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819:. Fatty acids are slower than glucose to convert into acetyl-CoA, as first it has to go through beta oxidation. It takes about 10 minutes for fatty acids to sufficiently produce ATP. Fatty acids are the primary fuel source at rest and in low to moderate intensity exercise. Though slower than glucose, its yield is much higher. One molecule of glucose produces through aerobic glycolysis a net of 30-32 ATP; whereas a fatty acid can produce through beta oxidation a net of approximately 100 ATP depending on the type of fatty acid. For example, palmitic acid can produce a net of 106 ATP.
275:
834:
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702:
43:
140:
809:
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Ethanol (alcohol) is first converted into acetaldehyde, consuming NAD twice, before being converted into acetate. The acetate is then converted into acetyl-CoA. When alcohol is consumed in small quantities, the NADH/NAD ratio remains in balance enough for the acetyl-CoA to be used by the Krebs cycle
468:
The term metabolism refers to the various series of chemical reactions that take place within the body. Aerobic refers to the presence of oxygen, whereas anaerobic means with a series of chemical reactions that does not require the presence of oxygen. The ATP-CP series and the lactic acid series are
841:
Normally, amino acids do not provide the bulk of fuel substrates. However, in times of glycolytic or ATP crisis, amino acids can convert into pyruvate, acetyl-CoA, and citric acid cycle intermediates. This is useful during strenuous exercise or starvation as it provides faster ATP than fatty acids;
683:
The lactic acid system, like the ATP-CP system, is important primarily because it provides a rapid supply of ATP energy. For example, exercises that are performed at maximum rates for between 1 and 3 minutes depend heavily upon the lactic acid system. In activities such as running 1500 meters or a
194:
activity the contracted muscles restricts blood flow (leaving oxygen and blood borne fuels unable to be delivered to muscle cells adequately for oxidative phosphorylation). Three systems can be selectively recruited, depending on the amount of oxygen available, as part of the cellular respiration
930:. The Krebs cycle needs NAD as well as oxygen, for oxidative phosphorylation. Without sufficient NAD, the impaired aerobic metabolism mimics hypoxia (insufficient oxygen), resulting in excessive use of anaerobic glycolysis and a disrupted pyruvate/lactate ratio (low pyruvate,
899:
The longer that the person's glycogen reserves have been depleted, the higher the blood concentration of ketones, typically due to starvation or a low carb diet (βHB 3 - 5 mM). Prolonged high-intensity aerobic exercise, such as running 20 miles, where individuals
934:). The conversion of pyruvate into lactate produces NAD, but only enough to maintain anaerobic glycolysis. In chronic excessive alcohol consumption (alcoholism), the microsomal ethanol oxidizing system (MEOS) is used in addition to alcohol dehydrogenase.
891:
are needed as fatty acids cannot pass the blood-brain barrier, blood glucose levels are low and glycogen reserves depleted. Ketones also convert to acetyl-CoA faster than fatty acids. After the ketones convert to acetyl-CoA in a process known as
207:
for musculoskeletal activity. It is stored in most cells, particularly in muscle cells. Other forms of chemical energy, such as those available from oxygen and food, must be transformed into ATP before they can be utilized by the muscle cells.
656:" refers to the breakdown of sugar. In this system, the breakdown of sugar supplies the necessary energy from which ATP is manufactured. When sugar is metabolized anaerobically, it is only partially broken down and one of the byproducts is
679:
results. Another limitation of the lactic acid system that relates to its anaerobic quality is that only a few moles of ATP can be resynthesized from the breakdown of sugar. This system cannot be relied on for extended periods of time.
496:
The total muscular stores of both ATP and CP are small. Thus, the amount of energy obtainable through this system is limited. The phosphagen stored in the working muscles is typically exhausted in seconds of vigorous activity. However,
232:. The energy released from any of these three series of reactions is utilized in reactions that resynthesize ATP. The separate reactions are functionally linked in such a way that the energy released by one is used by the other.
228:). The energy for ATP resynthesis comes from three different series of chemical reactions that take place within the body. Two of the three depend upon the food eaten, whereas the other depends upon a chemical compound called
269:
run it provides 98% or more. Around mile 20 of a marathon, runners typically "hit the wall," having depleted their glycogen reserves they then attain "second wind" which is entirely aerobic metabolism primarily by free fatty
493:(CP), like ATP, is stored in muscle cells. When it is broken down, a considerable amount of energy is released. The energy released is coupled to the energy requirement necessary for the resynthesis of ATP.
486:(A) Phosphocreatine, which is stored in muscle cells, contains a high energy bond. (B) When creatine phosphate is broken down during muscular contraction, energy is released and utilized to resynthesize ATP.
