794:
707:, an unpopular law that mandated the restoration of Aryanized property and businesses to their original owners. Both antisemitic leaflets and attacks on Jews—many of them initiated by former partisans—increased following the restitution law. Multiple leaflets gave Jews an ultimatum to leave the country by the end of July 1946; Šmigeľ suggests that the similarities in the leaflets imply that there was a coordinated campaign. In late July and early August, leaflets appeared with the phrases "Beat the Jews!", "Now or never, away with the Jews!", and even "Death to the Jews!". During the last week of July, posters were put up around Bratislava with slogans such as "Attention Jew, a partisan is coming to beat Jews", "Czechoslovakia is for Slovaks and Czechs, Palestine is for Jews", "Jews to Palestine!" "Jews out!" and "Hang the Jews!" In early July, two former partisans in
329:
entrusted to non-Jews who refused to return it after the war. For many
Slovaks, restitution meant returning property that they had paid for under the then-existing law, developed, and considered theirs. From the perspective of Jews, however, it was the obligation of those in possession of stolen property to return it. Former partisans, veterans of the Czechoslovak armies abroad, and political prisoners were prioritized for appointment as national administrators of previously Jewish businesses or residences. In some cases, national administrators were appointed even though the owners or their heirs were still alive. The newly appointed national administrators considered their gains just reward for their sacrifices during the war—a rationale that was endorsed by the government.
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Prášilová as "an SS woman," leading to a confrontation between the two. After both women were arrested, passersby beat up another two Jewish women, one of whom was hospitalized. Yelling "Hang the Jews!" and "Jews out!" they sacked the same Jewish kitchen that had been attacked two years previously. Another attempted demonstration the next day was dispersed by police, and 130 rioters were arrested, of whom forty were convicted. By the summer of 1948, however, antisemitic incidents were decreasing in
Slovakia.
499:
from the area. Antisemitic slogans were shouted, and some demonstrators went to a nearby bakery where white bread (forbidden by rationing laws) was supposedly being made for Jews. They confiscated the bread to give it to infirm individuals. The next morning a drunk Palša was heard shouting "the Jew was and always will be our enemy". On 26 December 1945, two soldiers physically assaulted seven Jews in the town. In July, the rioting spread to the nearby city of
862:
333:
923:) were the state-appointed managers of nationalized property Aryanized by the Slovak State regime, left behind by deported Jews, or confiscated from "traitors and politically unreliable people" (Germans and Hungarians) by the postwar Czechoslovak government. The administrators were required to be "nationally and politically reliable, with appropriate professional and practical knowledge", and benefitted economically from their appointment.
613:, who had led the district during the Slovak State, was held awaiting trial, shouting that Danko would have distributed the shoes fairly. A Jewish veterinarian named Hecht was attacked, either after being dragged out of his apartment or on the street. Hecht was blamed for Danko's arrest because he had informed the authorities of Danko's past as a Slovak State administrator, and was beaten until he promised to withdraw his accusations.
622:
389:. Especially in eastern Slovakia, supporters of the former regime were outraged that the new government considered participation in roundups and deportation of Jews to be a criminal offense. It was alleged that Jews manipulated the court system in order to obtain a harsher verdict in cases where the defendant was accused of harming Jews. Jews were also criticized for speaking German or Hungarian. Unlike non-Jewish
401:. Another issue was the passage of Jewish refugees from Poland and Hungary through Czechoslovakia; these Jews did not speak Czech or Slovak, further inflaming suspicions. The anti-Jewish policies of the wartime government sharpened categorization along ethnic lines; when victims were attacked because of being Jews, their Jewishness overpowered any other affiliations (such as political, national, or economic).
781:, the former president of the Slovak State, raised fears of anti-Jewish violence, which the Slovak nationalist underground unsuccessfully tried to incite. The police made up a list of politically unreliable individuals to be arrested if there was any violence, which the Communist Party planned to exploit to increase its power. At some of the pro-Tiso demonstrations there were antisemitic elements: in
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local antisemitism and blame incidents on the UPA instead. He hypothesizes that local police, Communists, or people seeking to acquire Jewish property were responsible for some of the violence, and may have collaborated with the UPA. Slovak historian Jana Šišjaková theorizes that a Polish–Slovak criminal gang may have been responsible for the killings in
823:. Despite this, most of the incidents were by ethnic Slovaks, not Hungarians, although some anti-Jewish riots by Hungarians in southern Slovakia also occurred. Slovak authorities sometimes blamed the victims for the violence, such as claiming that Jews' "provocative behavior" caused the hostility against them. Both the
2636:Šmigeľ, Michal (2011). "Protižidovské výtržnosti v Bratislave v rokoch 1946 a 1948 (v kontexte povojnových prejavov antisemitizmu na Slovensku)" [Anti-Jewish riots in Bratislava in 1946 and 1948 (in the context of postwar manifestations of antisemitism in Slovakia)]. In Medvecký, Matej (ed.).
