conditions, black coral colonies can grow to be extremely dense, creating beds. In some black corals that have
1341:
gnawing and eating at the polyps of black corals, but even if a polyp is gnawed off, it will not affect the coral as a whole. The skeleton of a black coral is hard and inert, due to its composition of protein and chitin, making it nearly inedible. Though black coral skeletons have been found in the
1475:
were found at depths of nearly 300 to 3,000 m (984 to 9,840 ft), making them some of the oldest living organisms on earth. The researchers showed that the "individual colony longevities are on the order of thousands of years." Rarely, black corals will grow too large to support their own
1217:
Unlike the vast majority of other corals, black corals have no protection against abrasive materials such as sand and rocks and lack muscular development which can help the corals to hide. These factors can lead to sediment tearing the soft tissue, resulting in death. In response, corals live near
1205:
The skeletons of these corals grow in many patterns unique to this order, such as whips, trees, fans, or coils. These range in size from 10 to 300 cm (3.94 to 118 in), though polyps can be as small as 1 mm (0.0394 in) in size. Skeletons are also lined with tiny spikes. These
1210:(the same as hard corals and unlike soft corals, which have eight). These polyps can be nearly any color. Some corals also have "sweeper tentacles", which can grow up to 15 mm (0.591 in) long. Though individual polyps are either male or female, entire colonies are typically
1429:" which can be used to estimate the age of a colony. Asexual reproduction can also occur if a branch breaks off and a replacement is needed. Though light is not required for growth or development, mature colonies will grow towards light. Why they do so is unknown.
1420:
Due to the slow life cycle and deep-water habitats of black coral, little is known about their life cycle and reproduction. As with other cnidarians, the life cycle of these corals involves both asexual and sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction (also known as
1425:), is the first method of reproduction used by a black coral during their lifespan. Once a polyp is anchored, it builds a colony by creating a skeleton, growing new branches and making it thicker, similar to the growth of a tree. This method of growing creates "
1245:
Black corals occur throughout all the oceans from the surface down to the deep-sea, though nearly 75% of species are only found at depths below 50 m (164 ft). The sole oceanic area in which black corals have not been found are
1585:, a number of factors threaten them today. The largest single threat is poaching— though the majority of black coral fisheries are heavily regulated, there is still a black market for the corals. Particularly on tropical islands and
1535:
The best studied and regulated black coral fisheries are in Hawaii, where they have been harvested since the 1960s. In the
Caribbean harvesting is typically done to produce jewelry for sale to tourists, and has followed a
323:
Despite its name, a black coral is rarely black, and depending on the species can be white, red, green, yellow, or brown. The corals derive their name from their black skeletons, which are composed of
1282:. Species distributions of black corals are poorly understood, and while many deep sea black corals have large distributions, more recent work has indicated that shallow black coral species—such as
1485:
426:. Black corals can be distinguished from other corals by their black, flexible skeletons and near-total lack of any kind of protection from sediment. All black corals have small or medium-sized
2175:"Widest geographic distribution of a shallow and mesophotic antipatharian coral (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia): Antipathes grandis VERRILL, 1928 – confirmed by morphometric and molecular analyses"
1822:
Pagan Races of the Malay
Peninsula: pt. 3. Religion. pt. 4. Language. Appendix. Comparative vocabulary of aboriginal dialects. Index of subjects. Index of proper names. Index of native words
1589:, the market for illegally-harvested black corals is large. Due to overfishing of mature corals, in some areas nearly 90% of corals are juveniles (less than 50 cm (19.7 in) tall.)
1559:
Though various methods have been proposed for quicker and more efficient rejuvenation of black coral colonies, none have worked to the point where these corals could be commercially farmed.
1595:
is the primary threat to black corals worldwide, as well as all other corals. Though black corals rarely builds reefs (the most threatened areas), threats caused by climate change such as
303:
for medical treatment and in rituals, its only modern use is making jewelry. Black corals have been declining in numbers and are expected to continue declining due to the effects of
1258:
building, but are also often found as solitary colonies on isolated outcroppings. Most individuals require a hard surface for attachment. They will frequently grow where undersea
380:. They have few distinguishing morphological characteristics, and the few that there are vary across species, similar to other corals. When black corals were first documented by
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218:
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the polyps that the coral typically feeds on and is taken inside of the coral. They will then consume the polyps from the inside out. Various mollusks, such as
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188:
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order, existing in nearly every oceanic location and depth, with the sole exception of brackish waters. However, they are most frequently found on
177:
3110:
2366:
Goldberg, Walter M. (1991). "Chemistry and structure of skeletal growth rings in the black coral
Antipathes fiordensis (Cnidaria, Antipatharia)".
3904:
3489:
1996:
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that is swept by. Since undersea currents benefit the corals, they will often grow on or by geographic structures that cause currents, such as
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880:
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395:. From 2001 to 2006, marine biologists Dennis Opresko and Tina Molodtsova helped transform the taxonomic system into what it is today. A 2007
3943:
3355:
2255:
Boland, Raymond C.; Parrish, Frank A. (1 July 2005). "A Description of Fish
Assemblages in the Black Coral Beds off Lahaina, Maui, Hawai'i".
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978:
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1451:, which meet in the water to create larvae that use currents to disperse and settle in new areas. The larval stage of the coral, called a
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Sexual reproduction in these corals remains largely unstudied. It occurs after the coral colony is established; a colony will produce
4030:
2577:
Bruckner, Andrew W. (2016), "Advances in
Management of Precious Corals to Address Unsustainable and Destructive Harvest Techniques",
4045:
4040:
3878:
2138:
Wagner, Daniel; Toonen, R. J. (2012). "The biology and ecology of black corals (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Hexacorallia: Antipatharia)".
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inhabit specific coral trees. Due to this abundance of species, nighttime predation around the coral beds has been observed.
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2994:"Distribution, standing crop, population structure, and growth rates of black coral in the southern fiords of New Zealand"
1759:
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1669:
4070:
3509:
1350:, these incidents are rare; it has thus been suggested that black corals are not a major part of any vertebrate diets.
