448:, aniconism was shaped by theological considerations and historical contexts. It emerged as a corollary in which people believed that God was the ultimate power holder, and people who practiced it believed that they needed to defend God's unique status against competing external and internal forces, such as pagan idols and critical humans. Idolatry was seen as a threat to God's uniqueness, and one way in which prophets and missionaries chose to fight against it was through the prohibition of physical representations. The same solution worked against humans who pretended to have the same power of creation that God had (hence, their banishment from the Heavens, the destruction of
1029:
figurative miniatures in arts from
Islamic countries, migrated during their life between an extravagant 'figurative' and an extremist 'aniconic' period. During the 15th and 17th century representations of Muhammad (veiled, unveiled) and other prophets or Biblical characters, like Adam, Abraham or Jesus; and Solomon and Alexander the Great, became common in painted manuscripts from Persia, India and Turkey. Extreme rarities are an illustrated Qur'an depicting Muhammad and, in a Spanish-Muslim manuscript datable from the 16th century, five Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs.
1475:
906:
627:
1191:
1377:
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381:
66:
25:
940:, deprived of figurative images. Other spheres of religion – schisms, mysticism, popular piety, private level – exhibit in this regard significant variability. Profane aniconism is even more fluctuating. Generally speaking aniconism in Islamic societies is restricted in modern times to specific religious contexts, while its prevalence in the past wasn't enforced in numerous areas and during extended periods.
475:
168:
793:, followers are prohibited from wearing religious themed jewelry displaying icons such as the cross, as idol worship is prohibited. Having images or sculptures of Jesus, Jehovah (God), and angels is also considered a taboo according to their interpretation of Exodus 20:4,5 and 1 Corinthians 10:14. Followers are also admonished to avoid any objects portraying depictions of the supernatural.
744:, when some Protestants began to preach rejection of what they perceived as idolatrous Catholic practices which filled its churches with pictures, statues, or relics of saints. The Reformed (Calvinist) churches and certain sects (most notably the Puritans and some of the Baptist churches) began to prohibit the display of religious images. There were agressive campaigns of
570:. Foucher also accounted for the origins of the aniconistic symbols by collecting small souvenirs which he removed from the main pilgrimage sites and carried away, souvenirs which were later recognized and popularized as symbols of the events which occurred at the site. Other explanations stated that it was inappropriate to represent a person who had attained
1442:, as well as children's books about biblical and historical personages. Although most Hasidic Jews object to having televisions in their homes, this is not related to prohibitions against idolatry, but, rather, to the content of network and cable programming. Hasidim of all groups regularly display portraits of their
2911:
p. 45. Berlin 1901 (1902). "Noch vor zehn Jahren wäre es absurd gewesen, von einer jüdischen Kunst zu sprechen. Diese Kunst entdeckt zu haben, ist
Kaufmann's eigenstes Verdienst. Nicht nur mußte er beweisen, daß eine solche Kunst existire, er mußte auch beweisen, daß sie existiren könne, indem er die
1028:
and various
Central Asian dynasties. Figurative miniatures from Medieval Arabic countries, India, Persia and Turkey are among the pinnacles of Islamic art and account for a good deal of its attraction. Potent rulers like Shah Tahmasp in Persia and Akbar in India, patrons of some of the most beautiful
943:
Depending on which segment of
Islamic societies are referred to, the application of aniconism is characterized with noteworthy differences. Factors are the epoch considered, the country, the religious orientation, the political intent, the popular beliefs, the private benefit or the dichotomy between
1291:
do not actually exist, no violation of the prohibition is perceived in such depictions. This is based on the fact that the commandment, as stated in Exodus, refers specifically to "anything in the heaven above, on the earth below, or in the water below the land." However, it is forbidden to make the
785:
prefer not to have their photo taken. This has been attributed to the
Biblical commandment "Thou shalt not make unto thyself a graven image," and the belief that photographs can "steal your soul," among other reasons. Modern Amish differ in their attitudes towards photography, with some accepting it
1784:
or "veiled gods", a group of gods who were superior to the ordinary pantheon and regulated the infliction of disasters, were never named or depicted. Depictions of gods more generally were infrequent in
Etruscan civilization until after the adoption of Greek influences in the "Orientalizing" period
1423:
that features
Horowitz's portrait. Emden ruled this violated the injunction against depictions. Many hold that such representations in the synagogue either violate this injunction or are not permitted, as they give the appearance of violating this injunction. Most notably, Rabbi David ibn Zimra and
1080:
Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image, nor any manner of likeness, of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; thou shalt not bow down unto them, nor serve them; for I the LORD thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity
596:
As for the archeological evidence, it shows that some anthropomorphic sculptures of the Buddha actually existed during the supposedly aniconistic period, which ended during the 1st century CE. Huntington also rejects the association of "aniconistic" and "iconic" art with the division that emerged
1648:
As late as ten years ago it would have been absurd to speak about a Jewish art. It is
Kaufmann's own merit to have uncovered this art. Not only did he have to prove that such an art existed, he also had to prove that it could exist, as he showed that the idea that the prohibition of images would
1219:
interprets the verses as prohibiting the creation of certain types of graven images of people, angels, or astronomical bodies, whether or not they are actually used as idols. The
Shulkhan Aruch states: "It is forbidden to make complete solid or raised images of people or angels, or any images of
1036:
Medieval Muslim artists found various ways not to infringe any prohibition of the image, while still representing living beings. It can be argued that since God is absolute, the act of depiction is his own and not that of a human; and miniatures are obviously very crude representations of the
944:
reality and discourse. Today, the concept of an aniconic Islam coexists with a daily life for
Muslims awash with images. TV stations and newspapers (which do present still and moving representations of living beings) have an exceptional impact on public opinion, sometimes, as in the case of
1632:
In a refutation of the belief in an aniconistic form of Judaism, and more generally in an underestimation of Jewish visual arts, the historian of ideas Kalman Bland recently proposed that the phenomenon is a modern construction, and he backed up his claim by stating that "Jewish aniconism
605:
Buddhism. Huntington's views have been challenged by Vidya Dehejia and others. Although some earlier examples of them have been found in recent years, it is widely-believed that the large free-standing iconic images of the Buddha which are so prevalent in later works of
1640:, who marshalled a large and comprehensive corpus of data in order to prove that this belief was untenable. He was the first person to use the term "Jewish art" in an article which he published in 1878, and he is also considered the founder of the scholarly discipline of
882:
Aniconism in Islam not only deals with the material image, but touches upon mental representations as well. It is a thorny question, discussed by early theologians, as to how to describe God, Muhammad and other prophets, and, indeed, if it is permissible at all to do so.
