161:
part of the classical era Somali city-state under the regional name
Barbario. Meanwhile, Bulhar, known as the Port of Isis, existed long before the classical era, reaching its peak and largest trade activity during the classical era. The Somali city-state was preceded by the Kingdom of Macrobia, which had its center at Opone, located in the modern-day Hafun Peninsula. This is suggested by Agarwal, an Indian scholar who has been studying the Macrobian civilization and its history, placing it in Somalia. After the fall of the Macrobian Empire, the Somali city-state was formed. Various cities flourished during the Late Iron Age and early Classical era, with the greatest cities being Opone and Mosylon, which were heavily involved in trade with ancient Egypt, as noted by Herodotus.
29:
157:
local commercial center of the Port of Isis is believed to correspond with the town of Bulhar, situated near Zeila. The port of
Mosylon is identified in modern-day Bosaso city in the northeast of Somalia. This is the region from which the Pharaohs launched their ships to obtain precious goods from the Bari region of punt-land state which is home to valued items such as incense, frankincense, myrrh, and rare animals and birds, used to trade with the Kush Kingdom of Nubia and ancient Egypt in antiquity.
474:
390:
254:, and used them to link themselves with the port cities of the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. They also developed an understandable way of defining the islands of the Indian Ocean in their navigational reach. They would name archipelagos or groups of islands after the most important island there, from the Somali point of view. However, Indian merchants continued to trade in the port cities of the
285:
I am the first and only of the kings my predecessors to have subdued all these peoples by the grace given me by my mighty god Ares , who also engendered me. It is through him that I have submitted to my power all the peoples neighbouring my empire, in the east to the Land of
Aromatics, to the west to
240:
world. The Romans and Greeks believed the source of cinnamon to have been the Somali peninsula, but in reality, the highly valued product was brought to
Somalia by way of Indian ships. Through collusive agreement by Somali and Gulf Arab traders, Indian and Chinese cinnamon was also exported for far
464:
The Somali coast formed a section of the greater incense trade alongside
Southeast Asia, South Asia, and southern Arabia on the Red Sea. Incense was mainstream in the Mediterranean region, where the products would be consistently used in strict religious purposes and for other everyday uses, which
348:
According to the
Chinese The people of the land of Pi-pa-lo did not eat any grains but ate a lot of meat, the people would also pick a vein of one of their oxen, mix the blood with milk and eat it raw. They did not use any clothes, but wrapped sheep's skin around their waists which hanged down and
160:
Additionally, Pliny indicated that the Port of Isis was located near stone pillars on which unknown letters were engraved. Samuel Sharpe suggests that these old inscriptions were probably hieroglyphical. Ruins of tumuli and pyramid structures are today found in the vicinity of the city, which was
156:
The Somali city-states on the northern Somali coast have been active since the late bronze ge until
Islamic period with evidence of the ancient city-state of Mosylon. According to historical records, the Egyptian Pharaoh Sesostris led his forces to mosylon and passed the Port of Isis. The ancient
361:
described the
Political system of the city states as desentralised and lacking a strong centralised government with each port city administered by a chief called tyrannidas. The vast majority of the settlements were found inshore, each port city had its own unmistakable character some were
344:
In ancient times
Somalia was known to the Chinese as the "country of Pi-pa-lo", which had four port cities each trying to gain the supremacy over the other. It had twenty thousand troops between them, who wore cuirasses, a protective body armor.
249:
and Europe, which made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue generator, especially for the Somali merchants through whose hands large quantities were shipped across ancient sea and land routes. They also had an understanding of the
385:
was the principal ship for traders from the different city-states. It was a fast, durable, double masted ship. The Beden was used as the main trading vessel. The boat was used mainly because of its speed
429:, were trading in items such as incenses, frankincense, myrrh and cassia. The cities would engage in a lucrative trade network connecting Somali merchants with
1224:
The
Culture of the East African Coast: In the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries in the Light of Recent Archaeological Discoveries, By Gervase Mathew pg 68
892:
362:
unwelcoming to the Romans others welcoming and often depended on the conditions and perspectives of the locals. The port cities such as
281:. It describes Ezana's easternmost conquest as the "land of Aromatics", also translated "Land of Incense" or "frankincense country":
232:
to Somalia and Arabia. This is said to have been the best kept secret of the Somali and Gulf Arab merchants in their trade with the
198:
to curb pillaging, Somali and Gulf Arab merchants by agreement barred Indian ships from trading in the free port cities of the
1095:
187:
peninsula between the first and fifth century CE. The Greeks referred to Somalis as the Barbaria and their land as Barbars.
