530:. Having learned from the mistakes its predecessors, the Free South Africa Movement dogmatically pursued to campaign against apartheid in South Africa, rather than diluting its focus across multiple countries. The group worked closely with members of Congress to introduce legislations imposing economic sanctions in South Africa. Following the protest at the South African embassy in Washington, D.C., sit-ins and demonstrations took place at South African consulates across the United States. Together, the activities of TransAfrica and the Free South Africa Movement greatly increased support for economic sanctions. Universities, banks, businesses, and local governments also began to withdraw their ties to South Africa and push members of Congress to impose more stringent measures.
684:, the policy called for easing economic sanctions and improving trade relationships to gradually steer South Africa away from the apartheid system. South Africa's role as a critical Cold War ally and a profitable investment environment led the Reagan administration to avoid anti-apartheid rhetoric and remain political and economically engaged in South Africa. However, with increasing pressure from Congress, university students, and civil rights activists, combined with the lack of actionable changes within South Africa's government, Reagan was forced reassess his policies towards South Africa. Debate ensues on whether constructive engagement helped end or prolong South Africa's apartheid system.
546:, students created their own shantytowns in the middle of campus to demonstrate the deplorable living conditions in South Africa. The Free South Africa Coordinating Committee at the University of Michigan built the first shantytown in 1986. By 1990, more than 46 shantytown events occurred at college campuses across the country. In addition to shantytowns, Black students at Ohio State University protested against university policies and practices regarding minority students in what became known as the “Black Student Movement." Scholarship programs were also expanded to encourage black South African students to study in U.S. colleges and universities.
700:, the code called for non-segregation of races in the workforce, fair employment practices, equal pay, increased training programs, promotion potential for nonwhite South Africans, and improved quality of life standards for employees. Although the Sullivan Principles were intended to promote desegregation and improve conditions for black South African workers, they were condemned by U.S. anti-apartheid activists as being reformist and irrelevant to the structural issues of the apartheid. Companies were forced to work within a legal system in which blacks were disenfranchised of basic economic and political rights in South Africa.
36:
560:
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initiated primarily by nongovernmental human rights organizations. On the other hand, state and federal governments were reluctant to support the call for sanctions against South Africa due to a Cold War alliance with the country and profitable economic ties. The rift between public condemnation of apartheid and the U.S government's continued support of the South
African government delayed efforts to negotiate a peaceful transfer to majority rule. Eventually, a congressional override of President Reagan's veto resulted in passage of the
579:, the new South Africa Primer Minister, the South African government introduced a "New Sports Policy" as an attempt to diversify its sports teams. Upon investigation by the IOC, however, it was found that Olympic trials for South African teams were separated by race, with the best from each group qualifying for the mixed-race team. As a result of South Africa's continual discriminatory practices, an international boycott campaign was formed to oppose South Africa's participation in the
488:
660:
518:, TransAfrica organized protest movements throughout the United States, including demonstrates outside the South African embassy that resulted in 5,000 Americans being arrested. In addition, it also advocated for progressive viewpoints in U.S. foreign policy debates by amplifying the voices of African Americans. Soon after its establishment, TransAfrica became the largest anti-apartheid organizer in the United States.
713:
of constructive engagement. Though Reagan endorsed the "spirit" of the
Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act in helping U.S. firms fight apartheid from within South Africa, Regan believed that harsh economic sanctions were not the best course of action. Eventually, Congress took matters into its own hands by overriding the presidential veto and voting the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act into law in October 1986.
539:
South Africa-related securities. Organizations such as the Co-op system at the
University of California Berkeley called on students to withdraw their accounts from Bank of America to protest the bank's loans to South Africa. These student-led divestment campaigns eventually led local and state governments to pass legislation requiring divestment of holdings in companies conducting business in South Africa.
435:(CORE) as well as churches and labor unions. During the 1960s, the ACOA participated in demonstrations, lobbying, and sit-ins to protest the United States’ governmental and business relations in South Africa. Most notably, the ACOA joined a union of churches to create the Washington Office in Africa as a permanent lobbying arm for relief projects in South Africa.