948:, with a global reach, beyond the Arabic-speaking and Muslim audience. Portraits of secular and religious leaders are omnipresent on banknotes and coins, in streets and offices. Anthropomorphic statues in public places are to be found in most Muslim countries (
459:
Some modern scholars who have studied various cultures have gathered material which shows that in many cases, the idea of aniconism is an intellectual construction rather than a fact of tangible reality, it suits specific intents and historical contexts.
1220:
heavenly bodies except for purposes of study". ("Heavenly bodies" are included here because the stars and planets were worshipped by some religions in human forms. Astronomical models for scientific purposes are permitted under the category of "study.")
2912:
Meinung, als stehe das Bilderverbot der Kunstentfaltung im Judenthum im Wege, als irrig erwies, er es vielmehr als unwiderlegbare Thatsache hinstellte, daß die Kunst auf flachem Raume nie verboten war, insofern kein Götzendienst sich daran knüpfte."
547:): "Since it is not permitted to make an image of the Buddha's body, I pray that the Buddha will grant that I can make an image of the attendant Bodhisattva. Is that acceptable?" The Buddha answered: "You may make an image of the Bodhisattava".
1176:, and others, preached very strongly against idolatry. In many of their sermons, as recorded in the biblical books bearing their names, the prophets regarded the use of religious images as a negative sign of assimilation into the surrounding
1408:. Based on his interpretation of this prohibition, Tzvi refused to sit for his portrait. However, the London Jewish Community wanted a portrait, so they commissioned the portrait to be done without the Tzvi's knowledge. Tzvi's son, Rabbi
1601:, leading to a stricter attitude towards images, at least in synagogues. There is also evidence that from about 570 new synagogue mosaics were aniconic. An alternative explanation for the removals is that they were done after the
1633:
crystallized simultaneously with the construction of modern Jewish identities". Others have also argued that the notion of a total prohibition of figural representation in the Biblical and Hellenistic-Roman periods is untenable.
1792:, the "naming and depiction of recently deceased people is often prohibited under customary law and the mourning period may last for weeks, months or years". It is believed that depicting them will inhibit their passage to the
1750:
aniconism varies from culture to culture from elaborate masks and statues of humans and animals to their total absence. A common feature, however, across the continent, is the refusal to give the "High God" a material shape.
2705:
1692:"There is no objection that the believers look at the picture of Bahá'u'lláh, but they should do so with the utmost reverence, and should also not allow that it be exposed openly to the public, even in their private homes."
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reality, so the two can't be mistaken. At the material level, prophets in manuscripts can have their face covered by a veil or all humans have a stroke drawn over their neck, a symbolic cut preventing them from being alive.
533:
In relation to the image of the Buddha, this aniconistic tradition could have been based on an ancient Buddhist rule which prohibited images of the Buddha in which he appeared in human form, a rule which is written in the
1762:
writes the following: "They don't consider it mighty enough for the Heavens to depict Gods on walls or to display them in some human shape." His observation was not general to all the Germanic peoples (or, similar to the
1785:
of the 7th–6th centuries BC, and sometimes carried negative associations, their faces in particular. An Etruscan divination calendar describes being "visited with visions of the faces of the gods" as a negative event.
1019:
Neither is the representation of living beings in Islamic countries a modern phenomenon or due to current technology, westernization or the cult of the personality. Statues of humans and animals adorned palaces of the
1688:, the Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith, stated that believers should only view the images when they can be treated with the utmost respect, and not let them be exposed to the public or displayed in their private homes:
1596:
intact. It has been proposed that this was done by the Jewish community in the 6th or early 7th century, as part of a controversy within Judaism over images that paralleled that within Christianity leading to the
581:, initiating a vigorous debate among specialists that still continues to occur. She sees many early scenes claimed to be aniconic as in fact not depicting scenes from the life of the Buddha, but worship of
714:. Iconoclasts believed that icons could not represent both the divine and the human natures of the Messiah at the same time, but separately. Because an icon which depicted Jesus as purely physical would be
1255:, 'to engrave'.) The prohibition is therefore seen as applying specifically to certain forms of sculpture and depictions of the human face. In keeping with this prohibition, some illustrations from the
1528:
which is thought to be derived from older iconography which was contained in works which were produced in accordance with this Hellenistic Jewish tradition. Examples of the later works include the
1717:"The portrait of the Báb should be regarded as an inestimable privilege and blessing to behold, as past generations were denied a glimpse of the Face of the Manifestation, once He had passed on."
1649:
obstruct the development of such an art was mistaken, and even established it as an irrefutable fact that the art in wide areas was not prohibited insofar as no worship was associated with it.
1097:
Ye shall make you no idols, neither shall ye rear you up a graven image, or a pillar, neither shall ye place any figured stone in your land, to bow down unto it; for I am the LORD your God.
1081:
of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate Me; and showing mercy unto the thousandth generation of them that love Me and keep My commandments.
2774:
The only ancient Jewish image of the Ark appears to be at Dura-Europos although it also appears as the oldest Jewish bible illustrations surviving, from the 10th century (see Beckwith)
839:, from the 9th century onward, increasingly saw in them categorical prohibitions against producing and using any representation of living beings. There are variations between religious
875:
also have less stringent views on aniconism. On the individual level, whether or not specific Muslims believe in aniconism may depend on how much credence is given to hadith (e.g.
