1437:. For the Anti-Apartheid Movement, Nelson Mandela's release was a moment of celebration, but it also started an enormously challenging period in which they struggled to maintain the momentum of the 1980s, and sustain public interest in South Africa. Historians Matt Graham and Christopher Fevre have argued that South Africa's transition proved to be the most challenging period in the Anti-Apartheid Movement's existence due to a decline in public interest, a reduction of its membership base, questions about its long-term future as an organisation, a poor financial situation, and the difficulty of explaining the fast-paced negotiations and the political violence to the British public. The Anti-Apartheid Movement assisted the ANC's election campaign through fundraising, lobbying, and public rallies. These activities were part of the international support provided for the ANC's victory in South Africa's
1401:, which hoped to secure his release in time for his 70th birthday in June 1988. There were four elements to "Freedom at 70": the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute concert held at Wembley Stadium on 11 June; a rally in Glasgow to launch the Nelson Mandela Freedom March on 12 June; and the five-week long Freedom March from Glasgow to London, which finished with a rally in Hyde Park on 17 July 1988. These events attracted an unprecedented level of interest in the Anti-Apartheid Movement and the struggle against apartheid. For example, the Wembley Stadium concert was attended by about 100,000 people and an estimated 600 million people in more than 60 countries watched the event.
45:
1386:, local council authorities, churches, and trade unions, to demand Mandela's release from prison and campaign for the end of apartheid in South Africa. A notable feature of the campaign across Britain was the renaming of buildings and streets after Nelson Mandela, which resulted in the UK having more streets named after him than anywhere outside of South Africa. The Free Nelson Mandela Campaign gained prominence when Glasgow's local authority gave Mandela the Freedom of the City in 1981, and a further eight cities and councils including Aberdeen, Dundee, and Sheffield followed this lead during the 1980s.
1372:
decided by a majority vote in the
General Assembly; to isolate the major trading partners of South Africa by persuading other Western countries to co-operate in action to the greatest feasible extent; and to find ways to promote public opinion and public action against apartheid, especially in the countries which were the main collaborators with the South African regime. This also meant that we built the broadest support for each measure, thereby welcoming co-operation rather than alienating governments and organisations which were not yet prepared to support sanctions or armed struggle.
1421:
AAM as ‘the basis and heart of the movement’. The
British AAM created the overarching campaigns and policies to ensure a consistent anti-apartheid message, but it was the actions of the local groups that ensured they had nationwide coverage. As a result, anti-apartheid campaigns could be implemented in almost every locality, which intensified the visibility and impact. It also allowed the general public multiple opportunities to take individual actions against apartheid through local efforts such as picketing shops and venues. and boycotting products or organisations.
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implications on the economies of South Africa, the UK, the US and the
Protectorates. Knowing that the strongest opposition to the application of sanctions came from the West (and within the West, the UK), the Committee made every effort to attract as wide and varied a number of speakers and participants as possible so that the conference findings would be regarded as objective."
2220:: A digital archive of 90 hours of videos taken in South Africa in the late 1980s and early 1990s. This raw footage documents anti-apartheid demonstrations, speeches, mass funerals, celebrations, and interviews with activists that capture the activism of trade unions, students and political organisations, including the activities of the United Democratic Front.