790:
molecules allow for 4 ATP molecules to be regenerated (in total 34 ATP from oxidative phosphorylation, plus 4 from the previous two stages, producing a total of 38 ATP in the aerobic system). NADH and FADH
1218:"Intracellular compartmentation, structure and function of creatine kinase isoenzymes in tissues with high and fluctuating energy demands: the 'phosphocreatine circuit' for cellular energy homeostasis"
628:
When the phosphagen system has been depleted of phosphocreatine (creatine phosphate), the resulting AMP produced from the adenylate kinase (myokinase) reaction is primarily regulated by the
751:. During this link reaction, for each molecule of pyruvate converted to acetyl coenzyme A, a NAD is also reduced. This stage of the aerobic system takes place in the matrix of the cells'
1159:
251:
if oxygen is unavailable and is thus called alactic anaerobic. This is the primary system behind very short, powerful movements like a golf swing, a 100 m sprint or powerlifting.
739:(FAD) molecule. (The molecules of NAD and FAD mentioned here are electron carriers, and if they are reduced, they have had one or two H ions and two electrons added to them.) The
782:(infoldings of the membrane of the mitochondria). The reaction of each NADH in this electron transport chain provides enough energy for 3 molecules of ATP, while reaction of FADH
216:
Since energy is released when ATP is broken down, energy is required to rebuild or resynthesize it. The building blocks of ATP synthesis are the by-products of its breakdown;
1465:
Løkken N, Hansen KK, Storgaard JH, Ørngreen MC, Quinlivan R, Vissing J (July 2020). "Titrating a modified ketogenic diet for patients with McArdle disease: A pilot study".
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are oxidized to allow the NAD and FAD to be reused in the aerobic system, while electrons and hydrogen ions are accepted by oxygen to produce water, a harmless byproduct.
1027:
Lucia A, Martinuzzi A, Nogales-Gadea G, Quinlivan R, Reason S, et al. (International
Association for Muscle Glycogen Storage Disease study group) (December 2021).
743:
are for each turn of the Krebs cycle. The Krebs cycle turns twice for each six-carbon molecule of glucose that passes through the aerobic system – as two three-carbon
864:, a citric acid cycle intermediate, which enters the mitochondrion through the malate-aspartate shuttle, and from there produces ATP by oxidative phosphorylation.
282:
Aerobic and anaerobic systems usually work concurrently. When describing activity, it is not a question of which energy system is working, but which predominates.
190:
is affected by duration and intensity and by the individual's cardio respiratory fitness level. It is also affected by the type of activity, for instance, during
923:
for oxidative phosphorylation. However, even moderate amounts of alcohol (1-2 drinks) results in more NADH than NAD, which inhibits oxidative phosphorylation.
758:
Oxidative phosphorylation – The last stage of the aerobic system produces the largest yield of ATP – a total of 34 ATP molecules. It is called
815:
Triglycerides stored in adipose tissue and in other tissues, such as muscle and liver, release fatty acids and glycerol in a process known as
1163:
1029:"Clinical practice guidelines for glycogen storage disease V & VII (McArdle disease and Tarui disease) from an international study group"
254:
Anaerobic system – This system predominates in supplying energy for intense exercise lasting less than two minutes. It is also known as the
1332:
Jain P, Singh S, Arya A (May 2021). "A student centric method for calculation of fatty acid energetics: Integrated formula and web tool".
182:
The process that converts the chemical energy of food into ATP (which can release energy) is not dependent on oxygen availability. During
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731:
The Krebs cycle – This is the second stage, and the products of this stage of the aerobic system are a net production of one ATP, one
107:
79:
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The purine nucleotide cycle is used in times of glycolytic or ATP crisis, such as strenuous exercise or starvation. It produces
1510:"Patient-Reported Experiences with a Low-Carbohydrate Ketogenic Diet: An International Survey in Patients with McArdle Disease"
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Relative contribution of ATP production of bioenergetic systems during aerobic exercise at maximum intensity (e.g. sprinting)
60:
86:
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How common monosaccharides (simple sugars) such as glucose, fructose, galactose, and mannose enter the glycolytic pathway
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yields 2 molecules of ATP. This means that 10 total NADH molecules allow the regeneration of 30 ATP, and 2 FADH
258:. An example of an activity of the intensity and duration that this system works under would be a 400 m sprint.
64:
663:
1610:"Metabolism of ketone bodies during exercise and training: physiological basis for exogenous supplementation"
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system is dominant. In a 1 km run, this system is already providing approximately half the energy; in a
708:
Glycolysis – The first stage is known as glycolysis, which produces 2 ATP molecules, 2 reduced molecules of
501:. This is important with respect to the kinds of physical activities that humans are capable of performing.
243:
system) – At maximum intensity, this system is used for up to 10–15 seconds. The ATP–CP system neither uses
143:
Simplified outline of the catabolism of carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids in the synthesis of ATP.
1432:
904:" can create post-exercise ketosis; however, the level of ketones produced are smaller (βHB 0.3 - 2 mM).
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158:(ATP), which is the form suitable for muscular activity. There are two main forms of synthesis of ATP:
759:
621:
154:
processes that relate to the flow of energy in living organisms. Those processes convert energy into
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process to generate ATP for the muscles. They are ATP, the anaerobic system and the aerobic system.