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Further anti-Jewish riots erupted in
Bratislava on August 20 and 21, 1948. The unrest began with a dispute at a farmers' market in Stalin Square, where Emilia Prášilová, a pregnant non-Jewish Slovak woman, accused vendors of showing favoritism towards Jews. A Jewish woman, Alica Franková, referred to
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was to ask locals where Jews and
Communists lived, then return at night to attack them. However, the culprits of the massacre were never identified, and it is possible that they belonged to an unrelated armed group. Slovak historian Michal Šmigeľ notes that the police and government tried to downplay
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and Jews were physically harassed. In early
September, nuns who taught at a local Catholic school for girls heard that their institution was about to be nationalized, and that they would be replaced. Although many Slovak schools were nationalized in 1945, rumors that it was due to a Jewish conspiracy
328:
and restitution characterized postwar relations between Jews and
Slovaks. At issue was not just large businesses which had been Aryanized, but confiscated movable property (such as furniture) which had been sold to non-Jewish buyers. There were also conflicts regarding movable property that had been
893:
were located in Poland, not
Slovakia. Sources on the violence are fragmentary and incomplete, making it difficult to estimate how many Jews were killed or injured as a result. Polish historian Anna Cichopek speculates that at least 36 Jews were killed and 100 injured. Women were prominent agitators
888:
states that the situation in
Slovakia was not comparable to that in Poland and emphasizes that, "ith minor exceptions in Slovakia", "Czechoslovakia was not a country of crude, violent, or physical antisemitism, of pogroms and violent riots." Some reasons that have been suggested for this difference
655:
were living. The invaders raped the women, forced the men to sing, stole some alcohol, jewelry, and money, and shot four men and seven women. Seventeen-year-old
Auschwitz survivor Helena Jakubičová survived by hiding under a blanket next to the corpses of her two sisters. After the attackers left,
365:
reported that hundreds of thousands of residents of rural areas in eastern
Slovakia still lacked housing. The straitened economic circumstances meant that any sign of favoritism became a cause of ethnic resentment. False claims were made that Jews had not suffered as much as non-Jews during the war
723:
to maintain order, ten apartments where were broken into, nineteen people were injured (four seriously), and the Jewish community kitchen was ransacked. In addition to the riots in Bratislava, other anti-Jewish incidents occurred the same month in several cities and towns in northern, eastern, and
818:
urged Czechoslovak authorities to act to stop the violence: "It is really a terrible blow to us to have to face the fact that Jews are subjected to physical violence in any part of Czechoslovakia. We might regard it as normal elsewhere, but not there." Stories of anti-Jewish incidents in Slovakia
498:
that Jews were stockpiling firearms and ammunition. Some partisans tried to search their houses, but were stopped by police. On 22 July, 1,000 people participated in a partisan demonstration at which a man, identified in a police report as Captain Palša, advocated the "cleansing" of collaborators
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were unfounded. The mothers of children at the school petitioned the government not to nationalize it and accused Jews of trying to take over the school for the benefit of Jewish children. On Sunday, 23 September 1945, people threw stones at a young Jewish man at a train station and vandalized a
165:
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suggests that the occurrence of similar events in multiple locations in Slovakia may indicate that they were planned in advance. Czechoslovak media either denied the riots occurred, or claimed that partisans had not been involved in violence against Jews. The government responded by announcing
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of the school, blaming Jews. That same day, a Jewish doctor was vaccinating children at the school. He was accused of poisoning non-Jewish children, sparking a riot during which 200 or 300 people beat local Jews. The police were unable to prevent it, and a local garrison of soldiers joined in.
793:
715:, formed a group of several partisans in order to attack the Jewish residents in the area. Kováčik's group was shut down a few months later by the authorities. From mid-July 1946, minor anti-Jewish incidents were occurring on an almost daily basis in Bratislava.
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and other international organizations. Many non-Jewish Slovaks believed that Jews occupied a privileged position in the economy. Unlike in the Czech lands, most Slovaks saw a reduction in their standard of living after liberation. Over the winter of 1945–1946,
553:. The next day, gentile Slovaks gathered on the streets and chanted antisemitic slogans; a few Jews were assaulted and their homes burglarized. Policemen declined to intervene based on unfounded rumors that Jews had killed four children in Topoľčany. In
525:, local women were infuriated with inadequate food rations. On 11 September 1945, after a rumor spread alleging that nuns at the local school would be replaced by Jewish teachers, the situation escalated into a 200-strong demonstration against the local
785:, demonstrators shouted anti-Jewish and anti-Czech slogans; in Chynorany and Žabokreky, they sang Hlinka Guard songs and reportedly stopped vehicles asking if there were Czechs or Jews in the car. The only full-blown riot was in Bardejov in early June.
172:
356:. In defense of Jewish participation in the black market, SRP chairman Vojtech Winterstein said: "Jews have to make a living. They have no money, no opportunity to make money..." Jews were also criticized for accepting help from the
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suggests that women did not fear police mistreatment especially if they went to demonstrations with their children, as well as women in rural areas tending to be devout Catholics and strong supporters of the Slovak People's Party.
932:"Výbor sa o nás nestará, aby sme mali čo jesť, však výbor je už napchatý, ale my hladujeme, nemáme chleba, dreva a nemáme deťom čo variť, aby sa najedli. Preto ale Židia majú všetkého dosť, títo majú dostať cukor aj baganče."
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536:. One woman complained, "the committee is already stuffed, while we are starving, we have no bread or wood and we have no food to cook for our children. But the Jews have enough of everything, even sugar and boots."
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853:("Love thy neighbor") discussed the riots in Topoľčany and contemporary attitudes towards them, attracting considerable critical attention. The mayor of Topoľčany apologized for the rioting a year later.
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A national conference of former Slovak partisans was held in Bratislava on 2–4 August 1946. Rioting began on 1 August, and many of the rioters were identified as former partisans. Despite attempts by the
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2613:[Murders of Jews in northeastern Slovakia in 1945: the Kolbasov tragedy: the current state and future outlook of research on the topic]. In Vrzgulová, Monika; Richterová, Daniela (eds.).
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she fled to another house in the same town where several Jews lived, but were apparently not known to the attackers. She testified that the attackers had identified themeslevs as followers of
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exploited the riots to accuse the democratic authorities of ineffectiveness. The event in Topoľčany had a greater significance than to the people directly affected because it became
44:
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Láníček, Jan (2014). "The Postwar Czech-Jewish Leadership and the Issue of Jewish Emigration from Czechoslovakia (1945–1950)". In Ouzan, Françoise S.; Gerstenfeld, Manfred (eds.).