622:
2457:
Parker, N. R.; Mladenov, P. V.; Grange, K. R. (November 1997). "Reproductive biology of the antipatharian black coral
3524:
2626:
2594:
4055:
3992:
3629:
3469:
3159:
2173:
Gress, Erika; Opresko, Dennis M.; Brugler, Mercer R.; Wagner, Daniel; Eeckhaut, Igor; Terrana, Lucas (2020-12-09).
1975:
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live solely where various species of black corals are found, suggesting that they prey exclusively on the species.
552:
406:
Antipatharia with 7 families, 44 genera, and 280 distinct species. The families are
Antipathidae, Aphanipathidae,
3948:
2824:"Assessing population changes of historically overexploited black corals (Order: Antipatharia) in Cozumel, Mexico"
2325:
Bo, Marzia; Baker, Andrew C.; Gaino, Elda; Wirsching, Herman H.; Scoccia, Francesca; Bavestrello, Giorgio (2011).
3560:
2804:
Padilla, C., & Lara, M. (2003). Banco
Chinchorro: the last shelter for black coral in the Mexican Caribbean.
2727:
2085:
1830:
1528:, causing jewelry made with it to dry out and break. If a real black coral is boiled in milk, it will smell of
327:
and chitin. Black corals are also known as thorn corals due to the microscopic spines lining their skeletons.
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564:
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throughout its lifetime. Many black corals provide housing, shelter, food, and protection for other animals.
166:
1852:(Cnidaria:Anthozoa:Antipatharia) supports classification of antipatharians within the subclass Hexacorallia"
3409:
2947:
Illegal harvesting and trading of black corals (Antipatharia) in
Madagascar: the necessity of field studies
17:
2906:
Montgomery, Anthony D. (March 2002). "The feasibility of transplanting black coral (Order
Antipatharia)".
1847:
3826:
3813:
3514:
3474:
85:
3831:
3114:
1953:
The biology and ecology of
Hawaiian black corals (Cnidaria : Anthozoa: Hexacorallia: Antipatharia)
1294:
Black corals are carnivorous, with the coral's polyps allowing it to feed mostly on meiofauna such as
4080:
3958:
3601:
3366:
2556:
2504:
Roark, E. B.; Guilderson, T. P.; Dunbar, R. B.; Fallon, S. J.; Mucciarone, D. A. (10 February 2009).
1613:, which were introduced to Hawaiian waters by humans, may pose a significant threat to black corals.
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273:
3997:
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1967:
1634:
3611:
3464:
3429:
1374:
511:
3454:
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2327:"First description of algal mutualistic endosymbiosis in a black coral (Anthozoa: Antipatharia)"
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1464:. A large 1.8 m (5.91 ft) tall coral tree is somewhere between 30 and 40 years old.
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The Biology and Ecology of Black Corals (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Hexacorallia: Antipatharia)
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2151:
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1786:
1697:
Bo, Marzia (21 April 2012). "Isolation and identification of chitin in the black coral
1512:
peoples believed that black coral has curative and anti-evil powers and made them into
1408:
609:
80:
2944:
Terrana, Lucas; Todinanahary, Gildas Georges Boleslas; Eeckhaut, Igor (24 June 2016).
1455:, will drift along until it finds a surface on which it can grow. Once it settles, it
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Black corals were originally classified in the subclass Ceriantipatharia along with
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368:("root of the sea"), likely named for their tendency to grow at low-light depths.
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2026:
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1201:
A sample of coral next to its skeleton, showing the minuscule spines all along it
1029:
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403:
269:
257:
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1867:
1484:
388:, two French zoologists in 1857, all species of Antipatharia were placed in the
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3228:
2881:
2510:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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1010:
998:
688:
533:
469:
419:
355:
312:
214:
173:
2919:
495:
376:
Black corals have historically been difficult to classify due to poor-quality
4014:
3664:
3384:
3334:
3223:
3198:
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2764:
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2208:
1582:
1456:
1338:
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929:
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706:
517:
485:
423:
415:
407:
331:
232:
206:
199:
184:
2522:
1432:
3677:
3494:
3269:
3261:
3213:
3180:
2867:
2644:
2541:
2159:
2108:
2062:
1875:
1732:
1509:
1426:
1354:
1237:
958:
925:
764:
617:
560:
501:
453:
411:
396:
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296:
292:
195:
162:
127:
2746:
2482:
2268:
1567:
3891:
3785:
3670:
3459:
3394:
3208:
3193:
3137:
1573:
1541:
1525:
1520:; however, black corals are not ideal for jewelry-making due to it being
1295:
1039:
988:
745:
447:
385:
146:
1723:
1471:
is 70 years. However, in March 2009 around 4,265 years old specimens of
41:
3736:
3721:
3644:
3634:
3624:
3339:
3317:
3299:
3284:
3274:
3172:
2840:
2277:
2054:
1586:
1521:
1393:
1334:
1327:
1255:
937:
604:
572:
479:
3896:
2755:
2436:
2351:
2326:
1599:, rising sea temperatures, changing underwater currents, and changing
1310:
3865:
3716:
2704:
2609:
Wagner, Daniel; Luck, Daniel G.; Toonen, Robert J. (1 January 2012).
1497:
1358:
1330:
1299:
1263:
97:
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2046:
1307:
of animals without wasting energy keeping unnecessary polyps alive.
3883:
3870:
3770:
3404:
3252:
3242:
3218:
1600:
1517:
1513:
1362:
1251:
1207:
527:
304:
117:
2078:"Antipatharia sp (Milne-Edwards & Haime, 1857): "Black Coral""
1508:
culture. More recent harvesting has been for use as jewelry. Many
350:("hard bush growing in the sea"); it is the official state gem of
280:
under 50 m (164 ft) deep. A black coral reproduces both
264:. These corals can be recognized by their jet-black or dark brown
3504:
3289:
1787:"Precious Coral Fisheries of Hawaii and the U.S. Pacific Islands"
1545:
1492:
Black corals have historically been associated with mystical and
1452:
1422:
1397:
1369:
1366:
1333:
is not a major threat to black corals. There are rare reports of
1279:
1254:. Black corals are found on reefs, and may contribute to overall
324:
2368:
Coelenterate Biology: Recent Research on Cnidaria and Ctenophora
1552:
of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (
3529:
3236:
1632:
1505:
1461:
1392:
Black corals around the world provide a unique environment for
463:
431:
351:
265:
107:
1467:
The estimated natural lifespan of a black coral colony in the
3857:
3307:
3168:
2985:
2025:
Goldberg, W. M.; Grange, K. R.; Zuniga, A. L. (August 1990).