1264:. Candidates were asked to state their position on economic sanctions and other punitive measures against the South African government. Most candidates who responded answered in the affirmative. Following the Labour Party's victory at the 1964 general election, after 13 years in opposition, commitment to the anti-apartheid cause dissipated. In short order,
1424:
The local groups had a lot of freedom to act against any connections with the apartheid regime in their localities. There were many diverse links to South Africa, and a key role of the local groups was to identify them, and then direct their campaign efforts against them. There existed a huge variety
1412:
The AAM was composed of a national office, local groups, and regional committees, as well as a wide range of affiliations to organisations across civil society. There was also a
Scottish Anti-Apartheid Committee (SCAAM) and a Welsh Anti-Apartheid Movement (WAAM) which co-ordinated activities in these
1275:
was "not in favour of trade sanctions partly because, even if fully effective, they would harm the people we are most concerned about; the
Africans and those White South Africans who are having to maintain some standard of decency there." Even so, Lisson writes that the "AAM still hoped that the new
1420:
The strength of the anti-apartheid cause in
Britain was aided by an extensive network of local and regional AAM groups. Initially these structures existed only in larger urban areas, but by the 1980s, almost every British town and city had an AAM local group. The local groups were described by the
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The AAM structure allowed the movement to engage different constituents at different levels in the broader effort to isolate South Africa. The AAM’s national office was based in London, which was the centre of the movements decision making, where policies were devised, campaigns organised (such as
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occurred on 21 March 1960, when 69 unarmed protesters were shot dead by the South
African police. This triggered an intensification of action. The organisation was renamed the "Anti-Apartheid Movement" and instead of just a consumer boycott, the group would now "co-ordinate all the anti-apartheid
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The strategy was to press for a range of measures to isolate the regime, support the liberation movement and inform world public opinion; to continue pressing for effective sanctions as the only means for a peaceful solution, and at the same time to obtain action on other measures which could be
1251:
However, the conference was not successful in persuading the UK to take up economic sanctions against South Africa. Rather, the
British government "remained firm in its view that the imposition of sanctions would be unconstitutional "because we do not accept that this situation in South Africa
1222:
and called for imposing economic and other sanctions on South Africa. All
Western nations refused to join the committee as members. This boycott of a committee, the first such boycott, happened because it was created by the same General Assembly resolution that called for economic and other
1226:
Following the passage of this resolution, the Anti-Apartheid
Movement spearheaded the arrangements for international conference on sanctions to be held in London in April 1964. According to Lisson, "The aim of the Conference was to work out the practicability of economic sanctions and their
1238:
The Conference established the necessity, the legality and the practicability of internationally organised sanctions against South Africa, whose policies were seen to have become a direct threat to peace and security in Africa and the world. Its findings also pointed out that in order to be
1381:
In the 1980s, the international campaign to free Nelson Mandela from prison became a global cause. In close co-operation with the exiled leaders of the ANC, the British Anti-Apartheid Movement increasingly personalised the liberation struggle, with Mandela as its symbolic figurehead. The
1362:
Faced with the failure to persuade the West to impose economic sanctions, in 1966 the AAM formulated a strategy whereby they would shift toward spearheading "an international campaign against apartheid under the auspices of the United Nations." AAM's proposed strategy was approved by the
1319:
in 1965. The declaration was signed by 496 university professors and lecturers from 34 British universities to protest against apartheid and associated violations of academic freedom. They made a special reference to the issue of banning orders against two South African academics named
1184:, who took over from Rosalynde Ainslie as the AAM's Hon. Secretary in 1962, also represented the South African Sports Association, a non-racial body set up in South Africa by Dennis Brutus. In the same year, he presented a letter to the International Olympic Committee meeting in
2214:): An online archive of materials of the solidarity movement in the U.S. that supported the struggle against apartheid and for African freedom, including documents, posters, streamed interviews, T-shirts, photographs, campaign buttons, and remembrances.
1243:
The AAM was enthusiastic with the results of the conference for two key reasons. First, because of "the new seriousness with which the use of economic sanctions is viewed." Second, because the AAM was able to meet for the first time with the
308:
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Boycott Barclays or Free Nelson Mandela), and the high-level lobbying of politicians and business leaders occurred. The London office co-ordinated and directed much of the anti-apartheid campaigning across Britain.
1397:" which reached number 9 in the UK music charts. In 1986, Artists Against Apartheid organised the Freedom Festival at Clapham Common in London, in which 250,000 people attended. The most famous event was
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constitutes a threat to international peace and security and we do not in any case believe that sanctions would have the effect of persuading the South African Government to change its policies"."