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The murders attracted national attention and led to widespread criticism of local police for failing to prevent the killings. It was assumed that the murderers were members of the
404:
Czech historian Hana Kubátová points out that these accusations against Jews differed little from classical antisemitism as found in, for example, the eighteenth-century novel
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is that the collaborationist Slovak State government discredited antisemitism, that it shielded most of the Slovak population from the ravages of war until 1944, and that the
526:
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had portrayed Jews as economic exploiters of poor Slovaks who lived off their labor. After the war, Jews were accused of shirking manual labor and instead being involved in
884:), and other countries. The violence in Slovakia was less serious than that in Poland, where hundreds of Jews and perhaps more than a thousand were killed. Czech historian
268:, it enjoyed considerable latitude in domestic policy, including anti-Jewish actions. Anti-Jewish laws were passed in 1940 and 1941, depriving Jews of their property via
819:
were quickly picked up by the Hungarian press, which passed them to the Jewish media to discredit Czechoslovakia. The Slovak government in turn blamed the incidents on
764:. The rioting in Žilina left another fifteen people injured; police detained only a few people as a result of the attacks in Bratislava and elsewhere. Slovak historian
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on 24 September 1945 was the best-known incident of post-Holocaust violence against Jews in Slovakia. On the morning of the incident, women demonstrated against the
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There are very few people in Topoľčany who would not approve of the events of 24 September 1945. Today in a conversation with a worker, a farmer, or a member of the
17:
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Paulovičová, Nina (2013). "The "Unmasterable Past"? The Reception of the Holocaust in Postcommunist Slovakia". In Himka, John-Paul; Michlic, Joanna Beata (eds.).
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30:
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1980:
381:, a Jewish salesman was accused of selling poisoned watermelon and candies. Jews were also rumored to have kidnapped or murdered non-Jewish children. Actual
304:, and Jews. Altogether 69,000 of the 89,000 Jews in the Slovak State were murdered during the Holocaust. After the war, Slovakia was reincorporated into
292:. Thousands of people, including several hundred Jews, were murdered in Slovakia, and more than 10,000 Jews were deported. Anti-regime forces included
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The violence often took the form of rioting, and occurred in waves: late 1945, mid-1946, early 1947, and mid-1948. The most notable incidents were the
647:, and murdered him along with his wife and another two Jewish women who were present. Later than night, they entered Mendel Polák's house in nearby
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Forty-seven Jews were injured, and fifteen had to be hospitalized. International media coverage embarrassed the Czechoslovak authorities and the
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660:. When the SRP came to investigate, it found non-Jewish neighbors stealing belongings from Polák's house, including a cow and a sewing machine.
639:, where eighteen Slovak Jews were murdered in November and December 1945. On 23 November 1945, a Jewish man named David Gelb was abducted in
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100:
397:, the majority of Jews in Slovakia who had German or Hungarian as their mother tongue were not expelled from the country and retained their
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2611:"Vraždy Židov na severovýchodnom Slovensku v roku 1945 - kolbasovská tragédia: Súčasný stav spracovania a perspektívy výskumu problematiky"
357:
958:"Pozor žide, partisan ide židov biť" "ČSR pre Slovákov a Čechov, Palestína pre židákov" "Židia do Palestíny!" "Židia von!" "Židov obesiť!"
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resulted in at least 36 deaths of Jews and more than 100 injuries between 1945 and 1948, according to research by the Polish historian
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in many of the anti-Jewish demonstrations including Topoľčany in 1945, Piešťany in 1947, and Bratislava in 1948. American historian
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Violence against Jews was one of the factors driving emigration from Slovakia. Following the departure of most Slovak Jews to the
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and redistributing it to Slovaks viewed by the regime as more deserving. Unusually, the Slovak State organized the
2420:
Lônčíková, Michala (2019). "Atrocities in the borderland: anti-Semitic violence in eastern Slovakia (1945–1946)".
843:—only a few thousand were left by the end of 1949—antisemitism transmuted into a political form as evinced in the
373:, especially that Jewish doctors were conspiring to kill non-Jews with drugs or vaccines. For example, before the
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rumor held that thirty children had been murdered by Jews; at least one Jew was attacked and others were robbed.
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288:. The fighting and German countermeasures devastated much of the country; nearly 100 villages were burned by
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503:, where non-Jews complained about the deportation of Czechoslovak citizens to the Soviet Union; Jews were
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was rare but occurred, especially in the form of Jews supposedly needing Christian blood in connection to
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and had not participated in the Slovak National Uprising, which further fueled resentment against them.
2451:"The end of War, the end of persecution? Post-World War II collective anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia"
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over the refusal of the authorities to distribute shoes to people who did not belong to a recognized
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667:(UPA) who had crossed over into Slovakia. The presence of the UPA in the area was documented; their
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and disappeared. On 6 December 1945 around 20:00, armed men entered the house of Alexander Stein in
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316:(Association of Racially Persecuted People) formed to advocate for the rights of Jewish survivors.
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Tensions between Jewish and non-Jewish Slovaks were exacerbated in May 1946 by the passage of the
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507:. Jewish community offices, a communal kitchen, and Jewish buildings were robbed and vandalized.
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The Jews Are Coming Back: The Return of the Jews to their Countries of Origin after World War II
377:, a Jewish doctor carrying out vaccinations of schoolchildren was accused of poisoning them. In
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in early August 1946. The violence ceased after the emigration of most Jews by the end of 1949.
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2509:(2014). "On Relations between the Slovak Majority and Jewish Minority During World War II".
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repeatedly attacked Jews. In August, Ján Kováčik, the secretary of the local chapter of the
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and the Communist Party officially condemned antisemitism, blaming the other party for it.
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2316:[Now or never: post-war Anti-Jewish violence and majority society in Slovakia].