1194:
876:
1167:
1157:
1087:
The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy & the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia & India
1085:
482:
358:
38:
242:
1123:
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century
707:, it handled a considerable amount of the Indian Ocean trade through its large ships and extensive harbor.
1250:
217:
1245:
595:
685:
572:
1186:
The Southeast Asia Connection: Trade and Polities in the Eurasian World Economy, 500 BC–AD 500
286:
the land of Ethiopia and the Sasou ; some I fought myself, against others I sent my armies.
272:
263:
180:
1240:
1110:
Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi, Culture and Customs of Somalia, (Greenwood Press, 2001), pp.13–14
734:
277:
8:
202:
to protect the interests of Somali and Arab merchants in the extremely lucrative ancient
146:
126:
1121:
1060:
886:
1190:
1163:
1091:
872:
438:
246:
207:
199:
110:
638:– Ancient town in southern Somalia. It is considered a predecessor of the port city
1144:
1056:
978:
704:
255:
211:
118:
191:
730:
634:
138:
74:
210:
commerce, However Indian merchants continued to trade in the port cities of the
738:
724:
599:
541:
330:
172:
142:
82:
1234:
559:
338:
1212:
An Archaeological Reconnaissance of the Horn: The British-Somali Expedition
821:
774:
742:
665:
576:
458:
233:
98:
716:
711:
615:
563:– Ancient port town in northern Somalia. It likely corresponded with the
529:
506:
410:
389:
314:
268:
150:
122:
1184:
653:
524:– In ancient times, the port city of Botiala transported goods such as
293:
was one of the ports that lay in a line along the north Somali coast.
757:– In ancient times, the port city of Opone traded with merchants from
473:
28:
798:
778:
758:
525:
478:
430:
398:
271:
recording his various victories in war, copied in the 6th century by
267:
a 4th-century monumental inscription by a King of Axum perhaps named
229:
225:
114:
94:
34:
789:
782:
746:
720:
646:
603:
583:
513:
502:
465:
has made incense a noteworthy commodity in the Indian Ocean trade.
454:
450:
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422:
363:
221:
134:
86:
54:
805:
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627:
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306:
294:
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251:
203:
184:
90:
78:
50:
828:
770:
766:
692:
677:
619:
610:
591:
552:
442:
322:
237:
176:
1048:
Neville Chittick (1979), "Early Ports in the Horn of Africa",
817:
812:
762:
753:
673:
669:
660:
623:
587:
537:
434:
418:
414:
394:
382:
371:
298:
106:
102:
999:
Ethiopia, the Unknown Land: A Cultural and Historical Guide
857:
The Aromatherapy Book by Jeanne Rose and John Hulburd pg 94
681:
545:
195:
341:, a site protected on the south but exposed on the north.
1145:
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Schoff's 1912 translation
109:, items which were considered valuable luxuries by the
1159:
The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal Harmony
1016:
Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko
777:, and connected with traders from as far afield as
461:. Somali sailors used the ancient Somali maritime
1074:Eastern African History By Robert O. Collins Pg 53
1232:
1010:Y. Shitomi (1997), "A New Interpretation of the
983:Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity
946:The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India
933:The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India
920:The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India
907:The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India
618:possibly located between the southern ports of
703:– The most important ancient port city of the
664:– Ancient port city known for its commerce in
1050:International Journal of Nautical Archaeology
816:– Ancient port where sailors on their way to
501:, it was an important place for the ancient
985:(Edinburgh University Press, 1991), p. 187.
785:, exchanging spices, silks and other goods.
1083:
891:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
258:, which was free from Roman interference.
214:, which was free from Roman interference.