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and then by the General Assembly. This new partnership formed the basis for all future action against apartheid. The man originally responsible for the new strategy gives this summary:
203:
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work and keep South Africa's apartheid policy in the forefront of British politics". It also campaigned for the total isolation of apartheid South Africa, including economic sanctions.
1871:
2147:
Matthew Graham & Christopher Fevre, ‘Mandela’s out so apartheid has finished’: the British Anti-Apartheid Movement and South Africa’s transition to majority rule, 1990-1994.
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was South Africa's largest foreign investor and South Africa was the UK's third biggest export market. The ANC was still committed to peaceful resistance. Armed struggle through
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member states. In 1962, the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution calling on all member states to impose a trade boycott against South Africa. In 1963, the
1890:
1280:." But by the end of 1964, it was clear that the election of the Labour Party had made little difference in the government's overall unwillingness to impose sanctions.
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effective, a programme of sanctions would need the active participation of Britain and the US, who were also the main obstacle to the implementation of such a policy.
1834:
64:
1066:
We are not asking you, the British people, for anything special. We are just asking you to withdraw your support from apartheid by not buying South African goods.
2140:
Rob Skinner, ‘The Anti-Apartheid Movement: Pressure Group Politics, International Solidarity and Transnational Activism’ in N. Crowson, M. Hilton and J. McKay,
1300:
and other political trials to try to appease Afro-Asian countries and public opinion at home and abroad; by early 1965 the issue of sanctions had lost momentum.
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2195:
1099:
345:
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2233:
1219:
185:
31:
84:
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A major part of the campaign revolved around music, which helped publicise Mandela and the anti-apartheid struggle to the British public. In 1984,
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2028:"'Mandela's out so apartheid has finished': the British Anti-Apartheid Movement and South Africa's transition to majority rule, 1990-1994"
1987:"'Mandela's out so apartheid has finished': the British Anti-Apartheid Movement and South Africa's transition to majority rule, 1990-1994"
2248:
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exiles and their supporters. Nelson Mandela was an important person among the many that were anti-apartheid activists. Members included
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2128:
1771:
1704:
1293:
430:
1489:
1205:
585:
89:
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The Foundations of Anti-Apartheid: Liberal Humanitarians and Transnational Activists in Britain and the United States, c. 1919-64
1671:
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970:
208:
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and supporting South Africa's non-white population who were oppressed by the policies of apartheid. The AAM changed its name to
1609:
1404:
As a direct consequence of the 70th Birthday Tribute, the Anti-Apartheid Movement membership doubled to nearly 18,000 in 1988.
1352:
Pledge that we shall not apply for or accept academic posts in South African universities which practise racial discrimination.
886:
635:
620:
2243:
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and diversity in anti-apartheid campaigning across Britain, which reflected local economic, cultural, and social conditions.
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1261:
660:
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313:
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1737:* Spotlight on South Africa, Dar es Salaam, 26 November 1965, reprinted by on the ANC Website for Historical Documents
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in 1994, when South Africa achieved majority rule through free and fair elections, in which all races could vote.
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1211:
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575:
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221:
131:
69:
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640:
1188:, Germany about racism in South African sports. The result was a ruling that suspended South Africa from the
793:
670:
655:
630:
175:
1788:
Klein, Genevieve (2009). "The British Anti-Apartheid Movement and Political Prisoner Campaigns, 1973–1980".
2123:
The Politics of Race in Britain and South Africa: Black British Solidarity with the Anti-Apartheid Struggle
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550:
19:
This article is about the British organisation. For opposition to apartheid from within South Africa, see
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808:
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called for a partial arms ban against South Africa, but this was not mandatory under Chapter VII of the
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1950:"International Solidarity at the Grassroots: A Case Study of the British Anti-Apartheid Movement"
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1552:
1156:
1022:
975:
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165:
74:
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We, the (undersigned) professors and lecturers in British universities in consultation with the
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At the UN, Britain consistently refused to accept that the situation in South Africa fell under
1082:
parties. On 28 February 1960, the movement launched a March Month, Boycott Action at a rally in
1652:"The Anti-Apartheid Movement, Britain and South Africa: Anti-Apartheid Protest vs Real Politik"
1321:
1164:
675:
373:) was a British organisation that was at the centre of the international movement opposing the
1909:
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930:
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Protest against the practice of racial discrimination and its extension to higher education;
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1115:
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318:
125:
94:
1248:, a meeting that established a long-lasting working relationship between the two parties.
