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use of fluoroquinolones in food animals may increase antibiotic resistance in human pathogens compromising the effectiveness of the use of this critically important class of antibiotics in human medicine. The
Chinese government has established a higher maximum residue limit than the US and research in China has shown that the Chinese are effectively meeting the Chinese limits. Because of concerns about the presence of fluoroquinolones in the food supply, not only in aquaculture, but also in foods like honey, the U.S. is continuing to develop methods and strategies to detect illegal residues and prevent their introduction into the U.S. food supply.
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397:, also known as crystal violet has antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic properties. This compound was used during the World War I era as a topical antiseptic, but has been replaced in modern times with more modern treatments. The FDA prohibits the use of gentian violet in aquaculture because of numerous studies showing increased risk of certain cancers related to the compound and a showing that the chemical is bioavailable in fish when used in aquaculture.
300:, and other organisms on man-made marine structures. By inhibiting microbial growth, copper alloy aquaculture pens avoid the need for costly net changes that are necessary with other materials. The resistance of organism growth on copper alloy nets also provides a cleaner and healthier environment for farmed fish to grow and thrive. In addition to their antifouling benefits, copper alloys have strong structural and
335:. It is usually used to protect newly laid fish eggs from being infected by fungus or bacteria. This is useful when the hobbyist wants to artificially hatch the fish eggs. Methylene Blue is also very effective when used as part of a "medicated fish bath" for treatment of ammonia, nitrite, and cyanide poisoning as well as for topical and internal treatment of injured or sick fish as a "first response".
124:, dace, and eel from China, finding twenty-five percent of the samples to contain drug residues. FDA has approved five different drugs for use in aquaculture as long as the seafood contains less than a mandated maximum residue limit: florfenicol, sulfamerazine, chorionic gonadotropin, oxytetracycline dihydrate, oxytetracycline hydrochloride, as well as a drug combination of
85:
sewage treatment. In order to prevent the spread of bacteria and disease in contaminated water, some foreign fish farms put U.S.-banned antibiotics into their fishmeal. However, because the more stringent growing regulations in the US increase the price of food, imports from nations without these regulations are increasing based on price and profit.
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mice. The FDA also concluded that some people may be hypersensitive to this product. The FDA states, "Absolutely, no extra-label use of the nitrofurans is permitted in any food animals, including seafood." The FDA currently detains certain seafood imports without physical examination due to nitrofuran use by the producer.
420:
have been prohibited from extra-label use in the U.S. and many other parts of the world in aquaculture because of public health concern about the development of such antimicrobial resistance. Chinese authorities have acknowledged permitting the use of fluoroquinolones in aquaculture, even though the
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are broad spectrum antibiotics, being effective against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. In 1991, the FDA withdrew several approved food animal nitrofuran products as a result of research showing nitrofurazone, one of the nitrofurans, can produce mammary tumors in rats and ovarian tumors in
75:
sequence of a bacterium allowing that bacterium to survive antibiotic treatments. Because some of the same antibiotics are used to treat fish that are used to treat human disease, pathogenic bacteria causing human disease can also become resistant to antibiotics as a result of treatment of fish with
63:
to treat diseases caused by bacteria. Sometimes the antibiotics are used to treat diseases, but more commonly antibiotics are used to prevent diseases by treating the water or fish before disease occurs. While this prophylactic method of preventing disease is profitable because it prevents loss and
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in aquaculture. Toxicity studies have shown that this chemical can have serious toxic side effects. Malachite green is not actually an antibiotic, but has antibiotic properties. Malachite green is somewhat stable within the environment and, therefore, is detectable in fish that were treated with
135:
The FDA now enforces regulations in the US requiring testing of certain imported products for antimicrobial agents under Import Alert 16-131. The Import Alert provides that the use of antimicrobials during the various stages of aquaculture, including malachite green, nitrofurans, fluoroquinolones,
149:
After FDA repeatedly found that farm-raised seafood from China was contaminated, the agency announced on June 28, 2007, a broader import control of all farm-raised catfish, basa, shrimp, dace(related to carp), and eel from China. During targeted sampling, from
October 2006 through May 2007, FDA
84:
The issue has two sides. In some countries, clean water supplies for aquaculture are extremely limited. Untreated animal manure and human waste are used as feed in shrimp farms and tilapia farms in China and
Thailand, in addition to the collection of waste products accumulating from inadequate
55:
are chemicals designed to either kill or inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria while exploiting the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes in order to make them relatively harmless in higher-level organisms. Antibiotics are constructed to act in one of three ways: by disrupting cell
385:
since 1994, over the last decade the FDA developed a more sensitive testing methodology and changed the levels of detection for chloramphenicol in response to increasing discovery of traces of chloramphenicol in imports. In response to the US discovery of chloramphenicol in imported shrimp and
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era in the US, seafood imports increased 65 percent and shrimp imports increased 95 percent. Today, 80 percent of
American seafood is imported, about half coming from aquaculture. China, Thailand and Vietnam together account for 44 percent of seafood imports into the United States.