1553:
1532:; this test can be used to determine if a sample is genuine.
1529:
1501:
1448:
1347:
1286:—can be found spanning from the Indian to the Pacific Ocean.
1271:
548:
359:
261:
70:
64:
295:(tube-dwelling anemones), but were later reclassified under
2943:
1275:
1218:
crevices, which allows much of their body to be protected.
363:
3111:"Research Expedition Aimed at Halting Loss of Black Coral"
2728:"Black Coral: History of a Sustainable Fishery in Hawai'i"
3312:
2172:
1444:
1365:
feed on black corals and similar corals regularly. These
2822:
Gress, Erika; Andradi-Brown, Dominic A. (4 July 2018).
2581:, Springer International Publishing, pp. 747–786,
2027:"The Structure of Sweeper Tentacles in the Black Coral
1604:
1848:"The complete mitochondrial genome of the black coral
1607:
also affect deep-sea corals. Invasive species such as
2998:
New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research
2324:
27:
Order of soft deep-water corals with chitin skeletons
2939:
2937:
2506:"Extreme longevity in proteinaceous deep-sea corals"
2456:
2069:
2024:
1846:
Brugler, Mercer, R.; France, Scott C. (March 2007).
272:(part of coral that is alive). Antipatharians are a
2450:
2075:
2020:
2018:
335:
2959:
2957:
2821:
1839:
1703:International Journal of Biological Macromolecules
3026:
2934:
1540:, where new coral populations are discovered and
268:skeletons, which are surrounded by their colored
4012:
2608:
2015:
1439:growing several hundred meters down in the ocean
2954:
2557:"Scientists ID living coral as 4,265 years old"
1250:, though they can inhabit areas with decreased
2786:Kenyon, J. (1984). "Black coral off Cozumel".
2318:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2107:Bo, Marzia; Wijgerde, Tim (19 November 2014).
2100:
1965:
1959:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1415:
371:
345:
3356:The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
3153:
3051:
3034:"How does Climate Change Affect Coral Reefs?"
2874:
2671:
2421:"Ecological Studies of Black Coral in Hawaii"
2254:
2248:
1845:
299:. Though they have historically been used by
3098:"Spotlight on Antipatharians (Black Corals)"
2461:in Doubtful Sound, Fiordland, New Zealand".
2412:
2137:
1895:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1670:"Spotlight on Antipatharians (Black Corals)"
2899:
2548:
2359:
2126:
1925:
1479:
1192:
3167:
3160:
3146:
3113:. National Geographic News. Archived from
2950:. 13th International Coral Reef Symposium.
2905:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2226:
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2222:
2220:
2218:
2106:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1692:
1690:
1581:Though black corals are not listed on the
399:study confirmed the new taxonomic system.
40:
3017:
2857:
2839:
2754:
2703:
2531:
2521:
2497:
2350:
2276:
2198:
1812:
1722:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1318:, one of the few predators of black coral
3057:
2965:"Case Study for Black Coral from Hawaii"
2576:
2365:
1989:
1633:Tina Molodtsova, Dennis Opresko (2020).
1628:
1626:
1566:
1544:leading to rapid declines. For example,
1483:
1431:
1309:
1230:
1196:
2677:
2554:
2215:
1739:
1687:
1262:flow, which allows them to feed on the
14:
4013:
3435:Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
2991:
2785:
2579:The Cnidaria, Past, Present and Future
2299:
1950:
1908:
1906:
1656:
3752:
3751:
3587:Environmental issues with coral reefs
3141:
2725:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2418:
2293:
1955:(PhD). University of Hawaii at Manoa.
1856:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
1818:
1784:
1623:
1556:), it is still possible to buy them.
330:The name Antipatharia comes from the
3959:7cf27806-e5a5-496d-b939-c923d4a6af2a
3108:
3060:"Climate Change and Deep-sea Corals"
1241:coral, sometimes known as wire coral
402:Blacks corals are classified in the
3095:
1903:
1667:
434:skeleton, lined with small spines.
24:
2619:10.1016/B978-0-12-394282-1.00002-8
2563:
2555:Graczyk, Michael (25 March 2009).
2370:. Vol. 66. pp. 403–409.
2302:Coral Reefs: Cities Under The Seas
2152:10.1016/B978-0-12-394282-1.00002-8
1696:
1400:, and fish. Some species, such as
25:
4092:
4076:Taxa named by Henri Milne-Edwards
3089:
2726:Grigg, Richard W. (1 July 2001).
2613:. Vol. 63. pp. 67–132.
4031:Cnidarians of the Atlantic Ocean
3630:International Coral Reef Society
3470:Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System
3251:
2678:Hickson, Sydney J. (July 1922).
1976:World Register of Marine Species
1951:Wagner, Daniel (December 2011).
1912:
1643:World Register of Marine Species
1577:species growing in a brush shape
553:World Register of Marine Species
526:
510:
494:
478:
462:
446:
84:
4046:Cnidarians of the Caribbean Sea
4041:Cnidarians of the Pacific Ocean
3561:Stony coral tissue loss disease
3067:The Journal of Marine Education
2815:
2798:
2779:
2719:
2602:
2166:
1997:"Black Coral: Hawaii State Gem"
1387:
4036:Cnidarians of the Indian Ocean
2331:Marine Ecology Progress Series
1819:Skeat, Walter William (1906).
1778:
1715:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2012.04.016
1034:Molodtsova & Opresko, 2017
13:
1:
4066:Marine fauna of South America
4061:Marine fauna of North America
3490:Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
3019:10.1080/00288330.1985.9516111
2992:Grange, K. R. (18 Feb 1985).