645:, basic patterns are shared between various religious beliefs including Hinduism, which also has aniconistic beliefs. For example, although Hinduism is commonly represented by such
952:'s are infamous), as well as arts schools training sculptors and painters. In the Egyptian countryside, it is fashionable to celebrate and advertise the returning of pilgrims from
828:, among a dozen of the hadith recorded during the latter part of the period when they were being written down. Because these hadith are tied to particular events in the life of
669:, chapter 12, verse 5, said that it is much more difficult to focus on God as the unmanifested than God with form, because human beings have a need to perceive via the senses.
1435:
Some authorities hold that Judaism has no objection to photography or other forms of two-dimensional art, and depictions of humans can be seen in religious books such as the
1800:) include content warnings in programs or articles that depict Aboriginal people. The prohibition does not apply to the depiction of non-Aboriginal people who are deceased.
2313:
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or elsewhere. She points out that there is only one indirect reference for a specific aniconic doctrine in Buddhism to be found, and that pertaining to only one sect.
530:. However, other persons and their surroundings are often depicted in great numbers and care, and the scenes are often crowded, but with an empty space in the centre.
1824:
698:, in the mid eighth and early ninth centuries. The political aspects of the conflicts are complex, dealing with the relationship between the Byzantine Emperors, the
1117:
4:16, and 27:15; in all cases, the creation of the image is associated with idolatry, and indeed, the words commonly translated as 'image' or some variant thereof (
2410:
1684:, are considered very precious. They are viewed and handled with reverence and respect, and their existence itself is not considered offensive. However,
1573:, which includes the hand, is believed also to be derived from Jewish iconography; the Ark also appears at Dura-Europos. Several ancient synagogues in the
2202:
1420:
578:
2449:
2220:
2365:
2017:
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718:, and one which showed Him as both human and divine would not be able to do so without confusing the two natures into one mixed nature, which was
3162:
Paret, Rudi (1968). "Das islamische Bilderverbot und die Schia" [The Islamic prohibition of images and the Shi'a]. In Gräf, Erwin (ed.).
2730:
1624:" (German, now in Jerusalem) gives all the human figures the heads of birds, presumably in an attempt to mitigate any breach of the prohibition.
1463:
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893:
453:
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panels, conventionally considered to represent scenes from the life of the Buddha, and now re-interpreted by Huntington and her supporters.
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or raised representation on a flat surface, that is particularly problematic. Rabbi Jacob Emden discusses a medal struck in honor of Rabbi
2103:
1547:
has large areas of wall paintings with figures of the prophets and others, and narrative scenes. There are several representations of the
1681:
1636:
Until the 20th century, Judaism was always believed to have been an aniconistic religion. This view was probably first challenged by
1388:, there are some authorities who also prohibit two-dimensional full-face depictions. Some base this upon their understanding of the
1161:, used in such verses as Genesis 1:26: "let us make man in our image", where this word for 'image' was not associated with idols.)
2846:
1577:
have also been excavated, revealing large floor-mosaics with figurative elements, especially animals and representations of the
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on the walls of their houses. Sometimes those who profess aniconism will practice figurative representation (cf. portraits of
3127:
2317:
2180:
1948:
1908:
1883:
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cultures of the time. Lenient Torah commentators permit drawing of humans as long as the images are not used for idolatry.
968:
communities, portraits of the major figures of Shi'ite history are important elements of religious devotion. Portraits of '
2021:
1797:
816:, the Islamic holy book, does not explicitly prohibit the depiction of human figures; it merely condemns idolatry (e.g.:
255:. The prohibition of material representations may only extend to a specific supreme deity, or it can encompass an entire
2156:
1620:
There are many later Jewish illuminated manuscripts from the Middle Ages, and some other works with human figures. The "
130:
3006:
2990:
2414:
891:". Muhammad's physical appearance, however, is amply described, particularly in the traditions on his life and deeds,
102:
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225:
207:
149:
52:
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or the ministering angels, because these are believed to be real beings that actually exist "in the heaven above." (
722:, all icons were thus heretical. Reference was also made to the prohibitions on the worship of graven images in the
410:
3185:
1814:
338:
have predominantly been aniconistic throughout their histories, including representations of major figures such as
178:
774:. As such, the Church was forced to get rid of their icons. This tradition is still in practice today, with many
303:
109:
1669:
1665:
1068:(Tanakh) refer to prohibitions against the creation of various forms of images, invariably linked directly with
3108:
3089:
2300:
1695:(From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an individual believer, December 6, 1939, republished in
1614:
1341:
1001:
710:. Theologically, the debate, as with most in Orthodox theology at the time, revolved around the two natures of
406:
87:
2475:
2339:
1901:
Animism in Rainforest and Tundra: Personhood, Animals, Plants and Things in Contemporary Amazonia and Siberia
1789:
1041:, the most Islamic of arts in the Muslim world, has also its figurative side due to anthropo- and zoomorphic
1033:
too is present in various illustrated manuscripts. However, there are no known figurative depictions of God.
307:
2239:
http://njmark0.tripod.com/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderpictures/.pond/bahrain500fills00000.jpg.w300h295.jpg
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1973:
Rhi, Ju-Hyung (1994). "From Bodhisattva to Buddha: The Beginning of Iconic Representation in Buddhist Art".
1641:
1016:, Islamic prophets and other characters considered holy, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect.
3195:
2453:
2224:
1298:
766:, also known as the Nestorian church, opposition to religious images eventually became the norm due to the
311:
116:
2369:
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era, while frescoes were common under the Umayyads, and later in many Muslim countries, notably under the
2878:
1462:, but this prohibition has nothing to do with idolatry. Rather, it is related to the prohibition against
1446:, and, in some communities, the children trade "rabbi cards" that are similar to baseball cards. In both
2259:
1727:
887:
is usually represented by immaterial attributes, such as "holy" or "merciful", commonly known from His "
585:(relics) or re-enactments by devotees at the places where these scenes occurred. Thus the image of the
1337:
864:
402:
83:
38:
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Representations and Contradictions: Ambivalence Towards Images, Theatre, Fiction, Relics and Sexuality
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98:
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291:
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185:
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are not prevalent in works of Buddhist art which were produced during the earliest period of the
395:
76:
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in the Netherlands in 1566, where the attacks were mostly on churches that were still Catholic.