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repeatedly found that farm-raised seafood from China was contaminated with antimicrobial agents that are not approved for use in the United States. More specifically, the antimicrobials nitrofuran, malachite green, gentian violet, and fluoroquinolones, were detected.
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in human pathogens and that prolonged exposure to nitrofurans, malachite green, and gentian violet has been shown to have a carcinogenic affect. In a consumer brochure, the FDA describes the reasoning for enforcement under the import alert:
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the chemical at some point even after treatment has discontinued. After more stringent testing and inspection by the governments of
Western Countries, the use of malachite green began to wane and other drugs began to become more prevalent.
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eggs against nodavirus. Nodavirus is a lethal and vertically transmitted virus which causes severe mortality in fish. Haddock eggs should not be treated with high ozone level as eggs so treated did not hatch and died after 3–4 days.
764:
Buchan, K.; Martin-Robinchaud, D.; Benfey, T.J.; MacKinnon, A; Boston, L (2006). "The efficacy of ozonated seawater for surface disinfection of haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) eggs against piscine nodavirus".
792:
Culp, SJ (2004). "NTP technical report on the toxicity studies of malachite green chloride and leucomalachite green (CAS Nos. 569-64-2 and 129-73-7) administered in feed to F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice".
631:
Offshore
Aquaculture in the United States: Economic considerations, implications, and opportunities, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration, July 2008, p. 53
100:
The FDA has been testing for chemicals in aquaculture products for over two decades. In
November 2005, the testing program for aquaculture drugs was revised to include antibiotics such as
594:, statement of Murray M. Lumpkin, M.D., Deputy Commissioner for International and Special Program before the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science & Transportation, July 18, 2007
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membranes of bacteria (rendering them unable to regulate themselves), by impeding DNA or protein synthesis, or by hampering the activity of certain enzymes unique to bacteria.
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antibiotics. For this reason, the overuse of antibiotics in treatment of fish aquaculture (among other agricultural uses) could create public health issues.
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449:
Alderman, D.J.; Hastings, T.S. (1998). "Antibiotic use in aquaculture: development of antibiotic resistance – potential for consumer health risks".
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is used in aquaculture and by tropical fish hobbyists as a treatment for fungal infections. It can also be effective in treating fish infected with
549:
TRADE DEFICIT IN FOOD SAFETY, Proposed NAFTA Expansions
Replicate Limits On U.S. Food Safety Policy That Are Contributing To Unsafe Food Imports
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states that only 1% of seafood, compared with 2% of all imports, is inspected and only 0.1% of all seafood is tested for antibiotic residue.
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Marine
Fouling and its Prevention, Wood Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1952, United States Naval Institute, Annapolis, Maryland, USA
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that are not approved for use in aquaculture fish. From
October 1, 2006, through May 31, 2007, FDA tested samples of catfish, basa,
573:
USFDA, Industry Efforts Reduce Use of Unapproved Drugs. Global Aquaculture Advocate. July, August, 2006 Issue. p.38-39. Collette, B.
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netting cages are also currently being deployed in commercial-scale aquaculture operations in Asia, South America, and the USA. See
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fish enclosures around the world. All of these materials are selected for a variety of reasons, including design feasibility,
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bacteria. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can spontaneously arise when selective pressure to survive results in changes to the
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He, X, et al., "Residues of fluoroquinolones in marine aquaculture environment of the Pearl River Delta, South China",
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815:"Quantitative and confirmatory analyses of malachite green and leucomalachite gree residues in fish and shrimp".
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Antimicrobial agents in aquaculture: potential impact on health. APUA Newsletter. 18: 1-6. Angulo, F.J. 2000.
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SEAFOOD SAFETY, FDA Needs to Improve Oversight of Imported Seafood and Better Leverage Limited Resources
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SEAFOOD SAFETY, FDA Needs to Improve Oversight of Imported Seafood and Better Leverage Limited Resources
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What sets copper alloys apart from the other materials used in fish farming is that copper alloys are
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subsequent increased testing sensitivity, the use of this compound in aquaculture began to decrease.
132:. FDA has approved two drugs—formalin and hydrogen peroxide—for which it has not set a tolerance.
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497:"Public health consequences of use of antimicrobial agents in food animals in the United States".
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Keyes, C.W. 2006. "Safety in Seafood, Regulatory Interplay Combines Testing, Enforcement".
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Braithwaite, RA; McEvoy, LA (2005). "Marine biofouling on fish farms and its remediation".