2419:Grigg, Richard (April 1965).
1760:"Spotlight on antipatharians"
1616:
2587:10.1007/978-3-319-31305-4_46
2376:10.1007/978-94-011-3240-4_58
1322:
340:("against disease"). In the
318:
7:
3515:Southeast Asian coral reefs
2300:Murphy, Richard C. (2002).
2179:Marine Biodiversity Records
1868:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.08.016
1416:Life cycle and reproduction
372:Taxonomy and classification
336:
10:
4097:
3475:New Caledonia barrier reef
2806:Bulletin of Marine Science
2200:10.1186/s41200-020-00195-0
1785:Grigg, Richard W. (1993).
1562:
1226:
1221:
344:, a black coral is called
4071:Taxa named by Jules Haime
3760:
3689:
3657:
3610:
3579:
3538:
3375:
3367:Spur and groove formation
3298:
3260:
3249:
3179:
3109:Mead, Gale (2001-06-08).
2304:. The Darwin Press, Inc.
2076:Milne-Edwards and Haine.
1825:. Macmillen and company.
1437:Antipathes dendrochristos
1134:MacIsaac & Best, 2013
437:
159:
154:
81:Scientific classification
79:
62:
53:
48:
39:
34:
3430:East African coral coast
3129:. ARKive. Archived from
1915:"Black Corals of Hawaii"
1480:Human use and harvesting
1375:Coralliophila kaofitorum
1193:Physical characteristics
541:Families of black corals
4056:Marine fauna of Oceania
3058:Guinotte, John (2005).
2920:10.1023/A:1016573926566
2559:. The Associated Press.
2523:10.1073/pnas.0810875106
2140:Advanced Marine Biology
2035:The Biological Bulletin
1966:Dennis Opresko (2019).
1794:Marine Fisheries Review
1701:(Anthozoa: Cnidaria)".
1381:Phenacovolva carneptica
1289:
346:
3597:Coral reef restoration
1919:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
1578:
1489:
1476:weight, and collapse.
1440:
1319:
1242:
1202:
364:
3980:Paleobiology Database
3592:Coral reef protection
3556:Skeletal eroding band
3362:Catlin Seaview Survey
3350:Census of Coral Reefs
3328:mesophotic coral reef
2747:10.1353/psc.2001.0022
2483:10.1007/s002270050220
2459:Antipathes fiordensis
2269:10.1353/psc.2005.0032
2029:Antipathes fiordensis
1570:
1487:
1473:Leiopathes glaberrima
1435:
1313:
1234:
1200:
4051:Marine fauna of Asia
3702:Aquaculture of coral
3485:Non-tropical regions
1850:Chrysopathes formosa
1488:Black coral bracelet
3620:Coral Reef Alliance
3510:Solomon Archipelago
3415:Belize Barrier Reef
3390:African coral reefs
3010:1985NZJMF..19..467G
2696:1922Natur.110..217H
2475:1997MarBi.130...11P
2343:2011MEPS..435....1B
2191:2020MBdR...13...12G
2003:. 21 September 2014
1699:Parantipathes larix
1538:boom-and-bust cycle
1403:Dascyllus albisella
1316:princess parrotfish
382:Henri Milne-Edwards
309:ocean acidification
260:of soft deep-water
56:Conservation status
49:Black coral colony
3566:White band disease
3551:Black band disease
3520:Tuvalu Archipelago
3500:Raja Ampat Islands
3440:Great Barrier Reef
2841:10.7717/peerj.5129
2088:on 30 October 2019
1579:
1490:
1441:
1409:Centropyge potteri
1320:
1284:Antipathes grandis
1268:continental slopes
1243:
1203:
644:Pseudocirrhipathes
278:continental slopes
4008:
4007:
3967:Open Tree of Life
3754:Taxon identifiers
3745:
3744:
3653:
3652:
3571:White pox disease
3420:Coral Sea Islands
3117:on June 16, 2001.
3096:Opresko, Dennis.
2914:(4711): 157–164.
2690:(2754): 207–208.
2516:(13): 5204–5208.
2385:978-94-010-5428-7
2352:10.3354/meps09228
2311:978-0-87850-138-0
2001:State Symbols USA
1668:Opresko, Dennis.
1344:green sea turtles
1186:
1176:
1166:
1156:
1145:
1135:
1125:
1115:
1105:
1095:
1085:
1075:
1065:
1055:
1050:Dendrobathypathes
1045:
1035:
1025:
1015:
1004:
994:
984:
974:
964:
954:
943:
933:
917:
907:
896:
886:
876:
865:
855:
845:
835:
826:
810:
800:
790:
780:
770:
760:
749:
732:
722:
712:
702:
693:
682:
672:
652:
639:
626:
613:
600:
568:
551:according to the
342:Hawaiian language
301:Pacific Islanders
243:
242:
237:
229:
211:
203:
192:
181:
170:
150:
74:
16:(Redirected from
4088:
4081:Anthozoan orders
4001:
4000:
3988:
3987:
3975:
3974:
3962:
3961:
3952:
3951:
3939:
3938:
3936:NBNSYS0000159387
3926:
3925:
3913:
3912:
3900:
3899:
3887:
3886:
3874:
3873:
3861:
3860:
3848:
3847:
3835:
3834:
3822:
3821:
3809:
3808:
3796:
3795:
3794:
3781:
3780:
3779:
3749:
3748:
3732:Deep-water coral
3707:Coral dermatitis
3608:
3607:
3323:Deep-water coral
3255:
3162:
3155:
3148:
3139:
3138:
3134:
3118:
3105:
3102:NMNH.typepad.com
3083:
3082:
3080:
3078:
3064:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3044:
3030:
3024:
3023:
3021:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2980:
2978:
2969:
2961:
2952:
2951:
2941:
2932:
2931:
2903:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2861:
2843:
2819:
2813:
2802:
2796:
2795:
2783:
2777:
2776:
2758:
2732:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2714:
2712:
2707:
2705:10.1038/110217a0
2675:
2669:
2668:
2662:
2658:
2656:
2648:
2606:
2600:
2599:
2574:
2561:
2560:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2535:
2525:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2454:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2403:
2399:
2397:
2389:
2363:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2322:
2316:
2315:
2297:
2291:
2290:
2280:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2242:Waikiki Aquarium
2234:
2213:
2212:
2202:
2170:
2164:
2163:
2135:
2124:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2104:
2098:
2097:
2095:
2093:
2084:. Archived from
2073:
2067:
2066:
2022:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2008:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1948:
1923:
1922:
1910:
1901:
1900:
1894:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1791:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1756:
1737:
1736:
1726:
1709:(1–2): 129–137.