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2600:
2111:
1731:
1677:
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also uses images, some drawn from Hellenistic pagan mythology, in the 2nd to 4th centuries CE.
1540:
1502:
1501:, there was a tradition, with no surviving examples, of scroll production in which luxuriously
1482:
848:
790:
741:
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in the 1890s, the earliest phase, which lasted until the 1st century CE, has been described as
339:
2777:
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2980:
2056:
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churches lacking artistic depictions of biblical figures, including those of Jesus and Mary.
469:
299:
287:
1598:
1405:
1054:
689:
331:
1570:
897:. Of no less interest is the validity of sightings of holy personages made during dreams.
8:
3190:
2133:"Why Do Jehovah's Witnesses Not Use Images in Their Worship? — Watchtower ONLINE LIBRARY"
1565:
1552:
1513:
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around shrines and in the streets, to be hung in homes or carried with oneself, while in
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painting from the 16th century AD, depicting Muhammad, his face veiled, ascending on the
642:
611:
567:
256:
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25 (5728/1967-1968) 167–169. See also Gabrielle Sed-Rajna's contribution to this volume.
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do not believe in any hadith), and how liberal or strict they are in personal practice.
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1990:
917:
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The Babi Question You Mentioned?The Origins of the Baháʼí Community of the Netherlands
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in 721 (although this referred to Christian images). The decoration of cave walls and
817:
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generally. It is generally codified by religious traditions and as such, it becomes a
3123:
3104:
3085:
3066:
3043:
2986:
2962:
2783:
2296:
2246:
2068:
1944:
1904:
1879:
1854:
1775:
1768:
1548:
1521:
1486:
1139:) are generally used interchangeably with words typically translated as 'idol' (e.g.
909:
771:
748:, or the destruction of images (and often much else); the most famous is perhaps the
563:
325:
268:
3138:
2926:
2037:
3154:
3150:
1982:
1755:
1593:
1451:
1073:
695:
661:. Moreover, Hindus have found it easier to focus on anthropomorphic icons, because
523:
3007:"Respecting Indigenous people and culture in ABC content – ABC Editorial Policies"
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Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Original source: Dr. Samuel Krauss:
2188:
2622:
2546:
1602:
1533:
1498:
1447:
1293:
1110:
888:
775:
699:
653:, aniconism is equally represented with such abstract symbols of God such as the
646:
551:
354:
3035:
2428:
1267:, even when the depictions are quite clearly meant to be those of historical or
184:
The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of
2821:
2522:
1685:
1637:
1574:
1517:
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1397:
1229:
1215:
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507:
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279:. When it is enforced by the physical destruction of images, aniconism becomes
189:
44:
2132:
3174:
2982:
Divining the Etruscan World: The Brontoscopic Calendar and Religious Practice
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1592:, have had the living figures removed, leaving inanimate symbols such as the
1556:
1494:
1429:
1102:
1086:
767:
719:
666:
346:
295:
2891:
Joseph Gutmann: "Recent literature on Jewish art: a critical appraisal." In
1726:
Two pictures of Bahá'u'lláh and a portrait of the Báb are on display at the
1072:. The strongest source is based on what Judaism counts as the second of the
832:, they need to be interpreted in order to be applied in any general manner.
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The Artless Jew: Medieval and Modern Affirmations and Denials of the Visual
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2221:"Petroleum-related banknotes: Iran: Abadan Refinery, Iahanshahi-Amouzegar"
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tree, a riderless horse with a parasol floating above an empty space (at
503:
2876:
Joseph Gutmann: "The 'Second Commandment' and the image in Judaism." In
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However, in 1990, the notion of aniconism in Buddhism was challenged by
554:
representations of the Buddha are frequently considered a result of the
1994:
1809:
1610:
1416:
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tradition, a photographic picture of the deceased can be placed on the
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is the active destruction of images for religious or cultural reasons.
364:
280:
2314:"Saudi Aramco World : Masterpieces to Go: The Trucks of Pakistan"
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and Flipside of Hindu symbolism, by M. K. V. Narayan at pgs. 84–85 at
1853:. Oxford Studies in Ancient Culture & Representation. OUP Oxford.
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interaction, a cultural exchange which was particularly widespread in
251:
worlds, or it is the absence of representations of certain figures in
2429:"Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art, by Terry Allen"
1943:. Elgar Handbooks in Migration. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 73.
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in the region, where it forbade any type of depictions of saints and
658:
598:
590:
272:
2706:"Hervé Clerc et Jack Kornfield : championnats de Bouddha libre"
1986:
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they notoriously ornate trucks, buses and rickshas. Contrary to the
380:
65:
1767:, it evolved after his time) as documentary evidence suggests (see
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are devoid of statues or images. Photographs and depictions of the
1606:
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photographic studios during their imposed ban on photography). For
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559:
487:
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252:
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Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, by Jeanne Fowler, pgs. 42–43, at
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There were two periods of iconoclasm, or icon-destruction, in the
1892:
1759:
1455:
1276:
1260:
1209:
1025:
1021:
957:
852:
840:
824:). Interdictions of figurative representation are present in the
662:
571:
260:
2565:"Mir Haydar, Mi'râdj nâmeh(Le Livre de l'ascension du Prophète)"
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is consistently aniconic. Its embodiment are spaces such as the
2366:"Picture of Golestan e Shohoda cemetery Esfahan -Esfahan, Iran"
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264:
2523:"Mughal Miniature Painting – An Alternative Source of History"
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photograph supposed to represent Muhammad as a young boy. The
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953:
937:
925:
913:
884:
813:
782:
711:
650:
515:
491:
276:
1734:
building, where the Baháʼís view it as part of an organized
1898:
1009:
993:
973:
965:
872:
868:
707:
498:
Since the beginning of the serious study of the history of
359:
243:
1164:
Based on these prohibitions, the Hebrew prophets, such as
2203:"Petroleum-related banknotes: Saudi Arabia: Oil Refinery"
972:– with veiled and unveiled face alike – can be bought in
969:
2408:
2683:
2157:"You, Too, Can Become Free — Watchtower ONLINE LIBRARY"
1932:
550:
Although they are still a subject of debate, the first
294:, though these movements have been largely rejected as
2925:
Published in 1973. Accessed on February 2, 2006 from
2450:"Educational Site: Archaeological Sites: Qusayr 'Amra"
2275:"U.S. military, not Iraqis, behind toppling of statue"
1899:
Brightman, M.; Grotti, V.E.; Ulturgasheva, O. (2012).