446:(D-MI) challenged SAA's entry into the United States, claiming that such travel would violate domestic civil rights laws of nondiscrimination. The case was subsequently taken to court, and though it remained unresolved, activists leveraged efforts at blocking SAA's federal route to opposing South Africa's broader apartheid rules.
712:
designed to end apartheid in South Africa. The act called for sanctions on trade, investment, and travel between the United States and South Africa and stated preconditions for lifting the sanctions. Initially, President Reagan vetoed the
Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986, upholding his policy
368:
system came from both within South Africa and the international community, in particular Great
Britain and the United States. The anti-apartheid movement consisted of a series of demonstrations, economic divestment, and boycotts against South Africa. In the United States, anti-apartheid efforts were
538:
The humanitarian goals of the Free South Africa
Movement attracted widespread support from colleges and universities to mobilize against South African apartheid. Students and faculty members protested, demonstrated, and signed petitions to pressure their institutions’ board of trustees to divest of
406:
in 1960, during which South
African police opened fire on a group of unarmed protestors, there was a significant change in public opinion in the United States about South Africa. The massacre fomented a connection between the civil rights movement, the defiance campaign for African liberation, and
394:
The origins of the anti-apartheid movement in the United States can be traced to the late 1940s, when apartheid laws were first enacted. Although anti-apartheid efforts did not gain much momentum during the beginning of the Civil Rights era, several organizations supported the defiance campaign in
611:
The cultural and entertainment boycott represented another important avenue to express opposition to South Africa's apartheid. Since the 1960s, many artists and entertainers have declared that they will not perform in South Africa or have their works shown there because of the government's rigid
466:
However, resistance to the apartheid system was outweighed by the prevailing U.S economic interests in South Africa. The United States was determined to secure South
African uranium production and mutually beneficial trade relationships. Until 1958, the United States abstained from voting on UN
454:
Under the Truman and
Eisenhower administration, the U.S. government took a reactionary role against South Africa's apartheid system, with leaders accepting the legitimacy of white supremacy in an attempt to maintain the flow of governmental and business relations. Support for the anti-apartheid
504:
of 1976, which was a series of student-led demonstrations against the government's decree of imposing
Afrikaans as the medium of instruction in all black schools. At the 1976 Black Forum on Foreign Policy Leadership Conference, attendees expressed a need for a separate, outside organization to
399:, the CAA published educational content and lobbied the federal government and the United Nations for economic disengagement from South Africa. The CAA, however, shortly decline in activity and eventually succumbed to anti-Communist government repression in 1955.
575:, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) banned South Africa from participating in the Olympics over its discriminatory practices under the apartheid. The stipulations outlined by the IOC required that the South African sports teams be multiracial. Under
612:
adherence to apartheid. Others participated in anti-apartheid events or contributed financially to international campaigns for the dismantling of apartheid in South Africa. As protests against artists who performed in South Africa occurred, tennis player
299:
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was not lifted until 1992, the same year when South Africa formally ended its apartheid system. Readmission to the Olympic games hinged on further progress toward integration of South African sports. At the
513:
in 1977 as a Black American foreign policy organization. Similar to the ACOA, TransAfrica was not exclusively an anti-apartheid organization but rather a body that addressed Afro-Caribbean concerns. Led by
620:
found Artists and Athletes Against Apartheid in 1983 to lobby for sanctions and embargoes against the South African government. The group consisted of more than sixty U.S. artists and athletes, including
1416:
463:
in pressuring businesses to divest investment from South Africa. Throughout the 1960s, churches and civil rights groups also organized protests, boycotts, and litigation campaigns to oppose apartheid.
407:
the resistance to the apartheid system in South Africa. However, the anti-apartheid movement was soon overshadowed by domestic issues, including the Cold War and resistance against the Vietnam War.
1011:
571:, a South African political activist. In 1961, Brutus found the South African Sports Association, which became the South African Non-Racial Olympic Committee (SAN-ROC) in 1963. During the
1045:
194:
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to voice concerns for apartheid and the imprisonment of Nelson Mandela. Proceeds from the album were donated to The Africa Fund to support humanitarian efforts of anti-apartheid groups.