8:
1394:
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985:
1296:. Instead, in collaboration with the US, it worked for a carefully worded appeal on the
2008:
1815:
1075:
1015:
450:
401:
119:
1675:
693:
2047:
2012:
1967:
1819:
1604:
1563:
1390:
1382:
Anti-Apartheid Movement worked with a range of organisations in Britain, such as the
1272:
1265:
1152:
1127:
1071:
896:
610:
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Labour Government would be more sensitive to the demands of public opinion than the
2039:
1998:
1957:
1805:
1797:
1589:
1544:
1083:
848:
798:
728:
2043:
2003:
1986:
1962:
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successfully enforced strict international economic sanctions against South Africa
1444:
After the first democratic elections in South Africa, the AAM changed its name to
2142:
NGOs in Contemporary Britain: Non-State Actors in Society and Politics since 1945
1775:
1658:
1519:
1155:, and found willing allies in Canada, India and the newly independent Afro-Asian
1143:
The AAM scored its first major victory when South Africa was forced to leave the
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1514:
1504:
1465:
1123:
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773:
753:
748:
738:
713:
1872:"Crowds chanted on historic night as Dundee gave Nelson Mandela the city keys"
1801:
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The Anti-Apartheid Movement tried to make sanctions an election issue for the
2227:
2051:
1971:
1594:
1584:
1499:
1297:
1268:
1091:
1070:
The boycott attracted widespread support from students, trade unions and the
980:
853:
803:
475:
460:
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1558:
1055:
1051:
881:
843:
833:
823:
723:
374:
2180:
Bodleian Library's Catalogue of the archive of the Anti-Apartheid Movement
1767:"AAM and UN: partners in the international campaign against apartheid" in
1740:"Academic Boycott of South Africa: Declaration by British Academics, 1965"
1599:
1539:
1335:
Academic Boycott of South Africa: Declaration by British Academics, 1965
1185:
1181:
783:
778:
763:
698:
303:
180:
1721:
C. Gurney, "A Great Cause: The Origins of the Anti-Apartheid Movement",
1223:
sanctions on South Africa, which at the time the West strongly opposed.
1674:. Bodleian Library of Commonwealth and A/frican Studies. Archived from
1534:
1524:
1325:
1095:
891:
858:
733:
718:
703:
560:
2065:
1810:
1479:
912:
876:
813:
409:
377:
36:
2135:
Youth Activism and Solidarity: The Non-Stop Picket Against Apartheid
2109:
Activists beyond borders advocacy networks in international politics
1232:
International Conference for Economic Sanctions Against South Africa
2211:
1672:"Catalogue of the archive of the Anti-Apartheid Movement, 1956-98"
1459:
417:
2169:
1891:"Nelson Mandela Dies: The Story behind his 70 Birthday Concert"
1346:
Protest against the bans imposed on Professors Simons and Roux;
1192:. South Africa was finally expelled from the Olympics in 1970.
1047:
902:
1853:"Mandela's historic Glasgow trip remembered on 100th birthday"
1315:
The Anti-Apartheid Movement was instrumental in initiating an
2217:
2102:
Anti-Apartheid and the Emergence of a Global Civil Society
1433:
Mandela was released in February 1990, which started the
1551:
who succeeded in having South Africa expelled from the
1661:, Arianna Lisson, PhD Dissertation, 15 September 2000.
1357:
1255:
1086:. Speakers at the rally included Labour Party Leader
2144:(Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), pp.129-146.