1878:. Vetus Testamentum, Supplements. Brill. p. 229.
271:, or even depictions of living beings and anything in
3036:"Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art"
2985:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 61.
1720:(Shoghi Effendi, Directives from the Guardian, p. 43)
1454:, taking photographs or filming are forbidden on the
241:
is the cultural absence of artistic representations (
2882:
32 (1961) 161–174. . Northampton 1989. II. 161–174].
2663:"Splendeurs Persanes – Ferdowsi – Le Livre des rois"
1250:
1239:
1156:
1145:
1134:
1123:
729:
641:
Although aniconism is better known in connection to
1516:. Evidence of this tradition exists in the form of
562:, a theory which was first fully expounded upon by
90:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3166:(in German). Leiden: Erwin Gräf. pp. 224–232.
1867:
2927:http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/DG/dg-115.html
2384:"Mashad MARTYRS CEMETERY at Best Iran Travel.com"
2020:for an update on the controversy as of 2007, and
1796:of the Ancestors. Some broadcasters (such as the
1644:. In 1901, his disciple Dr. Samuel Krauss wrote:
1275:(Germany, circa 1300). Because such creatures as
3172:
3139:"Early Buddhist art and the theory of aniconism"
3057:Beaugé, Gilbert; Clément, Jean-François (1995).
2541:
2539:
1917:
924:In practice, the core of normative religion in
543:(the rules of the early Buddhist school of the
2959:Germania (De origine et situ Germanorum liber)
2684:"Consultation de la base des clichés Daguerre"
2623:"À nouveau, le sacrifice du fils n'a pas lieu"
2272:
1664:Like other Abrahamic religions, depictions of
1508:which contained the texts of the books of the
1428:hold that carvings of lions (representing the
614:; discussion is focused on smaller figures in
3056:
1830:Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
1825:The figurative representation in Islamic Arts
1207:Despite the semantic association with idols,
510:was only represented with symbols such as an
2536:
1938:
1245:
1234:
1151:
1140:
1129:
1118:
630:Traditional flower offering to the aniconic
3120:Lights of Guidance: A Baháʼí Reference File
1926:History of Art and Architecture: Volume Two
1842:
1559:from Judaism. A virtually unique Christian
1384:Although the prohibition mainly applies to
1344:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1305:
786:as a part of the modern world around them.
566:, but from the start, it was criticized by
409:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
323:
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3136:
3084:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
3065:] (in French). Paris: CNRS Éditions.
2082:
1364:Learn how and when to remove this message
916:into the Heavens, a journey known as the
843:and marked differences between different
757:
429:Learn how and when to remove this message
226:Learn how and when to remove this message
208:Learn how and when to remove this message
150:Learn how and when to remove this message
2775:
2754:See Exodus 34:1, 4; Deuteronomy 10:1, 3.
2108:News Article by Brad Igou, (1991, 2001)"
1473:
1469:
1375:
1292:four faces on the Divine Chariot of the
1189:
936:or the white dress of pilgrims entering
904:
900:
740:Aniconism was also prevalent during the
625:
473:
286:Aniconism has historical phases in both
2032:
2030:
1873:
1848:
1705:Shoghi Effendi has also written in the
1668:are prohibited in the Bahá’í Faith and
683:
349:εικων 'image' with the negative prefix
3173:
3117:
1653:
1605:, and related to the decree of Caliph
259:, it can also include depictions of a
3161:
3098:
3079:
3033:
2978:
2942:, pg. 243. Peeters Publishers, 2002.
2703:
1923:
1790:Australian Aboriginal cultural groups
1627:
1415:There is one type of representation,
1233:, which takes the literal meaning of
345:The word "aniconism" is derived from
2411:"Fiqh & Beliefs: Istifa answers"
2069:"Bhagavad-Gita: Chapter 12, Verse 5"
2027:
1342:adding citations to reliable sources
1309:
847:of Islam. Aniconism is common among
807:
407:adding citations to reliable sources
374:
161:
88:adding citations to reliable sources
59:
18:
3118:Hornby, Helen Bassett, ed. (1988).
1972:
1432:) are inappropriate in synagogues.
1396:. Of note is the portrait of Rabbi
1271:humans. The most well-known is the
1246:
1235:
1152:
1141:
1130:
1119:
16:Banning of material representations
13:
3122:. Baháʼí Publishing Trust, India.
2905:Dávid Kaufmann and his collections
2413:(personal website). Archived from
1741:
1412:, says it was a perfect likeness.
672:
370:
14:
3207:
2782:. Brill Archive. pp. 14–16.
1941:Handbook of Culture and Migration
1939:Cohen, J.H.; Sirkeci, I. (2021).
1244:as "graven image" (from the root
996:tombs. A curiosity in Iran is an
730:During the Protestant Reformation
34:This article has multiple issues.
3103:. London: Blackwell Publishers.
2909:David Kaufmann. Eine Biographie,
2704:Droit, Roger-Pol (7 July 2011).