27:
993:
991:
974:
972:
866:
820:could take refuge from the storms of the
575:and structures, including ancient coins,
1209:
1203:
1138:
1104:
472:
388:
715:– Ancient port engaged in the fragrant
352:
1233:
1119:
988:
969:
966:Peter Thonemann, "Gates of Horn", p. 9
468:
220:merchants brought large quantities of
192:Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire
1070:
1068:
741:. It was situated in the vicinity of
81:people were an important link in the
1182:
1155:
1113:
797:. It is the possible predecessor of
13:
1065:
1061:10.1111/j.1095-9270.1979.tb01131.x
1004:
938:
370:, Whereas other port cities like
14:
1262:
1156:Kete, Molefi (18 December 2018).
477:The most prominent cities of the
175:travelers including the likes of
33:The most prominent cities of the
1084:McLaughlin, Raoul (2014-09-11).
957:Eric Herbert Warmington, p. 187.
495:– Known in ancient times as the
357:An ancient document called the
194:and the Roman naval presence at
1218:
1176:
1149:
1126:. London, Bombay & Calcutta
1120:Schoff, Wilfred Harvey (1912).
1077:
1042:
1033:
1024:
337:). It is to be identified with
960:
951:
925:
912:
899:
869:Making Sense of Somali History
867:Abdullahi, Abdurahman (2017).
860:
851:
842:
483:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
374:the natives were described as
39:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
18:Ancient city-states of Somalia
1:
1001:(I. B. Tauris, 2003), p. 235.
835:
64:
7:
1183:Chew, Sing C (2010-05-06).
97:were the main suppliers of
10:
1267:
1210:Chittick, Neville (1975).
167:
22:Ancient Somali City-States
944:Eric Herbert Warmington,
931:Eric Herbert Warmington,
918:Eric Herbert Warmington,
905:Eric Herbert Warmington,
571:". Holds many historical
297:was the sixth port after
60:
46:
26:
1039:Huntingford 1980, p. 83.
85:connecting the region's
793:– Ancient port city in
77:, the ancestors of the
1030:McCrindle 2010, p. 63.
871:. London. p. 47.
486:
402:
288:
1012:Monumentum Adulitanum
476:
392:
283:
273:Cosmas Indicopleustes
264:Monumentum Adulitanum
181:Cosmas Indicopleustes
93:. Somali sailors and
89:with the rest of the
353:Trade and Governance
278:Christian Topography
1214:. pp. 117–133.
469:List of City States
183:made visits to the
131:ancient city-states
23:
1189:. Berghahn Books.
997:Stuart Munro-Hay,
733:– ancient coastal
604:platform monuments
487:
403:
381:A ship called the
366:were described as
133:competed with the
47:Geographical range
21:
1097:978-1-4738-4095-9
1090:. Pen and Sword.
241:higher prices to
208:Mediterranean Sea
200:Arabian peninsula
111:Ancient Egyptians
71:
70:
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986:
979:Stuart Munro-Hay
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849:
848:Phoenicia pg 199
846:
745:in the southern
705:Somali Peninsula
672:in exchange for
569:Market of Spices
256:Somali peninsula
212:Somali peninsula
145:for the wealthy
66:
31:
24:
20:
1266:
1265:
1261:
1260:
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1256:
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1251:Ancient Somalia
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723:trade with the
600:standing stones
471:
447:Parthian Persia
355:
170:
164:
42:
19:
12:
11:
5:
1264:
1254:
1253:
1248:
1246:Ancient cities
1243:
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1226:
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1202:
1196:978-1785337888
1195:
1175:
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1137:
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1103:
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1076:
1064:
1055:(4), 273–277.
1041:
1032:
1023:
1003:
987:
968:
959:
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937:
935:, pp. 185–186.
924:
911:
898:
878:978-1909112797
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859:
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839:
837:
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809:
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739:Horn of Africa
728:
725:Hellenic world
708:
696:
689:
657:
650:
643:
631:
607:
556:
549:
526:aromatic woods
517:
510:
498:Cape of Spices
470:
467:
439:Ptolemic Egypt
354:
351:
349:covered them.
218:Ancient Indian
169:
166:
83:Horn of Africa
69:
68:
62:
58:
57:
48:
44:
43:
32:
17:
9:
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3:
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1169:9781351685153
1165:
1162:. Routledge.