2314:"Teraz alebo nikdy: povojnové protižidovské násilie a väčšinová spoločnosť na Slovensku"
2291:
After Hitler, Before Stalin: Catholics, Communists, and Democrats in Slovakia, 1945–1948
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761:
2767:
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Bringing the Dark Past to Light. The Reception of the Holocaust in Postcommunist Europe
2511:
2437:
941:"Bite Židov!" (29 July in Bratislava), "Teraz alebo nikdy preč so Židmi!" (1 August in
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1981:"Jews Beaten in Slovakia; Press Charges Democratic Party Creating Anti-jewish Feeling"
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2588:[Anti-Jewish riots after the Second World War – 1945 in Eastern Slovakia].
2586:"Protižidovské nepokoje po druhej svetovej vojne – rok 1945 na východnom Slovensku"
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2238:[Anti-Jewish riots in Bratislava (August 1946) in the historical context]
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Another source of antisemitism, and trigger for violence, was false rumors and
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stricter security measures and simultaneously suspending restitution to Jews.
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to German-occupied Poland in 1942, which was carried out by the paramilitary
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2236:"Protižidovské výtržnosti v Bratislave v historickom kontexte (august 1946)"
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The Holocaust as a historical and moral problem of the past and the present
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Czechs, Slovaks and the Jews, 1938–48: Beyond Idealisation and Condemnation
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2211:(2005). "Slovakia and Jews after World War II". In Bankier, David (ed.).
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Rajcan, Vanda; Vadkerty, Madeline; Hlavinka, Ján (2018). "Slovakia". In
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on 24 September 1945, the Kolbasov massacre in December 1945, and the
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and conflict over the restitution of property stolen from Jews during
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Holokaust ako historický a morálny problém v minulosti a v súčasnosti
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On 14 November 1945, a riot occurred in the eastern Slovak town of
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Camps and Ghettos under European Regimes Aligned with Nazi Germany
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with significant autonomy. The organizations ÚSŽNO (for Jews) and
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Beyond Violence: Jewish Survivors in Poland and Slovakia, 1944–48
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Throughout September, anti-Jewish propaganda was distributed in
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Slovak State propaganda ordering Jews to "Get out of Slovakia!"
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Anti-Jewish violence in Central and Eastern Europe, 1944–1946
699:, Bratislava, where passersby were assaulted during the riots
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Locations where significant anti-Jewish violence was reported
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2538:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 549–590.
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The most deadly attacks against Slovak Jews occurred in
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European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire
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post-World War I anti-Jewish violence in Czechoslovakia
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609:. About four hundred rioters went to a prison where
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brought devastation to central and eastern Slovakia.
257:on 14 March 1939. Although the Slovak State was an
2391:Postwar Jewish Displacement and Rebirth, 1945–1967
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192:. Overall, it was significantly less severe than
3146:
274:deportation of 58,000 of its own Jewish citizens
490:The first postwar anti-Jewish riot occurred in
872:Postwar anti-Jewish violence also occurred in
566:you will find that people hate Jews outright.
494:on 2 May. In late June, rumors circulated in
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865:Memorial to the 42 Jews murdered during the
358:American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee
38:Anti-Jewish rioting and violence in Slovakia
2621:]. Bratislava: Ševt. pp. 181–191.
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280:and regular policemen. On 29 August 1944,
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3119:Persecution of Czechs in the Slovak State
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2483:[Pogroms in Slovakia 1945–1948].
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2557:; White, Joseph R.; Hecker, Mel (eds.).
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1283:
1271:
1256:
1244:
1232:
1191:
1179:
1167:
1155:
1119:
1107:
1083:
1071:
1047:
1018:
994:
982:
860:
792:
691:
620:
331:
232:
186:Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia
18:Anti-Jewish violence in postwar Slovakia
2388:
2360:
2207:
2167:
2056:
2041:
1575:
576:The antisemitic riot that occurred in
544:and that Jewish teachers would replace
253:(HSĽS), declared its independence from
14:
3147:
2635:
2608:
2233:
2119:
2080:
2068:
2029:
2017:
1899:
1887:
1875:
1851:
1820:
1805:
1793:
1778:
1763:
1751:
1739:
1664:
1143:
1131:
1095:
593:for postwar antisemitism in Slovakia.
196:. The causes of the violence included
2663:
2285:
1967:
1952:
1940:
2491:] (in Czech). Prague: Academia.
1060:Rajcan, Vadkerty & Hlavinka 2018
1031:Rajcan, Vadkerty & Hlavinka 2018
1007:Rajcan, Vadkerty & Hlavinka 2018
945:) and "Smrť Židom!" (1/2 August in
616:
29:For violence after World War I, see
510:
24:
2592:(in Slovak): 22–30. Archived from
732:(4–6 August), Komárno (4 August),
724:southern Slovakia. These included
549:house inhabited by Jews in nearby
453:
407:René mládenca príhody a skúsenosti
25:
3181:
2563:Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos
439:
2481:"Pogromy na Slovensku 1945-1948"
596:
467:
466:
452:
438:
431:
3114:History of the Jews in Slovakia
2489:History of the Jews in Slovakia
1973:
952:
935:
926:
505:accused of supporting Communism
371:antisemitic conspiracy theories
2295:University of Pittsburgh Press
839:and other countries after the
308:; it retained a government in
251:Hlinka's Slovak People's Party
13:
1:
3013:Department of Special Affairs
2434:10.1080/13507486.2019.1612328
965:
856:
630:massacre in Lipniki, Volhniya
222:
2565:. Vol. 3. Bloomington:
970:
830:
805:
587:Czechoslovak Communist Party
46:Postwar anti-Jewish violence
7:
2449:Lônčíková, Michala (2020).