2547:"Le voyage nocturne du Prophète"
2291:J. L. Anderson, Thomas Dworzak,
1815:Censorship by organized religion
1314:
1263:creatures—usually animal-headed
1223:A breakdown can be found in the
1213:(Jewish law) as codified by the
589:shows an actual relic-throne at
379:
166:
64:
23:
2999:
2972:
2945:
2932:
2915:
2898:
2885:
2870:
2839:
2814:
2805:
2796:
2768:
2757:
2748:
2723:
2697:
2676:
2655:
2633:
2615:
2593:
2575:
2557:
2515:
2494:
2468:
2442:
2421:
2402:
2376:
2358:
2332:
2306:
2285:
2273:David Zucchino (July 5, 2004).
2266:
2231:
2213:
2195:
2173:
2149:
2125:
2104:""The Amish & Photographs"
2096:
2061:
2045:
1532:and, more controversially, the
1404:Tzvi"), which is housed in the
1059:
304:Buddhas and bodhisattvas in art
75:needs additional citations for
42:or discuss these issues on the
3155:10.1080/00043249.1990.10792724
2979:Turfa, Jean MacIntosh (2012).
2409:Grand Ayatollah Uzma Sistani.
2295:, London (UK), Trolley, 2003,
2010:
2001:
1966:
1957:
1903:. Berghahn Books. p. 72.
1876:Congress Volume Cambridge 1995
1709:regarding the portrait of the
1524:Christian works which contain
1150:). (An important exception is
1109:Similar injunctions appear in
621:
478:An aniconic representation of
463:
1:
3042:. Occidental, CA: Solipsist.
2731:"Shulchan-Aruch – Chapter 11"
2583:"Angels Kneeling before Adam"
1835:
1660:Aniconism in the Baháʼí Faith
1048:
308:God the Father in Western art
2923:Directives from the Guardian
2645:(Le lieu de repos des Purs)"
2181:"See 'Sura' and 'Taswir' in
1851:Aniconism in Greek Antiquity
1707:Directives from the Guardian
863:), and less prevalent among
312:Holy Spirit in Christian art
7:
3063:The image in the Arab world
3059:L'image dans le monde arabe
2961:, Reclam, Stuttgart, 2000,
2879:Hebrew Union College Annual
2733:. Torah.org. Archived from
2605:("Les Séances des amants")"
1803:
1497:have long believed that in
1392:, and others based it upon
1251:
1240:
1157:
1146:
1135:
1124:
1012:gave a fatwa declaring the
889:Ninety-nine beautiful names
796:
10:
3212:
3137:Huntington, S. L. (1990).
3040:Five Essays on Islamic Art
3027:
2822:"The Birds' Head Haggadah"
1928:. Sugar Creek. p. 46.
1657:
1613:at the Jewish cemetery at
1584:Some of these, notably at
1183:
1064:A number of verses in the
1052:
865:liberal movements in Islam
800:
733:
687:
676:
467:
3164:Festschrift Werner Caskel
3080:Bland, Kalman P. (2001).
2955:Publius Cornelius Tacitus
2649:BNF – Torah, Bible, Coran
2627:BNF – Torah, Bible, Coran
2609:BNF – Torah, Bible, Coran
2569:BNF – Torah, Bible, Coran
2551:BNF – Torah, Bible, Coran
2090:"The Shadow of Nestorius"
1963:Huntington, opening pages
679:Aniconism in Christianity
2957:, "9. Götterverehrung",
1670:Bahá’í Houses of Worship
1306:Differences across media
456:in the biblical texts).
330:are common. By contrast
3186:Movements in aesthetics
2776:Beckwith, John (1988).
2587:Stories of the Prophets
1551:, suggesting that this
1406:Jewish Museum in London
1002:Grand Ayatollah Sistani
736:The Reformation and art
2183:Encyclopaedia of Islam
2024:for another from 2001.
1874:Emerton, J.A. (2015).
1758:, the Roman historian
1732:International Archives
1651:
1541:Dura-Europos synagogue
1503:illuminated manuscript
1490:
1483:Dura Europos synagogue
1381:
1204:
1107:
1093:Leviticus 26:1 reads:
1091:
921:
859:(which are also often
758:Among Christians today
742:Protestant Reformation
638:
495:
324:
3034:Allen, Terry (1988).
2952:(in German and Latin)
2719:– via Le Monde.
1682:Manifestations of God
1680:, who are considered
1646:
1477:
1470:In historical periods
1380:Rabbi Tzvi Ashkenazi.
1379:
1299:Kitzur Shulchan Aruch
1193:
1095:
1078:
1014:depiction of Muhammad
932:and objects like the
908:
901:Aniconism in practice
629:
477:
470:Aniconism in Buddhism
300:life of Buddha in art
247:) of the natural and
3099:Goody, Jack (1997).
2476:"Reza Abbasi Museum"
2372:on October 18, 2012.
1849:Gaifman, M. (2012).
1622:Birds' Head Haggadah
1599:Byzantine iconoclasm
1479:Crossing the Red Sea
1338:improve this section
1273:Birds' Head Haggadah
1202:Birds' Head Haggadah
1055:Aniconism in Judaism
851:Sunni sects such as
690:Byzantine iconoclasm
684:Byzantine iconoclasm
403:improve this section
84:improve this article
3196:Religion in culture
2811:Barber, throughout.
2764:jewishmuseum.org.uk
2603:Majâlis al-'Ashshâq
2601:"Husayn Gazurgâhî,
2279:Honolulu Advertiser
1728:Baháʼí World Centre
1654:In the Baháʼí Faith
1566:Ark of the Covenant
1539:The 3rd century CE
1464:working or creating
791:Jehovah's Witnesses
643:Abrahamic religions
612:history of Buddhism
568:Ananda Coomaraswamy
524:Buddha's footprints
2938:De Vries, Jelle:
2893:Jewish Book Annual
2779:Early Medieval Art
2482:on 19 January 2017
2346:on 21 October 2009
2036:(Huntington 1990)
1924:Lacey, J. (2021).