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343:
1877:
289:
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55:
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of Detroit introduced the first divestment legislation to the U.S. Congress in 1972, paving the way for subsequent campaigns against bank loans to South Africa.
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and a group of civil rights activist, the ACOA encouraged the U.S. government and the United Nations to support African independence movements, including the
336:
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176:
22:
75:
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was a worldwide effort to end South Africa's apartheid regime and its oppressive policies of racial segregation. The movement emerged after the
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resolutions concerning South Africa's discriminatory policies. As hypocrisies of the U.S. government became apparent in the reaction to the
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advertised flights from Johannesburg to New York City. In 1969, a group of anti-apartheid activists, including the ACOA and Representative
1814:
1226:"The Apartheid Divestment Movement at George Washington University: The Legacy of Student Activism and GW Voices for a Free South Africa"
587:
395:
South Africa. In the early years, the Council on African Affairs (CAA) devoted to the liberation of Africans against colonialism. Led by
373:
in 1986. However, the extent to which the anti-apartheid movement contributed to the downfall of apartheid in 1994 remains under debate.
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movement primarily involved small groups of activists and had limited impact. The ACOA participated in civil rights groups such as the
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government in South Africa won the election of 1948 and enforced a system of racial segregation through legislation. Opposition to the
80:
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199:
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1867:
304:
1758:"Cannot Afford to Publicly Surrender: The Public's Influence on Ronald Reagan's Strategic Relationship with South Africa"
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424:
416:
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987:
1541:
1380:
754:
Gurney, Christabel (March 2000). "'A Great Cause': The Origins of the Anti-Apartheid Movement, June 1959-March 1960".
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709:
642:
370:
151:
128:
50:
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212:
122:
60:
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361:
166:
1462:
1076:""South Africa is the Mississippi of the world": Anti-Apartheid Activism through Domestic Civil Rights Law"
799:"'Think Globally, Punish Locally': Nonstate Actors, Multinational Corporations, and Human Rights Sanctions"
431:
drive to independence in present-day Ghana. The ACOA garnered support from civil rights groups such as the
456:
432:
428:
1463:"South Africa to join '92 Games with integrated team Decision ends 32-year ban; flag, anthem in dispute"
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has been used as a criterion for divestment of business holdings in South Africa. Developed by Reverend
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in 1994, South Africa entered the Olympic stage under its post-apartheid flag for the first time at the
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527:
506:
70:
1276:"The Student Divestment Movement in the United States and Tactical Diffusion: The Shantytown Protest"
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35:
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638:
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Plaque at Meadowlands High School opposing the imposition of Afrikaans as a medium of instruction
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65:
798:
1810:
559:
439:
161:
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Constructive engagement: Ronald Reagan's problematic policy of appeasement with South Africa
1409:"Trans-national resistance forces South Africa out of the Mexico City Summer Olympics, 1968"
663:
Rev. Leon Sullivan, developer of the Sullivan Principles of corporate social responsibility
600:
592:
580:
468:
403:
309:
116:
85:
595:, South African athletes competed under a neutral Olympic flag. Following the election of
8:
1616:"Little Steven on the Apartheid-Smashing 'Sun City' — and Trading Fiery Polemics for Fun"
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572:
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American anti-apartheid activists advocated for a greater attention on apartheid as the
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633:, who refused to perform in South Africa until the apartheid was dismantled. In 1985,
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1109:
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was the first major group devoted to the anti-apartheid campaign. Founded in 1953 by
1789:"Promoting International Respect for Worker Rights through Business Code of Conduct"
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The Road to Democracy in South Africa, Volume 3, International Solidarity, Part II
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With support from members of the Free South Africa Movement, Congress passed the
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1125:"The Politics of the Anti-Apartheid Movement in the United States, 1969-1986"
1101:
898:
848:
775:
697:
673:
568:
443:
1703:"The Anti-Apartheid Movement and the Populist Instinct in American Politics"
1038:"The Transnational and Local Dimensions of the U.S. Anti-Apartheid Movement"
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with South Africa in 1981. Written by Reagan's Assistant Secretary of State
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420:
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Annual Journal of the Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs
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543:
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487:
16:
Efforts by American civil society to undermine Apartheid in South Africa
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1539:
1515:"Worldwide pressure forced IOC to maintain ban on South Africa in 1968"
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906:
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Opposition to South Africa's participation in the Olympics began with
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840:
583:, which prompted the IOC to withdraw its invitation to South Africa.