1694:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1665:
1654:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1630:
1298:. The polyps of
1184:
1174:
1164:
1154:
1143:
1133:
1123:
1113:
1103:
1093:
1083:
1073:
1063:
1053:
1043:
1033:
1023:
1013:
1002:
992:
982:
972:
962:
952:
941:
928:
915:
905:
894:
884:
874:
863:
853:
843:
833:
821:
808:
798:
788:
778:
768:
758:
740:
730:
720:
710:
700:
691:
680:
670:
660:
647:
634:
621:
608:
598:
576:
563:
530:
514:
498:
482:
466:
450:
367:
349:
339:
248:, also known as
235:
227:
217:
209:
198:
187:
176:
165:
141:
89:
88:
68:
44:
32:
31:
21:
4096:
4095:
4091:
4090:
4089:
4087:
4086:
4085:
4011:
4010:
4009:
4004:
3996:
3991:
3983:
3978:
3970:
3965:
3957:
3955:
3947:
3942:
3934:
3929:
3921:
3916:
3908:
3903:
3895:
3890:
3882:
3877:
3869:
3864:
3856:
3851:
3843:
3838:
3830:
3825:
3817:
3812:
3804:
3799:
3790:
3789:
3784:
3775:
3774:
3769:
3756:
3746:
3741:
3727:Coralline algae
3697:Artificial reef
3685:
3658:Symbiotic algae
3649:
3606:
3602:Reef resilience
3575:
3546:Coral bleaching
3534:
3400:Andros, Bahamas
3371:
3345:Coral reef fish
3294:
3256:
3247:
3175:
3166:
3125:Leiopathes spp.
3123:"Black corals (
3121:
3092:
3087:
3086:
3076:
3074:
3062:
3056:
3052:
3042:
3040:
3032:
3031:
3027:
2990:
2986:
2976:
2974:
2967:
2963:
2962:
2955:
2942:
2935:
2904:
2900:
2890:
2888:
2880:
2879:
2875:
2820:
2816:
2803:
2799:
2784:
2780:
2735:Pacific Science
2730:
2724:
2720:
2710:
2708:
2676:
2672:
2660:
2659:
2650:
2649:
2629:
2607:
2603:
2597:
2575:
2564:
2553:
2549:
2502:
2498:
2455:
2451:
2441:
2439:
2425:Pacific Studies
2417:
2413:
2401:
2400:
2391:
2390:
2386:
2364:
2360:
2323:
2319:
2312:
2298:
2294:
2257:Pacific Science
2253:
2249:
2236:
2235:
2216:
2171:
2167:
2136:
2127:
2117:
2115:
2105:
2101:
2091:
2089:
2074:
2070:
2047:10.2307/1541743
2023:
2016:
2006:
2004:
1995:
1994:
1990:
1980:
1978:
1964:
1960:
1949:
1926:
1911:
1904:
1888:
1887:
1880:
1878:
1844:
1840:
1833:
1817:
1813:
1803:
1801:
1789:
1783:
1779:
1769:
1767:
1766:. 18 April 2016
1758:
1757:
1740:
1695:
1688:
1678:
1676:
1666:
1657:
1647:
1645:
1631:
1624:
1619:
1597:coral bleaching
1565:
1524:as opposed to
1482:
1469:epipelagic zone
1418:
1390:
1325:
1292:
1248:brackish waters
1229:
1224:
1195:
1030:Alternatipathes
916:Van Pesch, 1914
895:Kinoshita, 1910
834:Kinoshita, 1910
698:Acanthopathinae
664:
584:
545:
544:
543:
542:
538:
537:
536:
531:
522:
521:
520:
515:
506:
505:
504:
499:
490:
489:
488:
483:
474:
473:
472:
467:
458:
457:
456:
451:
440:
374:
347:ʻēkaha kū moana
321:
221:
140:
83:
75:
58:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4094:
4084:
4083:
4078:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4006:
4005:
4003:
4002:
3989:
3976:
3963:
3953:
3940:
3927:
3914:
3901:
3888:
3875:
3862:
3849:
3836:
3823:
3810:
3797:
3782:
3766:
3764:
3758:
3757:
3743:
3742:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3712:Precious coral
3709:
3704:
3699:
3693:
3691:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3683:
3682:
3681:
3674:
3661:
3659:
3655:
3654:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3616:
3614:
3605:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3583:
3581:
3577:
3576:
3574:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3542:
3540:
3539:Coral diseases
3536:
3535:
3533:
3532:
3527:
3525:Virgin Islands
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3425:Coral Triangle
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3381:
3379:
3373:
3372:
3370:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3331:
3330:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3304:
3302:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3266:
3264:
3258:
3257:
3250:
3248:
3246:
3245:
3239:
3233:
3232:
3231:
3226:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3185:
3183:
3177:
3176:
3165:
3164:
3157:
3150:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3133:on 2008-12-16.
3119:
3106:
3091:
3090:External links
3088:
3085:
3084:
3050:
3025:
3004:(4): 467–475.
2984:
2953:
2933:
2898:
2873:
2814:
2797:
2778:
2741:(3): 291–299.
2718:
2670:
2661:|journal=
2627:
2601:
2595:
2562:
2547:
2496:
2469:(130): 11–22.
2463:Marine Biology
2449:
2411:
2402:|journal=
2384:
2358:
2317:
2310:
2292:
2263:(3): 411–420.
2247:
2214:
2165:
2146:(132): 63–67.