527:District National Committee
10:
3186:
2269:Cambridge University Press
2200:
685:
514:
226:
61:Aftermath of the Holocaust
28:
3165:The Holocaust in Slovakia
3106:
3098:Nation's Memory Institute
3061:
3028:
2981:
2884:
2859:Freiwillige Schutzstaffel
2831:
2824:
2788:
2715:
2697:
2691:The Holocaust in Slovakia
2403:10.1163/9789004277779_007
1985:Jewish Telegraphic Agency
1406:, pp. 170, 174, 178.
915:National administrators (
728:(2 August and 4 August),
713:Union of Slovak Partisans
319:
229:The Holocaust in Slovakia
202:the Holocaust in Slovakia
3170:Antisemitism in Slovakia
3129:Slovak National Uprising
2584:Šišjaková, Jana (2008).
2567:Indiana University Press
2485:Dějiny židů na Slovensku
2248:(in Slovak) (3): 14–29.
2209:Büchler, Robert Yehoshua
1322:, pp. 326, 339–340.
1158:, pp. 330–331, 336.
902:
705:Restitution Act 128/1946
665:Ukrainian Insurgent Army
627:Ukrainian Insurgent Army
399:Czechoslovak citizenship
338:Slovak National Uprising
286:Slovak National Uprising
282:Germany invaded Slovakia
3124:Presidential exemptions
3086:Partisan Congress riots
2844:Central Economic Office
2609:Šmigeľ, Michal (2008).
2312:Kubátová, Hana (2016).
2261:Cichopek, Anna (2014).
1766:, p. 257, 259–260.
788:
772:
746:Liptovský Svätý Mikuláš
688:Partisan Congress riots
681:
424:
213:Partisan Congress riots
146:Partisan Congress riots
3006:Michael Dov Weissmandl
2789:Massacres and roundups
2468:10.32728/flux.2019.1.8
2234:Bumová, Ivica (2007).
920:
869:
821:Hungarians in Slovakia
798:
700:
632:
568:
341:
238:
3160:Jewish Slovak history
2811:Kremnička and Nemecká
2555:Megargee, Geoffrey P.
2337:10.51134/sod.2016.020
1754:, pp. 17–18, 27.
864:
850:Miluj blížneho svojho
812:World Jewish Congress
797:Stalin Square in 1959
796:
695:
651:, where twelve young
624:
560:
346:economic antisemitism
335:
236:
3048:Karel František Koch
2644:. pp. 251–273.
2569:. pp. 842–852.
2324:Contemporary History
1590:, pp. 130, 135.
1194:, pp. 105, 107.
760:(17–18 August), and
571:Slovak police report
482:class=notpageimage|
387:emigration to Israel
3134:Tiso's Holíč speech
2869:Emergency Divisions
2642:Ústav pamäti národa
2182:, pp. 142–143.
2146:, pp. 321–322.
2020:, pp. 268–271.
2008:, pp. 120–121.
1931:, pp. 119–120.
1866:, pp. 118–119.
1730:, pp. 102–103.
1718:, pp. 332–333.
1694:, pp. 331–332.
1648:, pp. 160–161.
1554:, pp. 127–130.
1515:, pp. 325–326.
1453:, pp. 330–331.
1310:, pp. 326–327.
841:1948 Communist coup
779:trial of Jozef Tiso
721:Czechoslovak police
653:Holocaust survivors
383:ritual murder libel
3043:Pavel Peter Gojdič
2825:Major perpetrators
2801:List of transports
2638:Fenomén Bratislava
2596:on 22 October 2017
2512:Yad Vashem Studies
2397:. pp. 76–96.
2326:] (in Czech).
2287:Felak, James Ramon
1955:, pp. 88, 94.
1943:, pp. 86, 92.
1878:, pp. 18, 20.
1182:, pp. 96, 99.
921:národné správcovia
870:
799:
701:
633:
625:Polish victims of
342:
239:
3142:
3141:
2977:
2976:
2716:Camps and prisons
2651:978-80-893-3539-8
2576:978-0-253-02373-5
2545:978-0-8032-2544-2
2507:Nižňanský, Eduard
2498:978-80-200-1301-9
2412:978-9-004-27777-9
2381:978-1-137-31747-6
2304:978-0-8229-7122-1
2278:978-1-107-03666-6
2226:978-1-57181-527-9
1902:, pp. 21–22.
1808:, pp. 17–18.
1503:, pp. 11–12.
1382:, pp. 13–14.
1206:, pp. 49–50.
1170:, pp. 94–96.
1098:, pp. 14–15.
1021:, pp. 14–16.
997:, pp. 90–92.
985:, pp. 12–13.
896:James Ramon Felak
882:Kunmadaras pogrom
816:Maurice Perlzweig
697:Kapucínska Street
617:Kolbasov massacre
419:Jozef Ignác Bajza
183:
182:
141:Kolbasov massacre
86:Kunmadaras pogrom
49:
48:in central Europe
16:(Redirected from
3177:
3107:Related articles
3081:Topoľčany pogrom
2996:Gisi Fleischmann
2969:Dieter Wisliceny
2965:
2930:
2914:Augustín Morávek
2839:Abwehrgruppe 218
2829:
2828:
2796:1938 deportation
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2132:Paulovičová 2013
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913:
847:. The 2004 film
825:Democratic Party
572:
535:
517:Topoľčany pogrom
511:Topoľčany pogrom
470:
469:
456:
455:
442:
441:
435:
415:
375:Topoľčany pogrom
344:Before the war,
209:Topoľčany pogrom
175:
168:
161:
136:Topoľčany pogrom
45:
41:
40:
21:
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3102:
3057:
3038:Giuseppe Burzio
3024:
2973:
2951:
2916:
2880:
2876:Slovak Republic
2854:Einsatzgruppe H
2820:
2784:
2711:
2701:
2693:
2688:
2658:
2652:
2629:
2599:
2597:
2590:Štúdie a články
2577:
2546:
2499:
2455:History in Flux
2413:
2382:
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2239:
2227:
2203:
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2190:
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2178:
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2012:
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1698:
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1686:
1678:
1671:
1663:
1652:
1644:
1637:
1633:, pp. 8–9.