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365:
27:
1721:
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980:
The U.S. Anti-Apartheid Movement: Local Activism in Global Politics
1672:"National Context: President Reagan and 'Constructive Engagement'"
659:
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The U.S. anti-apartheid movement gained rapid momentum after the
389:
872:"The Role of Non-Violent Action in the Downfall of Apartheid"
460:
554:
703:
563:
Flag used by South Africa at the 1992 Summer Olympic Games
1356:"The Black Student Movement at the Ohio State University"
606:
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Furthermore, using a new tactic of protest known as the
1542:"Artists and Entertainers Against Apartheid: An Update"
588:
ban against South African participation in the Olympics
509:
inside Congress. As a result, the CBC helped establish
1540:
United Nations Centre against Apartheid (April 1991).
1878:
International opposition to apartheid in South Africa
1811:"H.R.4868 - Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986"
1799:(1): 1–47 – via The Berkeley Electronic Press.
411:
Creation of the American Committee on Africa (ACOA)
377:
Anti-Apartheid movement during the Civil Rights era
822:"South Africa: Why Constructive Engagement Failed"
526:In 1984, TransAfrica was a founding member of the
483:Anti-Apartheid movement during the 1970s and 1980s
1230:The Journal of South African and American Studies
731:"Anti-Apartheid Movement > Introductory Essay"
533:
449:
1859:
1353:
549:
1551:– via Northwestern University Libraries.
819:
461:National Association of Colored People (NAACP)
521:
337:
385:Painting of the Sharpeville massacre in 1960
1786:
390:Connections with civil rights organizations
1430:Merrett, Christopher (December 21, 2005).
667:
495:
344:
330:
1122:
1091:
1073:
692:In the late 1970s through the 1980s, the
555:Banned participation at the Olympic games
1406:
1354:Stanford-Randle, Greer (December 2010).
1260:– via Taylor & Francis Online.
710:Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986
704:Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986
658:
558:
486:
380:
1613:
1429:
1360:ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University
1860:
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1587:
1461:Wren, Christopher (November 7, 1991).
1035:
944:. Pan-African University Press. 2018.
796:
753:
687:
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607:Artists and athletes against apartheid
195:1964 Conference for Economic Sanctions
177:UN Special Committee against Apartheid
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879:The Journal of Modern African Studies
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1873:South Africa–United States relations
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1588:Verdon, Lexie (September 13, 1983).
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1313:– via Oxford University Press.
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305:Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute
200:1978 World Conference against Racism
1836:Hipp, Shandrá D. (March 23, 2012).
1762:Electronic Theses and Dissertations
1564:"Arthur Ashe: Champion for Justice"
756:Journal of Southern African Studies
672:After the 1980 election, President
417:American Committee on Africa (ACOA)
13:
1744:
1646:"Artists United Against Apartheid"
1562:Bruce, Delan (September 1, 2021).
1513:Tower, Nikole (October 25, 2018).
1407:Gonzales, Sarah (March 17, 2013).
1395:
1370:
1264:
1212:
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76:International anti-apartheid music
14:
1889:
1793:Fordham International Law Journal
1450:– via Wiley Online Library.
1413:Global Nonviolent Action Database
1026:
958:
921:
1710:The Academy of Political Science
1614:Amorosi, A.D. (March 13, 2020).
1448:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2005.00165.x
1419:from the original on 2016-08-09.
1366:from the original on 2015-10-03.
1184:from the original on 2021-10-31.
982:. New York: Praeger Publishers.