1769:Ardre image stones
1697:Lights of Guidance
1642:Jewish art history
1628:Recent scholarship
1491:
1382:
1205:
960:fighters from the
922:
803:Aniconism in Islam
764:Church of the East
706:councils, and the
639:
496:
486:, 2nd century CE,
482:'s assault on the
454:Second Commandment
320:The Trinity in art
316:depiction of Jesus
3129:978-81-85091-46-4
3011:edpols.abc.net.au
2802:Barber, 1018–1021
2456:on 26 August 2016
2254:Missing or empty
2227:on July 20, 2011.
2209:on July 20, 2011.
1950:978-1-78990-346-1
1910:978-0-85745-469-0
1885:978-90-04-27590-4
1860:978-0-19-964578-7
1776:Etruscan religion
1736:Baháʼí pilgrimage
1571:Germigny-des-Prés
1563:depiction of the
1512:were produced by
1374:
1373:
1366:
910:Persian miniature
808:Theological views
772:biblical prophets
564:Alfred A. Foucher
439:
438:
431:
363:(Greek -ισμος).
357:) and the suffix
236:
235:
228:
218:
217:
210:
160:
159:
152:
134:
57:
3203:
3167:
3158:
3133:
3114:
3095:
3076:
3053:
3021:
3020:
3018:
3017:
3003:
2997:
2996:
2976:
2970:
2953:
2949:
2943:
2936:
2930:
2921:Shoghi Effendi:
2919:
2913:
2902:
2896:
2889:
2883:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2864:
2858:
2852:. Archived from
2851:
2847:"(Bland 2001:8)"
2843:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2832:
2818:
2812:
2809:
2803:
2800:
2794:
2793:
2772:
2766:
2761:
2755:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2743:
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2727:
2721:
2720:
2718:
2716:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2669:
2659:
2653:
2652:
2637:
2631:
2630:
2619:
2613:
2612:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2579:
2573:
2572:
2561:
2555:
2554:
2543:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2529:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2508:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2487:
2478:. Archived from
2472:
2466:
2465:
2463:
2461:
2452:. Archived from
2446:
2440:
2439:
2437:
2435:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2395:
2386:. Archived from
2380:
2374:
2373:
2368:. Archived from
2362:
2356:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2342:. Archived from
2340:"www.webpak.net"
2336:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2325:
2316:. Archived from
2310:
2304:
2289:
2283:
2282:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2257:
2252:
2250:
2242:
2235:
2229:
2228:
2223:. Archived from
2217:
2211:
2210:
2205:. Archived from
2199:
2193:
2192:
2187:. Archived from
2177:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2167:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2143:
2129:
2123:
2122:
2120:
2119:
2110:. Archived from
2100:
2094:
2093:
2086:
2080:
2079:
2077:
2075:
2065:
2059:
2057:Books.Google.com
2053:Books.Google.com
2049:
2043:
2034:
2025:
2014:
2008:
2005:
1999:
1998:
1981:(3/4): 220–221.
1970:
1964:
1961:
1955:
1954:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1921:
1915:
1914:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1871:
1865:
1864:
1846:
1823:
1460:Jewish holy days
1452:Orthodox Judaism
1421:Eliezer Horowitz
1369:
1362:
1358:
1355:
1349:
1318:
1310:
1254:
1249:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1237:
1160:
1155:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1121:
1105:
1089:
1074:Ten Commandments
696:Byzantine Empire
579:Susan Huntington
434:
427:
423:
420:
414:
383:
375:
329:
231:
224:
213:
206:
202:
199:
193:
170:
169:
162:
155:
148:
144:
141:
135:
133:
92:
68:
60:
49:
27:
26:
19:
3211:
3210:
3206:
3205:
3204:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3171:
3170:
3130:
3111:
3092:
3073:
3050:
3030:
3025:
3024:
3015:
3013:
3005:
3004:
3000:
2993:
2977:
2973:
2951:
2950:
2946:
2937:
2933:
2920:
2916:
2903:
2899:
2890:
2886:
2875:
2871:
2862:
2860:
2856:
2849:
2845:
2844:
2840:
2830:
2828:
2820:
2819:
2815:
2810:
2806:
2801:
2797:
2790:
2773:
2769:
2762:
2758:
2753:
2749:
2740:
2738:
2729:
2728:
2724:
2714:
2712:
2702:
2698:
2688:
2686:
2682:
2681:
2677:
2667:
2665:
2661:
2660:
2656:
2639:
2638:
2634:
2621:
2620:
2616:
2599:
2598:
2594:
2581:
2580:
2576:
2563:
2562:
2558:
2545:
2544:
2537:
2527:
2525:
2521:
2520:
2516:
2506:
2504:
2500:
2499:
2495:
2485:
2483:
2474:
2473:
2469:
2459:
2457:
2448:
2447:
2443:
2433:
2431:
2427:
2426:
2422:
2407:
2403:
2393:
2391:
2390:on 7 April 2015
2382:
2381:
2377:
2364:
2363:
2359:
2349:
2347:
2338:
2337:
2333:
2323:
2321:
2312:
2311:
2307:
2290:
2286:
2271:
2267:
2255:
2253:
2244:
2243:
2237:
2236:
2232:
2219:
2218:
2214:
2201:
2200:
2196:
2179:
2178:
2174:
2165:
2163:
2155:
2154:
2150:
2141:
2139:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2117:
2115:
2102:
2101:
2097:
2088:
2087:
2083:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2066:
2062:
2050:
2046:
2035:
2028:
2015:
2011:
2006:
2002:
1987:10.2307/3250056
1971:
1967:
1962:
1958:
1951:
1937:
1933:
1922:
1918:
1911:
1897:
1893:
1886:
1872:
1868:
1861:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1821:
1806:
1774:In the ancient
1756:Germanic tribes
1744:
1742:Other religions
1662:
1656:
1630:
1603:Muslim conquest
1534:Utrecht Psalter
1514:Hellenized Jews
1472:
1466:on these days.