1629:
1618:
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1598:
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905:
859:
837:State of Israel
833:
814:representative
808:
791:
775:
738:Dunajská Streda
690:
684:
619:
599:
582:nationalization
574:
570:
529:
519:
513:
488:
487:
486:
484:
478:
477:
476:
475:
471:
463:
462:
461:
457:
449:
448:
447:
443:
427:
409:
322:
290:Einsatzgruppe H
284:, sparking the
247:one-party state
231:
225:
179:
150:
120:
95:
47:
39:
34:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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3034:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3022:
3021:
3020:
3018:Karol Hochberg
3010:
3009:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2987:
2985:
2979:
2978:
2975:
2974:
2972:
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2966:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2911:
2909:Alexander Mach
2906:
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2698:
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2694:
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2679:
2672:
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2657:
2656:
2650:
2640:. Bratislava:
2633:
2628:978-8096985722
2627:
2606:
2581:
2575:
2550:
2544:
2529:
2503:
2497:
2473:
2461:(1): 151–164.
2446:
2428:(6): 928–946.
2417:
2411:
2386:
2380:
2358:
2330:(3): 321–346.
2319:Soudobé dějiny
2309:
2303:
2293:. Pittsburgh:
2283:
2277:
2258:
2231:
2225:
2217:Berghahn Books
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2196:
2194:, p. 120.
2184:
2172:
2160:
2158:, p. 322.
2148:
2136:
2134:, p. 578.
2124:
2122:, p. 275.
2109:
2107:, p. 230.
2097:
2095:, p. 162.
2093:Lônčíková 2020
2085:
2083:, p. 268.
2073:
2061:
2059:, p. 170.
2046:
2044:, p. 162.
2034:
2032:, p. 273.
2022:
2010:
1998:
1987:. 13 June 1947
1972:
1970:, p. 102.
1957:
1945:
1933:
1916:
1914:, p. 105.
1904:
1892:
1890:, p. 264.
1880:
1868:
1856:
1854:, p. 258.
1844:
1842:, p. 119.
1825:
1823:, p. 259.
1810:
1798:
1796:, p. 257.
1783:
1768:
1756:
1744:
1732:
1720:
1708:
1706:, p. 333.
1696:
1684:
1682:, p. 161.
1680:Lônčíková 2020
1669:
1650:
1646:Lônčíková 2020
1635:
1631:Lônčíková 2019
1616:
1612:Lônčíková 2019
1604:
1602:, p. 321.
1592:
1580:
1578:, p. 267.
1568:
1566:, p. 153.
1564:Lônčíková 2020
1556:
1544:
1542:, p. 137.
1529:
1527:, p. 127.
1517:
1505:
1501:Lônčíková 2019
1493:
1489:Šišjaková 2008
1472:
1470:, p. 117.
1455:
1443:
1441:, p. 145.
1431:
1408:
1396:
1392:Lônčíková 2019
1384:
1380:Lônčíková 2019
1372:
1370:, p. 118.
1355:
1353:, p. 128.
1343:
1339:Lônčíková 2019
1324:
1312:
1300:
1288:
1286:, p. 336.
1276:
1274:, p. 326.
1261:
1249:
1237:
1225:
1221:Lônčíková 2019
1208:
1204:Nižňanský 2014
1196:
1184:
1172:
1160:
1148:
1136:
1134:, p. 272.
1124:
1112:
1100:
1088:
1076:
1064:
1062:, p. 849.
1052:
1035:
1033:, p. 847.
1023:
1011:
1009:, p. 845.
999:
987:
974:
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904:
901:
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832:
829:
807:
804:
790:
787:
774:
771:
744:(8–9 August),
686:Main article:
683:
680:
670:modus operandi
658:Stepan Bandera
637:Snina District
618:
615:
598:
595:
564:intelligentsia
559:
515:Main article:
512:
509:
480:
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464:
459:
458:
451:
450:
445:
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429:
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324:Conflict over
321:
318:
306:Czechoslovakia
255:Czechoslovakia
227:Main article:
224:
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96:
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93:
91:Miskolc pogrom
88:
82:
79:
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69:
68:
64:
63:
57:
56:
52:
51:
37:
9:
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3007:
3004:
3002:
3001:Oskar Neumann
2999:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2992:
2991:Working Group
2989:
2988:
2986:
2984:
2983:Jewish Center
2980:
2970:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2950:
2949:Josef Witiska
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2904:Otomar Kubala
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2894:Alois Brunner
2892:
2891:
2889:
2887:
2883:
2877:
2874:
2870:
2867:
2866:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2849:Department 14
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2830:
2827:
2823:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2793:
2791:
2787:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2752:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2723:
2721:
2720:
2718:
2714:
2708:
2707:The Holocaust
2705:
2700:
2699:
2696:
2692:
2685:
2680:
2678:
2673:
2671:
2666:
2665:
2662:
2653:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2634:
2630:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2607:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2582:
2578:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2551:
2547:
2541:
2537:
2536:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2513:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2477:Mlynárik, Ján
2474:
2469:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2418:
2414:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2368:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2306:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2274:
2270:
2267:. Cambridge:
2266:
2265:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2246:
2237:
2232:
2228:
2222:
2218:
2215:. Jerusalem:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2205:
2193:
2192:Cichopek 2014
2188:
2181:
2180:Cichopek 2014
2176:
2170:, p. 80.
2169:
2164:
2157:
2156:Kubátová 2016
2152:
2145:
2144:Kubátová 2016
2140:
2133:
2128:
2121:
2116:
2114:
2106:
2105:Cichopek 2014
2101:
2094:
2089:
2082:
2077:
2071:, p. 25.