2125:
2109:"Black corals"
2099:
2068:
2014:
1988:
1968:"Antipatharia"
1958:
1924:
1902:
1862:(3): 776–778.
1838:
1831:
1811:
1777:
1738:
1686:
1655:
1635:"Antipatharia"
1621:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1610:Carijoa riisei
1593:Global warming
1564:
1561:
1496:properties in
1481:
1478:
1417:
1414:
1389:
1386:
1324:
1321:
1291:
1288:
1278:, or undersea
1228:
1225:
1223:
1220:
1212:hermaphroditic
1194:
1191:
1190:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1177:
1167:
1148:
1147:
1146:
1136:
1126:
1116:
1106:
1096:
1086:
1076:
1066:
1056:
1046:
1036:
1026:
1011:Schizopathidae
1007:
1006:
1005:
999:Tanacetipathes
995:
985:
975:
969:Cupressopathes
965:
946:
945:
944:
922:
921:
920:
919:
918:
899:
898:
897:
887:
868:
867:
866:
856:
846:
815:
814:
813:
812:
811:
801:
791:
781:
771:
756:Aphanipathinae
752:
751:
750:
733:
723:
717:Distichopathes
713:
689:Aphanipathidae
685:
684:
683:
673:
653:
640:
627:
614:
601:
540:
539:
534:Schizopathidae
532:
525:
524:
523:
516:
509:
508:
507:
500:
493:
492:
491:
484:
477:
476:
475:
470:Aphanipathidae
468:
461:
460:
459:
452:
445:
444:
443:
442:
441:
439:
436:
420:Schizopathidae
373:
370:
320:
317:
313:climate change
293:ceriantharians
246:Antipatharians
241:
240:
239:
238:
230:
215:Schizopathidae
212:
204:
193:
182:
174:Aphanipathidae
171:
157:
156:
152:
151:
135:
131:
130:
125:
121:
120:
115:
111:
110:
105:
101:
100:
95:
91:
90:
77:
76:
63:
60:
59:
54:
51:
50:
46:
45:
37:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4093:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4018:
4016:
3999:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3954:
3950:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3802:
3798:
3793:
3787:
3783:
3778:
3772:
3768:
3767:
3765:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3750:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3694:
3692:
3688:
3680:
3679:
3675:
3673:
3672:
3668:
3667:
3666:
3665:Zooxanthellae
3663:
3662:
3660:
3656:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3635:Project AWARE
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3615:
3613:
3612:Organizations
3609:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3584:
3582:
3578:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3543:
3541:
3537:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3480:Ningaloo Reef
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3385:List of reefs
3383:
3382:
3380:
3378:
3377:Coral regions
3374:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3357:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3329:
3326:
3325:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3305:
3303:
3301:
3297:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3259:
3254:
3244:
3240:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3186:
3184:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3163:
3158:
3156:
3151:
3149:
3144:
3143:
3140:
3132:
3128:
3126:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3094:
3093:
3072:
3068:
3061:
3054:
3039:
3035:
3029:
3020:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2988:
2973:
2966:
2960:
2958:
2949:
2948:
2940:
2938:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2908:Hydrobiologia
2902:
2887:
2883:
2877:
2869:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2818:
2812:(1), 197–202.
2811:
2807:
2801:
2793:
2789:
2788:Sea Frontiers
2782:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2729:
2722:
2706:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2680:"Black Coral"
2674:
2666:
2654:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2628:9780123942821
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2598:
2596:9783319313030
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2558:
2551:
2543:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2500:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2453:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2415:
2407:
2395:
2387:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2362:
2353:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2321:
2313:
2307:
2303:
2296:
2288:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2251:
2244:. 2013-11-21.
2243:
2239:
2238:"Black Coral"
2233:
2231:
2229:
2227:
2225:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2210:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2169:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2134:
2132:
2130:
2114:
2110:
2103:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2072:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2041:(1): 96–104.
2040:
2036:
2032:
2030:
2021:
2019:
2002:
1998:
1992:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1962:
1954:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1929:
1920:
1916:
1909:
1907:
1898:
1892:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1851:
1842:
1834:
1828:
1824:
1823:
1815:
1799:
1795:
1788:
1781:
1765:
1761:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1693:
1691:
1675:
1671:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1629:
1627:
1622:
1614:
1612:
1611:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1588:
1584:
1583:IUCN Red List
1576:
1575:
1569:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1542:overexploited
1539:
1533:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1486:
1477:
1474:
1470:
1465:
1463:
1458:
1457:metamorphoses
1454:
1450:
1446:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1413:
1411:
1410:
1405:
1404:
1399:
1395:
1385:
1383:
1382:
1377:
1376:
1371:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1355:invertebrates
1351:
1349:
1345:
1340:
1339:butterflyfish
1336:
1332:
1329:
1317:
1312:
1308:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1287:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1240:
1239:
1233:
1219:
1215:
1213:
1209:
1199:
1183:
1182:
1178:
1175:Opresko, 2006
1173:
1172:
1168:
1165:Opresko, 2006
1163:
1162:
1158:
1157:
1155:Opresko, 2006
1153:
1152:Stylopathidae
1149:
1144:Opresko, 2005
1142:
1141:
1140:Umbellapathes
1137:
1132:
1131:
1127:
1122:
1121:
1117:
1114:Opresko, 2002
1112:
1111:
1107:
1102:
1101:
1097:
1094:Opresko, 2002
1092:
1091:
1087:
1082:
1081:
1080:Parantipathes
1077:
1074:Opresko, 2002
1072:
1071:
1067:
1064:Opresko, 2005
1062:
1061:
1057:
1054:Opresko, 2002
1052:
1051:
1047:
1042:
1041:
1037:
1032:
1031:
1027:
1024:Opresko, 2002
1022:
1021:
1017:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1003:Opresko, 2001
1001:
1000:
996:
993:Opresko, 2001
991:
990:
986:
983:Opresko, 2001
981:
980:
976:
973:Opresko, 2001
971:
970:
966:
961:
960:
956:
955:
953:Opresko, 2001
951:
950:Myriopathidae
947:
940:
939:
935:
934:
931:
927:
923:
914:
913:
909:
908:
906:Opresko, 2003
904:
900:
893:
892:
888:
885:Opresko, 2011
883:
882:
878:
877:
875:Opresko, 2003
873:
869:
864:Opresko, 2003
862:
861:
857:
852:
851:
847:
844:Opresko, 2003
842:
841:
837:
836:
832:
831:Cladopathinae
828:
827:
824:
820:
819:Cladopathidae
816:
809:Opresko, 2004
807:
806:
802:
799:Opresko, 2004
797:
796:
795:Pteridopathes
792:
789:Opresko, 2004
787:
786:
782:
779:Opresko, 2004
777:
776:
775:Asteriopathes
772:
767:
766:
762:
761:
759:Opresko, 2004
757:
753:
747:
743:
742:Milne-Edwards
739:
738:
737:Rhipidipathes
734:
731:Opresko, 2004
729:
728:
724:
721:Opresko, 2004
719:
718:
714:
711:Opresko, 2004
709:
708:
707:Acanthopathes
704:
703:
701:Opresko, 2004
699:
695:
694:
692:Opresko, 2004
690:
686:
679:
678:
674:
668:
663:
659:
658:
654:
650:
646:
645:
641:
637:
633:
632:
628:
624:
623:de Blainville
620:
619:
615:
611:
607:
606:
602:
596:
592:
588:
583:
579:
575:
574:
570:
569:
566:
562:
558:
557:
556:
554:
550:
535:
529:
519:
518:Myriopathidae
513:
503:
497:
487:
486:Cladopathidae
481:
471:
465:
455:
449:
435:
433:
429:
425:
424:Stylopathidae
421:
417:
416:Myriopathidae
413:
409:
408:Cladopathidae
405:
400:
398:
394:
391:
387:
383:
379:
369:
366:
361:
357:
353:
348:
343:
338:
333:
332:Ancient Greek
328:
326:
316:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
289:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
236:Opresko, 2006
234:
233:Stylopathidae
231:
225:
220:
216:
213:
210:Opresko, 2001
208:
207:Myriopathidae
205:
201:
197:
194:
190:
186:
185:Cladopathidae
183:
179:
175:
172:
168:
164:
161:
160:
158:
153:
148:
144:
143:Milne-Edwards
139:
136:
133:
132:
129:
126:
123:
122:
119:
116:
113:
112:
109:
106:
103:
102:
99:
96:
93:
92:
87:
82:
78:
72:
66:
61:
57:
52:
47:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
4026:Hexacorallia
4021:Antipatharia
3819:Antipatharia
3806:Antipatharia
3792:Antipatharia
3762:Antipatharia
3761:
3678:Symbiodinium
3676:
3669:
3580:Conservation
3495:Pulley Ridge
3354:
3262:Octocorallia
3188:
3181:Hexacorallia
3131:the original
3124:
3115:the original
3101:
3075:. Retrieved
3070:
3066:
3053:
3041:. Retrieved
3037:
3028:
3001:
2997:
2987:
2975:. Retrieved
2971:
2946:
2911:
2907:
2901:
2889:. Retrieved
2885:
2882:"Appendices"
2876:
2831:
2827:
2817:
2809:
2805:
2800:
2791:
2787:
2781:
2738:
2734:
2721:
2709:. Retrieved
2687:
2683:
2673:
2610:
2604:
2578:
2550:
2513:
2509:
2499:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2452:
2440:. Retrieved
2428:
2424:
2414:
2367:
2361:
2337:(13): 1–11.
2334:
2330:
2320:
2301:
2295:
2260:
2256:
2250:
2241:
2182:
2178:
2168:
2143:
2139:
2116:. Retrieved
2112:
2102:
2090:. Retrieved
2086:the original
2081:
2071:
2038:
2034:
2028:
2007:13 September
2005:. Retrieved
2000:
1991:
1979:. Retrieved
1971:
1961:
1952:
1918:
1891:cite journal
1879:. Retrieved
1859:
1855:
1849:
1841:
1821:
1814:
1804:29 September
1802:. Retrieved
1797:
1793:
1780:
1768:. Retrieved
1763:
1724:11567/802206
1706:
1702:
1698:
1677:. Retrieved
1673:
1646:. Retrieved
1638:
1608:
1591:
1580:
1572:
1558:
1534:
1510:Indo-Pacific
1491:
1472:
1466:
1442:
1436:
1427:growth rings
1419:
1407:
1401:
1391:
1388:Interactions
1379:
1373:
1352:
1342:stomachs of
1326:
1293:
1283:
1244:
1238:Cirrhipathes
1236:
1216:
1204:
1179:
1171:Triadopathes
1169:
1159:
1138:
1128:
1118:
1110:Stauropathes
1108:
1100:Schizopathes
1098:
1088:
1078:
1068:
1060:Dendropathes
1058:
1048:
1038:
1028:
1020:Abyssopathes
1018:
997:
987:
977:
967:
959:Antipathella
957:
936:
926:Leiopathidae
910:
903:Sibopathinae
889:
881:Heteropathes
879:
872:Hexapathinae
860:Trissopathes
858:
848:
840:Chrysopathes
838:
803:
793:
783:
773:
765:Aphanipathes
763:
735:
725:
715:
705:
677:Stichopathes
675:
655:
651:et al., 2009
642:
629:
618:Cirrhipathes
616:
603:
571:
561:Antipathidae
546:
502:Leiopathidae
454:Antipathidae
412:Leiopathidae
401:
397:phylogenetic
393:Antipathidae
375:
329:
322:
297:Hexacorallia
290:
274:cosmopolitan
254:thorn corals
253:
250:black corals
249:
245:
244:
196:Leiopathidae
163:Antipathidae
138:Antipatharia
137:
128:Hexacorallia
35:Black coral
29:
18:Antipatharia
3892:iNaturalist
3786:Wikispecies
3671:Amphidinium
3460:Lakshadweep
3395:Amazon Reef
3300:Coral reefs
3173:coral reefs
2442:12 November
2431:: 244–260.