2129:"The Anti-Apartheid Movement: A 40-year Perspective"
2095:
Anti-Apartheid: A History of the Movement in Britain
1948:
Graham, Matthew; Fevre, Christopher (15 July 2024).
1769:"The Anti-Apartheid Movement: A 40-year Perspective"
1705:"The Anti-Apartheid Movement: A 40-year Perspective"
1455:
2264:
Political organisations based in the United Kingdom
2026:Graham, Matthew; Fevre, Christopher (3 July 2022).
1376:
2185:Anti-Apartheid Movement Scottish Committee records
1908:Movement, The Anti-Apartheid (27 September 1989).
1220:United Nations Special Committee against Apartheid
392:
1328:, who were two well-known progressive academics.
2225:
1835:"Nelson Mandela death: UK streets named Mandela"
2175:Liliesleaf Trust UK & Anti-Apartheid Legacy
1733:
1731:
1195:
1147:in 1961. It held a 72-hour vigil outside the
2157:https://doi.org/10.1080/13619462.2021.1976154
1888:
1435:negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa
1058:, Ros Ainslie, Abdul Minty and Nanda Naidoo.
1023:
346:
16:1959–1994 British anti-apartheid organisation
2239:1994 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
1728:
1707:. South Africa House, London. Archived from
1615:Anti-Apartheid movement in the United States
1304:
1288:Lisson summarises the UN situation in 1964:
1218:, a non-binding resolution establishing the
2025:
1984:
1947:
1407:
1177:Apartheid-era South Africa and the Olympics
2194:Struggles for Freedom in Southern Africa:
1555:and further isolating the Apartheid regime
1138:
1030:
1016:
353:
339:
2234:1959 establishments in the United Kingdom
2002:
1985:Graham, Matt; Fevre, Christopher (2022).
1961:
1809:
1691:Refugees and Cultural Transfer to Britain
1109:
1907:
1869:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1631:
1490:International sanctions during apartheid
1399:The Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute
1283:
1206:International sanctions during apartheid
1170:
1910:"Report to the AGM Oct 1988 - Oct 1989"
1889:Hollingsworth, Tony (6 December 2013).
1832:
1763:
1761:
1570:Robert Hughes, Baron Hughes of Woodside
971:Music in the movement against apartheid
2226:
2196:The Anti-Apartheid Movement Collection
1688:Stefan Manz and Panikos Panayi (eds),
1046:, the Boycott Movement was founded in
204:1964 Conference for Economic Sanctions
186:UN Special Committee against Apartheid
1787:
1628:
2254:Organizations disestablished in 1994
2190:Wales Anti-Apartheid Movement Papers
1870:Strachan, Graeme (31 October 2020).
1758:
314:Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute
209:1978 World Conference against Racism
1954:Journal of Southern African Studies
1790:Journal of Southern African Studies
1723:Journal of Southern African Studies
1358:Cooperation with the United Nations
446:Coloured vote constitutional crisis
13:
2249:Boycotts of apartheid South Africa
2087:
1833:Wheeler, Brian (7 December 2013).
1428:
1384:International Defence and Aid Fund
1256:Making sanctions an election issue
1133:
85:International anti-apartheid music
14:
2275:
2259:Organizations established in 1959
2168:Anti-Apartheid Movement Archive:
2162:
1495:Academic boycotts of South Africa
1475:ACTSA: Action for Southern Africa
1446:ACTSA: Action for Southern Africa
1365:UN Special Committee on Apartheid
1246:UN Special Committee on Apartheid
382:ACTSA: Action for Southern Africa
1458:
1377:The Free Nelson Mandela Campaign
1317:academic boycott of South Africa
1311:Academic boycott of South Africa
1096:John Grigg, 2nd Baron Altrincham
1050:on 26 June 1959 at a meeting of
999:
998:
961:Internal resistance to apartheid
416:
161:Artists United Against Apartheid
138:Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act
43:
21:Internal resistance to apartheid
2218:Community Video Education Trust
2058:
2019:
1978:
1941:
1916:
1901:
1882:
1863:
1845:
1778:, E. S. Reddy, 25–26 June 1999.