2070:
2065:
2058:
2053:
2051:
2043:
2038:
2031:
2026:
2019:
2014:
2007:
2006:Cichopek 2014
2002:
1986:
1982:
1976:
1969:
1964:
1962:
1954:
1949:
1942:
1937:
1930:
1929:Cichopek 2014
1925:
1923:
1921:
1913:
1912:Cichopek 2014
1908:
1901:
1896:
1889:
1884:
1877:
1872:
1865:
1864:Cichopek 2014
1860:
1853:
1848:
1841:
1840:Cichopek 2014
1836:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1822:
1817:
1815:
1807:
1802:
1795:
1790:
1788:
1781:, p. 17.
1780:
1775:
1773:
1765:
1760:
1753:
1748:
1742:, p. 21.
1741:
1736:
1729:
1728:Cichopek 2014
1724:
1717:
1716:Kubátová 2016
1712:
1705:
1704:Kubátová 2016
1700:
1693:
1692:Kubátová 2016
1688:
1681:
1676:
1674:
1666:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1647:
1642:
1640:
1632:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1614:, p. 12.
1613:
1608:
1601:
1600:Kubátová 2016
1596:
1589:
1588:Cichopek 2014
1584:
1577:
1572:
1565:
1560:
1553:
1552:Cichopek 2014
1548:
1541:
1540:Cichopek 2014
1536:
1534:
1526:
1525:Cichopek 2014
1521:
1514:
1513:Kubátová 2016
1509:
1502:
1497:
1490:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1469:
1468:Cichopek 2014
1464:
1462:
1460:
1452:
1451:Kubátová 2016
1447:
1440:
1439:Cichopek 2014
1435:
1428:
1427:Mlynárik 2005
1423:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1405:
1404:Cichopek 2014
1400:
1393:
1388:
1381:
1376:
1369:
1368:Cichopek 2014
1364:
1362:
1360:
1352:
1351:Cichopek 2014
1347:
1340:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1321:
1320:Kubátová 2016
1316:
1309:
1308:Kubátová 2016
1304:
1298:, p. 61.
1297:
1296:Cichopek 2014
1292:
1285:
1284:Kubátová 2016
1280:
1273:
1272:Kubátová 2016
1268:
1266:
1259:, p. 60.
1258:
1257:Cichopek 2014
1253:
1247:, p. 58.
1246:
1245:Cichopek 2014
1241:
1235:, p. 59.
1234:
1233:Cichopek 2014
1229:
1222:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1205:
1200:
1193:
1192:Cichopek 2014
1188:
1181:
1180:Cichopek 2014
1176:
1169:
1168:Cichopek 2014
1164:
1157:
1156:Kubátová 2016
1152:
1146:, p. 27.
1145:
1140:
1133:
1128:
1122:, p. 90.
1121:
1120:Cichopek 2014
1116:
1110:, p. 96.
1109:
1108:Cichopek 2014
1104:
1097:
1092:
1085:
1084:Cichopek 2014
1080:
1074:, p. 19.
1073:
1072:Cichopek 2014
1068:
1061:
1056:
1050:, p. 21.
1049:
1048:Cichopek 2014
1044:
1042:
1040:
1032:
1027:
1020:
1019:Cichopek 2014
1015:
1008:
1003:
996:
995:Cichopek 2014
991:
984:
983:Cichopek 2014
979:
975:
955:
948:
944:
943:Zlaté Moravce
938:
929:
922:
918:
912:
908:
900:
897:
892:
887:
883:
879:
878:Kielce pogrom
875:
868:
867:Kielce pogrom
863:
854:
852:
851:
846:
845:Slánský trial
842:
838:
828:
826:
822:
817:
813:
810:In mid-1945,
803:
795:
786:
784:
780:
770:
767:
763:
759:
756:(11 August),
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
722:
716:
714:
710:
706:
698:
694:
689:
679:
677:
672:
671:
666:
661:
659:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
631:
628:
623:
614:
612:
608:
604:
597:Trebišov riot
594:
592:
588:
583:
579:
573:
567:
565:
558:
556:
552:
547:
542:
537:
533:
528:
524:
518:
508:
506:
502:
497:
493:
483:
434:
422:
420:
416:
413:
408:
402:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
367:
364:
359:
355:
351:
347:
339:
334:
330:
327:
317:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
235:
230:
220:
218:
214:
210:
205:
203:
199:
195:
191:
190:Anna Cichopek
187:
176:
171:
169:
164:
162:
157:
156:
154:
153:
147:
144:
142:
139:
137:
134:
133:
131:
130:
127:
124:
123:
117:
116:Kielce pogrom
114:
112:
111:Kraków pogrom
109:
108:
106:
105:
102:
99:
98:
92:
89:
87:
84:
83:
81:
80:
76:
75:
71:
70:
66:
65:
62:
59:
58:
54:
53:
50:
43:
42:
36:
32:
27:
19:
3075:
2939:Vojtech Tuka
2864:Hlinka Guard
2722:In Slovakia
2637:
2618:
2614:
2598:. Retrieved
2594:the original
2589:
2558:
2534:
2519:(2): 47–90.
2516:
2510:
2488:
2484:
2458:
2454:
2425:
2421:
2390:
2370:. New York:
2366:
2362:Láníček, Jan
2327:
2323:
2317:
2290:
2263:
2245:Pamäť národa
2243:
2212:
2187:
2175:
2168:Láníček 2014
2163:
2151:
2139:
2127:
2100:
2088:
2076:
2064:
2057:Láníček 2013
2042:Láníček 2013
2037:
2025:
2013:
2001:
1989:. Retrieved
1984:
1975:
1948:
1936:
1907:
1895:
1883:
1871:
1859:
1847:
1801:
1759:
1747:
1735:
1723:
1711:
1699:
1687:
1607:
1595:
1583:
1576:Büchler 2005
1571:
1559:
1547:
1520:
1508:
1496:
1446:
1434:
1399:
1394:, p. 5.