1400:(known as "the
1370:
1359:
1353:
1350:
1335:
1319:
1308:
1294:Book of Ezekiel
1225:Shulkhan Aruch,
1188:
1106:
1101:
1090:
1085:
1062:
1057:
1051:
903:
873:mystical orders
810:
805:
799:
760:
738:
732:
704:Orthodox Church
700:Catholic Church
692:
686:
681:
675:
673:In Christianity
647:anthropomorphic
624:
552:anthropomorphic
472:
466:
435:
424:
418:
415:
400:
384:
373:
371:General aspects
355:privative alpha
232:
221:
220:
219:
214:
203:
197:
194:
183:
177:has an unclear
171:
167:
156:
145:
139:
136:
93:
91:
81:
69:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3209:
3199:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3169:
3168:
3159:
3149:(4): 401–408.
3134:
3128:
3115:
3109:
3096:
3090:
3077:
3071:
3054:
3048:
3029:
3026:
3023:
3022:
2998:
2992:978-1107009073
2991:
2971:
2944:
2931:
2914:
2897:
2884:
2869:
2838:
2813:
2804:
2795:
2788:
2767:
2756:
2747:
2722:
2696:
2675:
2654:
2643:Rawzat al-safâ
2632:
2614:
2592:
2574:
2556:
2535:
2514:
2493:
2467:
2441:
2420:
2417:on 2006-10-17.
2401:
2375:
2357:
2331:
2305:
2284:
2265:
2230:
2212:
2194:
2191:on 2007-09-29.
2172:
2148:
2124:
2095:
2081:
2060:
2044:
2026:
2009:
2000:
1965:
1956:
1949:
1931:
1916:
1909:
1891:
1884:
1866:
1859:
1840:
1839:
1837:
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1487:Hands of God
1478:
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1360:
1354:October 2021
1351:
1336:Please help
1324:
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1269:mythological
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1066:Hebrew Bible
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1060:Hebrew Bible
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894:Sira al-Nabi
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780:
761:
751:Beeldenstorm
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724:Law of Moses
716:Nestorianism
693:
640:
608:Buddhist art
595:
587:empty throne
576:
549:
545:Sarvastivada
537:Sarvastivada
535:
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528:dharma wheel
512:empty throne
500:Buddhist art
497:
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443:monotheistic
440:
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419:October 2021
416:
401:Please help
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350:
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292:Christianity
285:
249:supernatural
242:
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120:
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82:Please help
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3143:Art Journal
2715:24 December
2710:Le Monde.fr
2689:24 December
2668:24 December
2528:24 December
2507:24 December
2502:"Portraits"
2460:24 December
2434:24 December
2394:24 December
2350:24 December
2324:24 December
2074:24 December
2018:note 7 here
1822:(in French)
1678:Bahá'u'lláh
1549:Hand of God
1530:Joshua Roll
1526:iconography
1485:, with two
1426:Joseph Karo
1410:Jacob Emden
1257:Middle Ages
1230:Yoreh De'ah
1115:Deuteronomy
1039:Calligraphy
998:Orientalist
655:Shiva linga
632:Shiva linga
622:In Hinduism
504:aniconistic
464:In Buddhism
99:"Aniconism"
3191:Censorship
3175:Categories
3110:0631205268
3091:069108985X
3016:2022-01-06
2863:2012-09-19
2741:2012-09-19
2301:0954264851
2166:2018-07-18
2161:wol.jw.org
2142:2018-07-18
2137:wol.jw.org
2118:2015-05-30
2007:Krishan, 9
1836:References
1810:Censorship
1754:About the
1611:sarcophagi
1417:bas-relief
1287:, and the
1194:Detail of
1049:In Judaism
1043:calligrams
986:Bangladesh
946:Al Jazeera
877:Submitters
746:iconoclasm
649:religious
526:, and the
452:, and the
365:Iconoclasm
281:iconoclasm
190:footnoting
110:newspapers
39:improve it
3181:Aniconism
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1590:West Bank
1569:(806) at
1499:antiquity
1386:sculpture
1325:does not
1265:humanoids
1261:fantastic
659:saligrama
599:Theravada
591:Bodh Gaya
488:Amaravati
446:religions
390:does not
326:Manus Dei
273:existence
253:religions
239:Aniconism
198:July 2024
140:June 2021
45:talk page
2831:3 August
2247:cite web
1804:See also
1788:In some
1607:Yazid II
1555:reached
1440:Haggadah
1437:Passover
1394:Kabbalah
1285:sphinxes
1277:gryphons
1259:feature
1227:section
1170:Jeremiah
1100:—
1084:—
1070:idolatry
1026:Safavids
978:Pakistan
962:Kandahar
857:Wahhabis
845:branches
837:exegetes
830:Muhammad
797:In Islam
776:Assyrian
657:and the
636:Varanasi
603:Mahayana
597:between
560:Gandhara
340:Muhammad
288:Buddhism
257:pantheon
186:citation
3028:Sources
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1995:3250056
1760:Tacitus
1730:in the
1588:in the
1506:scrolls
1481:, from
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1346:removed
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1289:phoenix
1281:harpies
1210:halakha
1200:in the
1185:Halakha
1136:shikuts
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1111:Numbers
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994:Shi'ite
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853:Salafis
841:schools
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332:Judaism
261:prophet
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1579:Zodiac
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1510:Tanakh
1444:Rebbes
1424:Rabbi
1402:Hakham
1390:Talmud
1197:Dayenu
1166:Isaiah
1158:tselem
934:Qur'an
930:mosque
918:Mi'raj
826:Hadith
789:Among
651:murtis
616:relief
583:cetiya
540:vinaya
520:Sanchi
508:Buddha
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1006:Najaf
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954:Mecca
938:Mecca
926:Islam
914:Buraq
869:Shi'a
834:Sunni
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814:Quran
783:Amish
781:Some
712:Jesus
516:Bodhi
492:India
450:Babel
347:Greek
336:Islam
277:taboo
269:sages
267:, or
244:icons
131:JSTOR
117:books
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2784:ISBN
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2691:2016
2670:2016
2530:2016
2509:2016
2488:2015
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2396:2016
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2326:2016
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2260:help
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