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819:. LIB No. 4363 Vol 21 (11). Andersen, W. C., S. B. Turnipseed and J. E. Roybal 2005.
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260:(For information about the antimicrobial properties of copper and its alloys, see
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886:"Detention Without Physical Examination of Seafood Products Due to Nitrofurans"
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Questions and Answers on FDA's Import Alert on Farm-Raised Seafood From China
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Collette, B. 2006 USFDA, "Industry Efforts Reduce Use of Unapproved Drugs".
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9: 373-379. Anderson, A.D., J.M. Nelson, S. Rossiter and F.J. Angulo. 2003.
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687:"Commercial and research fish farming and aquaculture netting and supplies"
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564:, United States Government Accountability Office, April 14, 2011
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is added to seawater and used for the surface disinfection of
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allows fish to grow more quickly, there are several downsides.
475:"Ecotoxicity of mixtures of antibiotics use in aquacultures".
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http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/cms_ia/importalert_33.html
520:, Nicole Gilbert, News21, 2011 (last visited Oct. 2011).
892:#16-129, published 06/29/2011 (last visited Oct. 2011).
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http://aquanic.org/publicat/usda_rac/efs/srac/162fs.pdf
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439:, Kenneth Todor, PhD., 2008 (last visited Oct 1, 2011)
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Tainted Seafood Reaching U.S., Food Safety Experts Say
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179:at depth of 14 feet for one year shows no signs of
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154:Due to limitations on funding and resources, U.S.
88:Between 1995 and 2005, the first ten years of the
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381:While the U.S. has tested farm-raised shrimp for
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856:Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology
175:A copper alloy pen that has been deployed on a
47:, differ from those of higher-level organisms (
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983:List of harvested aquatic animals by weight
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708:"Aquaculture Netting by Industrial Netting"
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551:, Public Citizen’s Global Trade Watch, 2007
197:have become important netting materials in
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116:, as well as antimicrobial compounds like
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266:Antimicrobial copper alloy touch surfaces
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731:Southern Regional Aquaculture Center at
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858:, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 1-21
710:. Industrialnetting.com. Archived from
618:How FDA Regulates Seafood, FDA, 2007. (
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437:Todor’s Online Textbook of Bacteriology
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592:Hearing on "Safety of Chinese Imports"
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67:The overuse of antibiotics can create
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817:USFDA Laboratory Information Bulletin
209:). Various other materials including
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854:TRIPHENYLMETHANE AND RELATED DYES,
368:In 1983, the FDA banned the use of
304:properties in marine environments.
140:, may contribute to an increase of
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463:10.1046/j.1365-2621.1998.3320139.x
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262:Antimicrobial properties of copper
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241:are also used for netting in
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332:Ichthyophthirius multifiliis
189:Copper alloys in aquaculture
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451:Int. J. Food Sci. Technol
39:. The cells of bacteria (
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767:Aquacultural Engineering
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225:, plastic-coated welded
142:antimicrobial resistance
59:Antibiotics are used in
1387:Aquaculture engineering
941:Fishing industry topics
845:. July/August. p.38-39.
477:Environ. Toxicol. Chem.
903:Environ Geochem Health
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162:Example antimicrobials
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1325:World fish production
832:. April/May p. 20-23.
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251:corrosion resistance
69:antibiotic-resistant
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302:corrosion-resistant
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973:Commercial fishing
689:. Sterlingnets.com
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106:fluoroquinolones
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6:
4:
3:
2:
1836:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1819:Food politics
1817:
1815:
1812:
1811:
1809:
1786:
1783:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1609:Marine shrimp
1607:
1605:
1604:Hirudiculture
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1581:
1579:
1577:Other species
1575:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1526:
1525:US hatcheries
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1500:Fish stocking
1498:
1496:
1495:Fish hatchery
1493:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1454:
1448:
1447:Recirculating
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1412:Inland saline
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1402:Copper alloys
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1355:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1335:Fishing banks
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1320:
1316:
1310:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1273:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1230:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1158:Fish emulsion
1156:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1148:Cod liver oil
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1125:Fish products
1122:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1090:Filleted fish
1088:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
994:
993:Pair trawling
991:
989:
986:
984:
981:
979:
976:
974:
971:
970:
968:
966:
962:
958:
954:
949:
945:
936:
931:
929:
924:
922:
917:
916:
913:
904:
898:
891:
887:
882:
880:
878:
870:
864:
857:
851:
844:
838:
831:
825:
818:
812:
804:
800:
797:(71): 1–F10.