643:Artists United Against Apartheid
507:Congressional Black Caucus (CBC)
371:Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act
152:Artists United Against Apartheid
129:Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act
34:
1842:(M.A.). Georgetown University.
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1817:from the original on 2016-03-07
1803:
1780:
1768:from the original on 2021-06-12
1694:
1682:from the original on 2017-04-22
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1652:from the original on 2010-06-18
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1626:from the original on 2020-03-14
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1521:from the original on 2021-07-28
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1494:from the original on 2001-04-10
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1335:from the original on 2017-04-22
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1174:"Institutionalization, 1977-80"
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1048:from the original on 2021-10-31
1014:from the original on 2017-03-07
996:
863:
813:
790:
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534:Demonstrations at universities
450:Early divestment and sanctions
1:
1488:"South African Olympic Flags"
1242:10.1080/17533171.2020.1796471
1196:"Anti-Apartheid > History"
716:
641:also found the protest group
263:(South-West Africa ceasefire)
167:Organisation of African Unity
111:Crime of Apartheid Convention
1868:Anti-Apartheid organisations
829:Council on Foreign Relations
550:Sports and cultural boycotts
271:(arms embargo strengthening)
247:(arms embargo strengthening)
7:
1787:Perez-Lopez, Jorge (1993).
1274:Soule, Sarah (March 1997).
1132:Political Science Quarterly
457:Congress of Racial Equality
433:Congress of Racial Equality
98:Instruments and legislation
10:
1894:
1123:Culverson, Donald (1996).
1074:Grisinger, Joanna (2020).
528:Free South Africa Movement
522:Free South Africa Movement
505:complement efforts of the
312:television programming ban
71:Free South Africa Movement
1093:10.1017/S0738248019000397
891:10.1017/S0022278X99002967
676:'s adopted the policy of
581:1968 Mexico City Olympics
425:National Liberation Front
316:Rugby union and apartheid
290:Elimination of Racism Day
28:apartheid in South Africa
1756:Forsee, Jessica (2021).
1549:United Nations, New York
1517:. Global Sport Matters.
797:Rodman, Kenneth (1998).
645:and produced the record
255:(mandatory arms embargo)
231:(voluntary arms embargo)
23:International opposition
1036:Larson, Robert (2019).
870:Zunes, Stephen (1999).
820:Ungar and Vale (1985).
768:10.1080/030570700108414
678:constructive engagement
668:Constructive engagement
593:1992 Barcelona Olympics
496:Creation of TransAfrica
475:of California and Rep.
358:anti-apartheid movement
239:(sanctions feasibility)
157:Commonwealth of Nations
147:Anti-Apartheid Movement
81:International sanctions
66:Constructive engagement
1590:"Boycotting S. Africa"
1381:"Dennis Brutus papers"
1224:Novak, Andrew (2021).
1080:Law and History Review
1004:"Early U.S. Responses"
664:
564:
492:
386:
223:(Sharpeville massacre)
1701:Metz, Steven (1986).
1676:Michigan in the World
1432:"Sport and apartheid"
1329:Michigan in the World
1086:(4): 38 (4): 843-81.
1008:Michigan in the World
978:Love, Janice (1985).
662:
562:
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440:South African Airways
384:
162:Halt All Racist Tours
1200:www.avoiceonline.org
1180:. February 6, 2021.
735:www.avoiceonline.org
469:Sharpeville massacre
404:Sharpeville massacre
117:Gleneagles Agreement
86:Milton King boycotts
1594:The Washington Post
1383:. JISC Archives Hub
694:Sullivan Principles
688:Sullivan principles
655:Legislative changes
573:1964 Tokyo Olympics
427:in Algeria and the
213:UN Security Council
123:Sullivan principles
1813:. 2 October 1986.
1740:– via JSTOR.
1162:– via JSTOR.
917:– via JSTOR.
859:– via JSTOR.
665:
601:1996 Olympic games
565:
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105:UN Resolution 1761
1467:The Baltimore Sun
1178:ArcGIS Experience
444:Charles Diggs Jr.
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