1387:
1375:
1346:
1341:, p. 4.
1315:
1303:
1291:
1279:
1252:
1240:
1228:
1223:, p. 6.
1199:
1187:
1175:
1163:
1151:
1139:
1127:
1115:
1103:
1091:
1086:, p. 3.
1079:
1067:
1055:
1026:
1014:
1002:
990:
978:
954:
937:
928:
911:
880:), Hungary (
871:
848:
834:
809:
800:
776:
766:Ján Mlynárik
736:(5 August),
717:
702:
668:
662:
641:Nová Sedlica
634:
611:Andrej Danko
600:
575:
569:
561:
538:
520:
489:
405:
403:
368:
350:black market
343:
326:Aryanization
323:
278:Hlinka Guard
270:Aryanization
266:World War II
262:client state
243:Slovak State
240:
206:
198:antisemitism
185:
184:
125:
35:
26:
2952: [
2944:Anton Vašek
2917: [
2899:Izidor Koso
2886:Individuals
2120:Šmigeľ 2011
2081:Šmigeľ 2011
2069:Bumová 2007
2030:Šmigeľ 2011
2018:Šmigeľ 2011
1900:Bumová 2007
1888:Šmigeľ 2011
1876:Bumová 2007
1852:Šmigeľ 2011
1821:Šmigeľ 2011
1806:Bumová 2007
1794:Šmigeľ 2011
1779:Bumová 2007
1764:Šmigeľ 2011
1752:Bumová 2007
1740:Bumová 2007
1665:Šmigeľ 2008
1144:Bumová 2007
1132:Šmigeľ 2011
1096:Bumová 2007
891:death camps
886:Jan Láníček
762:Veľká Bytča
607:trade union
530: [
410: [
296:defectors,
294:Slovak Army
3149:Categories
2934:Jozef Tiso
2806:Bratislava
2754:Elsewhere
2393:. Leiden:
1968:Felak 2009
1953:Felak 2009
1941:Felak 2009
966:References
857:Comparison
726:Nové Zámky
591:synecdoche
460:Bratislava
395:Hungarians
379:Michalovce
310:Bratislava
302:Communists
223:Background
217:Bratislava
3063:Aftermath
2758:Auschwitz
2525:0084-3296
2442:198704493
2346:1210-7050
2254:1336-6297
971:Citations
831:Aftermath
806:Reactions
578:Topoľčany
555:Chynorany
551:Žabokreky
541:Topoľčany
446:Topoľčany
354:smuggling
298:Agrarians
194:in Poland
72:1944–1948
3076:Violence
3053:Oľšavica
3030:Rescuers
2773:Majdanek
2736:Patrónka
2600:14 March
2479:(2005).
2372:Springer
2364:(2013).
2289:(2009).
1991:16 March
783:Piešťany
676:Kolbasov
649:Kolbasov
603:Trebišov
546:gentiles
496:Bardejov
474:Kolbasov
126:Slovakia
2778:Sobibor
2702:Part of
2201:Sources
754:Tornaľa
391:Germans
264:during
249:of the
77:Hungary
55:Part of
3093:Aliyah
2832:Groups
2816:Zvolen
2768:Lublin
2763:Bełżec
2741:Poprad
2731:Nováky
2648:
2625:
2573:
2542:
2523:
2495:
2440:
2409:
2378:
2354:551459
2352:
2344:
2301:
2275:
2252:
2223:
947:Žilina
917:Slovak
874:Poland
758:Šurany
750:Beluša
730:Žilina
501:Prešov
492:Košice
320:Causes
101:Poland
2964:]
2929:]
2746:Vyhne
2726:Sereď
2617:[
2487:[
2438:S2CID
2395:Brill
2350:CEEOL
2322:[
2240:(PDF)
903:Notes
734:Čadca
709:Bytča
534:]
523:Nitra
414:]
363:UNRRA
67:Dates
2646:ISBN
2623:ISBN
2602:2020
2571:ISBN
2540:ISBN
2521:ISSN
2493:ISBN
2407:ISBN
2376:ISBN
2342:ISSN
2299:ISBN
2273:ISBN
2250:ISSN
2221:ISBN
1993:2020
789:1948
777:The
773:1947
742:Šahy
682:1946
645:Ulič
425:1945
393:and
352:and
336:The
259:Axis
245:, a
241:The
3071:SRP
2463:doi
2430:doi
2399:doi
2332:doi
521:In
417:by
314:SRP
215:in
3151::
2962:sv
2960:;
2958:fr
2956:;
2954:de
2927:sk
2925:;
2923:de
2921:;
2919:cs
2561:.
2517:42
2515:.
2457:.
2453:.
2436:.
2426:26
2424:.
2405:.
2374:.
2348:.
2340:.
2328:23
2297:.
2271:.
2242:.
2219:.
2112:^
2049:^
1983:.
1960:^
1919:^
1828:^
1813:^
1786:^
1771:^
1672:^
1653:^
1638:^
1619:^
1532:^
1475:^
1458:^
1411:^
1358:^
1327:^
1264:^
1211:^
1038:^
949:).
919::
752:,
748:,
740:,
678:.
532:cs
421:.
412:sk
300:,
204:.
2683:e
2676:t
2669:v
2654:.
2631:.
2604:.
2579:.
2548:.
2527:.
2501:.
2471:.
2465::
2459:1
2444:.
2432::
2415:.
2401::
2384:.
2356:.
2334::
2307:.
2281:.
2256:.
2229:.
1995:.
1667:.
1491:.
1429:.
876:(
174:e
167:t
160:v
33:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