1485:Disinvestment from South Africa
1212:United Nations General Assembly
1202:Disinvestment from South Africa
1130:would only begin a year later.
471:Church Street, Pretoria bombing
393:A consumer boycott organisation
1826:
1781:
1725:, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 123–144.
1715:
1697:
1682:
1664:
1:
2133:Gavin Brown and Helen Yaffe,
2044:10.1080/13619462.2021.1976154
2004:10.1080/13619462.2021.1976154
1963:10.1080/03057070.2024.2370654
1924:"Local anti-apartheid groups"
1621:
1230:The conference was named the
1062:would summarise its purpose:
272:(South-West Africa ceasefire)
176:Organisation of African Unity
120:Crime of Apartheid Convention
2244:Anti-Apartheid organisations
2200:Action for Southern Africa (
2149:Contemporary British History
2032:Contemporary British History
1991:Contemporary British History
1042:In response to an appeal by
936:Apartheid in popular culture
280:(arms embargo strengthening)
256:(arms embargo strengthening)
7:
2107:M. E. Keck and K. Sikkink,
1451:
1331:A part of the declaration:
1294:Chapter VII of the Charter
1196:Economic sanctions campaign
506:Saint James Church massacre
501:Assassination of Chris Hani
107:Instruments and legislation
10:
2280:
1694:, Routledge, 2013, p. 163.
1530:Free South Africa Movement
1439:first democratic elections
1308:
1199:
1174:
511:1994 Bophuthatswana crisis
387:
321:television programming ban
80:Free South Africa Movement
18:
1802:10.1080/03057070902919975
1393:released the hit single "
1305:Academic boycott campaign
1104:African National Congress
759:Winnie Madikizela-Mandela
325:Rugby union and apartheid
299:Elimination of Racism Day
37:apartheid in South Africa
2208:African Activist Archive
1579:Prime Minister of Canada
1549:Prime Minister of Canada
1408:Organisational structure
1271:told the press that his
1149:Commonwealth Secretariat
946:Cape Qualified Franchise
264:(mandatory arms embargo)
240:(voluntary arms embargo)
32:International opposition
2212:africanactivist.msu.edu
1610:United Democratic Front
1553:Commonwealth of Nations
1340:Anti-Apartheid Movement
1139:Commonwealth membership
976:Nostalgia for apartheid
367:Anti-Apartheid Movement
248:(sanctions feasibility)
166:Commonwealth of Nations
156:Anti-Apartheid Movement
90:International sanctions
75:Constructive engagement
1374:
1355:
1302:
1241:
1210:In November 1962, the
1110:Expansion and renaming
1068:
951:Disinvestment campaign
676:State Security Council
232:(Sharpeville massacre)
2155:(3), (2022) 323–354.
1369:
1333:
1290:
1284:Rejection by the West
1262:1964 general election
1236:
1171:Olympic participation
1064:
941:Apartheid legislation
931:Afrikaner nationalism
491:Cape Town peace march
481:Trojan Horse Incident
441:1948 general election
171:Halt All Racist Tours
2121:Elizabeth Williams,
1116:Sharpeville massacre
1094:, Conservative peer
839:Eugène Terre'Blanche
709:Mangosuthu Buthelezi
516:Shell House massacre
486:Khotso House bombing
456:Sharpeville massacre
126:Gleneagles Agreement
95:Milton King boycotts
2118:(Basingstoke, 2010)
2104:(Basingstoke, 2006)
1928:www.aamarchives.org
1657:30 May 2017 at the
1395:Free Nelson Mandela
1278:previous Government
1190:1964 Tokyo Olympics
1161:UN Security Council
986:Sullivan Principles
222:UN Security Council
132:Sullivan principles
2170:Forward to Freedom
2093:Roger Fieldhouse,
1774:9 May 2007 at the
1510:Michael C. Burgess
1234:. Lisson writes:
571:Conservative Party
451:1956 Treason Trial
114:UN Resolution 1761
1605:TransAfrica Forum
1564:Trevor Huddleston
1391:The Special A.K.A
1266:UK Prime Minister
1153:Marlborough House
1128:Umkhonto we Sizwe
1122:At the time, the
1100:Tennyson Makiwane
1040:
1039:
897:South-West Africa
363:
362:
2271:
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2055:
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2017:
2016:
2006:
1982:
1976:
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1965:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1920:
1914:
1913:
1905:
1899:
1898:
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1779:
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1742:. Archived from
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2111:(Ithaca, 1998)
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2038:(3): 323–354.