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420:
416:
412:
408:
405:The ports of
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182:
178:
174:
173:Ancient Greek
165:
162:
158:
154:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
127:classical era
125:. During the
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
91:ancient world
88:
84:
80:
76:
63:
59:
56:
52:
49:
45:
40:
36:
30:
25:
16:
1220:
1211:
1205:
1185:
1178:
1158:
1151:
1140:
1128:. Retrieved
1122:
1115:
1106:
1086:
1079:
1052:
1049:
1044:
1035:
1026:
1018:
1015:
1011:
1006:
998:
982:
962:
953:
945:
940:
932:
927:
919:
914:
906:
901:
868:
862:
853:
844:
827:
822:Indian Ocean
811:
804:
788:
775:Roman Empire
752:
743:Port Dunford
710:
698:
691:
666:frankincense
659:
652:
645:
633:
609:
564:
558:
551:
519:
512:
496:
490:
463:
459:Roman Empire
404:
380:
375:
367:
356:
347:
343:
334:
331:Bandar Alula
326:
323:Bandar Kasim
318:
310:
302:
289:
284:
276:
262:
260:
243:North Africa
216:
189:
171:
163:
159:
155:
130:
99:frankincense
72:
15:
1241:City-states
626:, based on
586:buildings,
507:spice trade
505:and Indian
368:very unruly
269:Sembrouthes
151:Greco-Roman
123:Babylonians
115:Phoenicians
1235:Categories
836:References
688:and India.
654:Macajilayn
614:– Ancient
596:enclosures
395:Beden ship
190:After the
129:, several
119:Mycenaeans
1021:, 81–102.
948:, p. 229.
922:, p. 187.
887:cite book
799:Mogadishu
779:Indonesia
759:Phoenicia
594:, walled
573:artifacts
548:merchants
481:from the
479:Old World
431:Phoenicia
399:Fra Mauro
247:Near East
230:Indonesia
226:Sri Lanka
139:Parthians
95:merchants
75:antiquity
37:from the
35:Old World
909:, p. 54.
790:Sarapion
783:Malaysia
773:and the
747:Jubaland
735:emporium
721:cinnamon
647:Hannassa
630:'s work.
616:emporium
584:drystone
565:Periplus
514:Avalites
503:cinnamon
457:and the
455:Nabataea
427:Sarapion
423:Avalites
376:peaceful
364:Avalites
359:Periplus
327:Mosullon
303:Aualites
252:monsoons
222:cinnamon
143:Axumites
135:Sabaeans
87:commerce
55:Djibouti
806:Salweyn
795:Somalia
737:in the
700:Mosylon
686:Arsinoe
640:Kismayo
628:Ptolemy
592:mosques
580:pottery
542:Persian
534:incense
521:Botiala
492:Aromata
407:Mosylon
401:'s map.
393:Somali
335:Akannai
319:Moundou
307:Berbera
295:Aromata
291:Aromata
275:in his
204:Red Sea
168:History
153:trade.
67:1–800AD
51:Somalia
1193:
1166:
1130:7 June
1094:
875:
829:Toniki
771:Persia
767:Greece
712:Mundus
693:Miandi
678:copper
674:cloaks
635:Gondal
620:Barawa
611:Essina
588:cairns
553:Bulhar
538:Indian
443:Greece
411:Mundus
329:) and
245:, the
185:Somali
177:Strabo
107:spices
79:Somali
818:India
813:Tabae
763:Egypt
754:Opone
731:Nikon
684:from
670:myrrh
661:Malao
624:Merca
577:Roman
435:Tabae
419:Malao
415:Opone
397:from
383:Beden
372:Malao
311:Malao
299:Zeyla
238:Greek
234:Roman
224:from
103:myrrh
61:Dates
1191:ISBN
1164:ISBN
1132:2016
1092:ISBN
893:link
873:ISBN
781:and
719:and
682:gold
680:and
668:and
622:and
602:and
560:Damo
546:Arab
544:and
532:and
451:Saba
425:And
339:Damo
315:Heis
261:The
236:and
228:and
196:Aden
179:and
147:Indo
141:and
121:and
105:and
1057:doi
1014:",
717:gum
536:to
530:gum
321:),
313:),
305:),
73:In
1237::
1067:^
1019:55
990:^
981:,
971:^
889:}}
885:{{
769:,
765:,
761:,
676:,
598:,
590:,
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