2278:10125/24187
2082:EdwardsLabs
1981:25 November
1770:4 September
1574:Bathypathes
1550:Appendix II
1394:crustaceans
1296:zooplankton
1185:Brook, 1889
1161:Stylopathes
1124:Brook, 1889
1104:Brook, 1889
1084:Brook, 1889
1070:Lillipathes
1044:Brook, 1889
1040:Bathypathes
1014:Brook, 1889
989:Plumapathes
979:Myriopathes
963:Brook, 1889
942:Haime, 1849
854:Brook, 1889
850:Cladopathes
805:Tetrapathes
785:Phanopathes
769:Brook, 1889
727:Elatopathes
681:Brook, 1889
665: [
657:Pteropathes
631:Hillopathes
585: [
386:Jules Haime
362:are called
222: [
67:Appendix II
4015:Categories
3737:Fire coral
3722:Coral sand
3645:Reef Check
3625:Green Fins
3340:Microatoll
3280:Organ pipe
3204:Hermatypic
3077:4 November
3043:28 October
2977:4 November
2891:29 October
2794:: 267–272.
2756:10125/2453
2711:28 October
2437:10125/4416
2092:30 October
1832:1149951974
1617:References
1587:Madagascar
1498:Indonesian
1335:parrotfish
1328:Vertebrate
1300:cnidarians
1181:Tylopathes
1130:Telopathes
1120:Taxipathes
1090:Saropathes
938:Leiopathes
912:Sibopathes
901:subfamily
891:Hexapathes
870:subfamily
829:subfamily
754:subfamily
696:subfamily
605:Antipathes
573:Allopathes
365:akah bahar
337:antipathes
3717:Coral rag
3640:Reef Ball
3410:Baa Atoll
2850:2167-8359
2834:: e5129.
2765:1534-6188
2663:ignored (
2653:cite book
2637:0065-2881
2404:ignored (
2394:cite book
2209:1755-2672
2185:(1): 12.
1518:bracelets
1494:medicinal
1353:However,
1331:predation
1323:Predators
1304:oral disk
1264:meiofauna
1208:tentacles
823:Kinoshita
636:van Pesch
565:Ehrenberg
378:specimens
319:Etymology
286:asexually
256:, are an
189:Kinoshita
167:Ehrenberg
155:Families
104:Kingdom:
98:Eukaryota
3777:Q1479472
3771:Wikidata
3465:Maldives
3455:Kiribati
3405:Apo Reef
3335:Fringing
3290:Sea pens
3285:Sea fans
3243:Tabulate
3229:Staghorn
3199:Elegance
2928:12598714
2868:30013832
2773:38992352
2645:22877611
2542:19307564
2491:85999468
2287:41135750
2160:22877611
2063:29314907
1876:17049278
1733:22546360
1601:salinity
1514:necklace
1506:Hawaiian
1398:bivalves
1367:mollusks
1359:muricids
1357:such as
1302:have an
1280:plateaus
1260:currents
1252:salinity
547:List of
305:poaching
282:sexually
118:Cnidaria
114:Phylum:
108:Animalia
94:Domain:
3505:Red Sea
3450:Jamaica
3224:Elkhorn
3209:Chalice
3006:Bibcode
2859:6035717
2692:Bibcode
2533:2663997
2471:Bibcode
2339:Bibcode
2187:Bibcode
2055:1541743
1800:(2): 54
1563:Threats
1546:Cozumel
1502:Chinese
1462:oocytes
1453:planula
1423:budding
1363:ovulids
1227:Habitat
1222:Ecology
1150:Family
1009:Family
948:Family
930:Haeckel
924:Family
817:Family
687:Family
667:species
591:species
578:Opresko
559:Family
325:protein
224:species
200:Haeckel
178:Opresko
134:Order:
124:Class:
69: (
3956:NZOR:
3897:121454
3871:1ANTPO
3530:Yabiji
3270:Bamboo
3237:Rugose
3214:Pillar
3169:Corals
2926:
2866:
2856:
2848:
2771:
2763:
2684:Nature
2643:
2635:
2625:
2593:
2540:
2530:
2489:
2382:
2308:
2285:
2207:
2158:
2061:
2053:
1913:NOAA.
1874:
1829:
1731:
1648:13 May
1504:, and
1348:sharks
1272:cliffs
932:, 1896
825:, 1910
748:, 1857
744:&
671:, 1889
638:, 1914
625:, 1830
612:, 1766
610:Pallas
599:, 1994
582:Cairns
580:&
567:, 1834
549:genera
438:Genera
432:chitin
430:and a
428:polyps
422:, and
390:family
360:corals
358:, the
352:Hawaii
270:polyps
266:chitin
262:corals
228:, 1889
202:, 1896
191:, 1910
180:, 2004
169:, 1834
149:, 1857
145:&
3998:22549
3993:WoRMS
3972:84510
3949:44168
3923:51940
3910:11616
3905:IRMNG
3845:6227G
3832:80397
3690:Other
3445:India
3318:Coral
3308:Atoll
3219:Table
3194:Brain
3189:Black
3063:(PDF)
2972:CITES
2968:(PDF)
2924:S2CID
2886:CITES
2828:PeerJ
2769:S2CID
2731:(PDF)
2487:S2CID
2283:S2CID
2118:4 May
2113:Reefs
2051:JSTOR
1972:WoRMS
1881:4 May
1790:(PDF)
1679:4 May
1639:WoRMS
1554:CITES
1530:myrrh
1526:stony
1449:sperm
1370:mimic
1276:caves
746:Haime
669:]
662:Brook
597:]
404:order
356:Malay
354:. In
334:word
258:order
226:]
219:Brook
147:Haime
71:CITES
65:CITES
3985:4743
3944:NCBI
3918:ITIS
3879:GBIF
3866:EPPO
3858:6584
3827:BOLD
3275:Blue
3171:and
3079:2019
3045:2019
3038:NOAA
2979:2019
2893:2019
2864:PMID
2846:ISSN
2761:ISSN
2713:2019
2665:help
2641:PMID
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