796:
795:Toxic Rep Ser
788:
780:
776:
772:
768:
760:
753:
749:
740:
734:
728:
714:on 2010-05-29
713:
709:
703:
688:
682:
674:
670:
666:
664:9780120261482
660:
656:
652:
648:
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628:
621:
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593:
588:
586:
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531:
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527:
519:
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429:
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407:
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374:
371:
356:
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349:
345:
336:
334:
333:
329:
325:
321:
312:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
258:antimicrobial
254:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
219:polypropylene
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
195:copper alloys
190:
182:
178:
173:
167:Copper alloys
159:
157:
151:
146:
143:
139:
133:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
98:
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91:
86:
77:
74:
70:
65:
62:
57:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
18:
1740:South Africa
1629:Sea cucumber
1584:Brine shrimp
1563:Raceway pond
1505:Spawning bed
1485:Fish farming
1457:Fish farming
1426:
1294:Maine Avenue
1284:Billingsgate
1276:Fish markets
1251:Chasse-marée
1223:Surströmming
1213:Shrimp paste
1138:Fish as food
1070:Factory ship
1065:Fish factory
905:. 2011 Sep 1
902:
897:
890:Import Alert
889:
863:
855:
850:
842:
837:
829:
824:
816:
811:
794:
787:
770:
766:
759:
748:
739:
727:
716:. Retrieved
712:the original
702:
691:. Retrieved
681:
646:
642:
636:
627:
614:
569:
556:
544:
498:
493:
484:
476:
471:
454:
450:
444:
432:
416:
404:
393:
380:
367:
342:
330:
323:
318:
255:
249:, cost, and
223:polyethylene
207:fish farming
192:
153:
148:
134:
99:
87:
83:
66:
58:
35:, and other
15:
1814:Aquaculture
1745:South Korea
1715:New Zealand
1634:Sea sponges
1535:Algaculture
1422:Mariculture
1379:Aquaculture
1363:Aquaculture
1340:Other areas
1110:Smoked fish
1105:Salted fish
1038:Power block
1013:Gillnetting
773:: 102–107.
406:Nitrofurans
401:Nitrofurans
306:Brass alloy
243:aquaculture
233:, patented
199:aquaculture
110:nitrofurans
61:aquaculture
53:Antibiotics
43:), such as
41:prokaryotes
1808:Categories
1700:Madagascar
1675:East Timor
1648:By country
1548:Microalgae
1543:Giant kelp
1465:Broodstock
1392:Aquaponics
1256:Fishmonger
1183:Fish sauce
1085:Dried fish
1080:Slurry ice
1018:Longlining
718:2010-06-16
693:2010-06-16
649:: 215–52.
425:References
290:tube worms
274:biofouling
268:). In the
205:including
193:Recently,
181:biofouling
130:ormetoprim
114:quinolones
49:eukaryotes
45:salmonella
1690:Indonesia
1655:Australia
1520:Tailwater
1490:Fish feed
1163:Fish meal
294:barnacles
215:polyester
177:fish farm
1695:Kiribati
1624:Scallops
1432:Offshore
1261:Fishwife
1203:Lutefisk
1173:Fish oil
1153:Fish roe
1028:Dredging
1023:Trolling
988:Trawling
867:CFSAN -
803:15213768
673:15596168
328:protozoa
298:mollusks
80:Overview
37:microbes
21:bacteria
19:destroy
1785:Vanuatu
1639:Turtles
1619:Oysters
1614:Octopus
1599:Geoduck
1568:Seaweed
1515:Tilapia
1470:Catfish
1442:Raceway
1437:Organic
1309:Tsukiji
1208:Rakfisk
1188:Gravlax
1133:Seafood
1115:Kippers
1095:Gibbing
1008:Seining
348:haddock
25:viruses
1773:Hawaii
1768:Alaska
1755:Tuvalu
1660:Canada
1510:Salmon
1304:Scania
1289:Fulton
1218:Surimi
1193:Hákarl
1143:Caviar
801:
671:
661:
282:plants
231:rubber
122:shrimp
112:, and
1778:Maine
1750:Tonga
1730:Samoa
1720:Palau
1710:Nauru
1670:China
1665:Chile
1589:Coral
1475:Cobia
344:Ozone
339:Ozone
286:algae
235:twine
211:nylon
90:NAFTA
33:algae
29:fungi
1685:Fiji
1365:and
799:PMID
669:PMID
659:ISBN
350:and
264:and
227:wire
136:and
128:and
1198:Lox
775:doi
651:doi
459:doi
324:ich
94:WTO
73:DNA
1810::
888:,
876:^
771:35
769:.
667:.
657:.
647:47
645:.
599:^
578:^
525:^
506:^
455:33
453:.
296:,
292:,
288:,
284:,
280:,
253:.
229:,
221:,
217:,
213:,
108:,
104:,
31:,
27:,
23:,
934:e
927:t
920:v
805:.
781:.
777::
721:.
696:.
675:.
653::
622:)
465:.
461::
183:.
92:-
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