2018:
1997:(3): 323–354.
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2094:
2073:. Retrieved
2069:
2060:
2035:
2031:
2021:
1994:
1990:
1980:
1953:
1943:
1931:. Retrieved
1927:
1918:
1903:
1894:
1884:
1875:
1865:
1857:The Scotsman
1856:
1847:
1838:
1828:
1793:
1789:
1783:
1748:. Retrieved
1744:the original
1722:
1717:
1709:the original
1699:
1690:
1684:
1676:the original
1666:
1568:Bob Hughes,
1559:David Ennals
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1145:Commonwealth
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1113:
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1056:Vella Pillay
1041:
882:District Six
844:Desmond Tutu
834:Oliver Tambo
824:Helen Suzman
724:Bram Fischer
370:
366:
364:
155:
25:
1876:The Courier
1600:David Steel
1540:Ron Dellums
1322:Jack Simons
1186:Baden-Baden
1182:Abdul Minty
784:Thabo Mbeki
779:Govan Mbeki
769:D. F. Malan
764:Mac Maharaj
699:P. W. Botha
626:Broederbond
224:Resolutions
198:Conferences
181:TransAfrica
2228:Categories
1811:2263/14709
1622:References
1535:Ruth First
1525:Black Sash
1326:Eddie Roux
1165:UN Charter
892:Sophiatown
859:Jacob Zuma
744:Joel Joffe
734:Chris Hani
719:Ruth First
704:Steve Biko
561:Black Sash
2066:"History"
2052:1361-9462
2013:240599362
1972:0305-7070
1820:144155135
1480:Apartheid
1413:nations.
1080:Communist
913:Vlakplaas
877:Bantustan
814:Joe Slovo
410:Apartheid
309:Activists
54:Campaigns
1956:: 1–19.
1839:BBC News
1772:Archived
1655:Archived
1452:See also
1004:Category
908:Sun City
402:a series
400:Part of
2075:16 July
1933:22 July
1214:passed
1151:venue,
1102:of the
1076:Liberal
388:History
2050:
2011:
1970:
1818:
1750:4 June
1098:, and
1072:Labour
1048:London
903:Soweto
871:Places
688:People
636:COSATU
586:FOSATU
496:CODESA
431:Events
319:Equity
2202:ACTSA
2070:ACTSA
2009:S2CID
1816:S2CID
136:1986
130:1977
124:1977
118:1973
112:1962
2077:2024
2048:ISSN
1968:ISSN
1935:2024
1752:2007
1324:and
1204:and
1114:The
1106:. .
1078:and
671:SACP
661:SAMA
656:SAIC
651:SADF
646:SACC
541:APLA
365:The
2040:doi
1999:doi
1958:doi
1806:hdl
1798:doi
666:SAP
621:UDF
616:PAC
606:HNP
601:PFP
581:ECC
566:CCB
556:BBB
551:AWB
546:IFP
536:ANC
371:AAM
2230::
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2151:,
2068:.
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2030:.
2007:.
1995:36
1993:.
1989:.
1966:.
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1926:.
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1804:.
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1792:.
1760:^
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1577:-
1547:-
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1342::
1167:.
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611:MK
596:RP
591:PP
576:DP
404:on
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2015:.
2001::
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1960::
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