100:
1431:
Valberg, Stephanie J. (2008-01-01), Kaneko, J. Jerry; Harvey, John W.; Bruss, Michael L. (eds.),
855:
747:
molecules enter the Krebs cycle. Before pyruvate enters the Krebs cycle it must be converted to
660:. This process creates enough energy to couple with the energy requirements to resynthesize ATP.
629:
499:
the usefulness of the ATP-CP system lies in the rapid availability of energy rather than quantity
53:
31:
1508:
Løkken N, Voermans NC, Andersen LK, Karazi W, Reason SL, Zweers H, et al. (February 2023).
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261:
Aerobic system – This is the long-duration energy system. After five minutes of exercise, the O
155:
880:
217:
1690:. Sharon Plowman and Denise Smith. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; Third edition (2010).
978:
van Loon LJ, Greenhaff PL, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Saris WH, Wagenmakers AJ (October 2001).
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mile, the lactic acid system is used predominantly for the "kick" at the end of the race.
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1382:"Interaction among Skeletal Muscle Metabolic Energy Systems during Intense Exercise"
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980:"The effects of increasing exercise intensity on muscle fuel utilisation in humans"
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The effects of increasing exercise intensity on muscle fuel utilisation in humans
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896:, it enters the citric acid cycle to produce ATP by oxidative phosphorylation.
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846:(such as the breakdown of muscle tissue) to maintain the free amino acid pool.
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533:
1136:"Hormonal Regulation of Energy Metabolism - Berne and Levy Physiology, 6th ed"
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When the NADH/NAD ratio is disrupted (far more NADH than NAD), this is called
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The conversion of pyruvate into lactate produces NAD+ to keep glycolysis going
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917:
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537:
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770:(hence oxidative) and an extra phosphate is added to ADP to form ATP (hence
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Wallimann T, Wyss M, Brdiczka D, Nicolay K, Eppenberger HM (January 1992).
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582:, ATP is used again in the above reaction for continued muscle contraction)
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1085:. IamGSD - International Association for Muscle Glycogen Storage Disease.
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589:/myokinase when CP is depleted, ATP is again used for muscle contraction)
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716:) and 2 pyruvate molecules that move on to the next stage – the
290:) and substrate use in muscle during aerobic activity (cycling)
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Phosphagen system (ATP-PCr) and purine nucleotide cycle (PNC)
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1160:"James Madison University Strength and Conditioning Program"
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is the field of biology that studies bioenergetic systems.
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952:(increased ATP synthesis primarily from free fatty acids)
605:
ATP + Creatine → H + ADP + CP (Mg assisted, catalyzed by
578:
H + ADP + CP → ATP + Creatine (Mg assisted, catalyzed by
482:
671:
When H ions accumulate in the muscles causing the blood
1688:
Exercise
Physiology for Health, Fitness and Performance
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molecule, three reduced NAD molecules, and one reduced
672:
1179:"Neuromuscular Notes: Diagnosing Metabolic Myopathies"
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1311:(4. ed., ninth print ed.). New York: Freeman.
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67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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469:anaerobic, whereas the oxygen series is aerobic.
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1703:Ch. 38. Hormonal Regulation of Energy Metabolism
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1439:, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 459–484,
778:This stage of the aerobic system occurs on the
186:, the supply and demand of oxygen available to
1712:. Van Loon et al. Journal of Physiology (2001)
1607:
1559:Koeslag JH, Noakes TD, Sloan AW (April 1980).
30:For the language used in systems ecology, see
1331:
1104:
1334:Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education
842:however, it comes at the expense of risking
1717:(OTEP) Open Textbook of Exercise Physiology
1380:Baker JS, McCormick MC, Robergs RA (2010).
1020:
1706:. Berne and Levy Physiology, 6th ed (2008)
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1203:"ExRx.net : Energy Proportion Graphs"
946:(muscle fatigue due to glycogen depletion)
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340:contribution to total energy expenditure
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127:Learn how and when to remove this message
27:Metabolic processes for energy production
1664:. Hayes Barton Press. pp. 176–177.
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762:because oxygen is the final acceptor of
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1433:"Chapter 15 - Skeletal Muscle Function"
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879:During starvation or while consuming a
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203:ATP is the only type of usable form of
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1608:Evans M, Cogan KE, Egan B (May 2017).
1467:Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease
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1720:. Edited by Brian R. MacIntosh (2023)
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235:Three processes can synthesize ATP:
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65:adding citations to reliable sources
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1386:Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism
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1681:
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1279:10.1016/b978-0-12-416687-5.00019-1
1271:Essentials of Medical Biochemistry
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445:Total energy expenditure (kJ min)
409:lipoprotein-derived triglycerides)
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710:nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
567:assisted, utilization of ATP for
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996:10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.00295.x
720:. Glycolysis takes place in the
585:2 ADP → ATP + AMP (catalyzed by
464:Anaerobic and aerobic metabolism
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1662:Quick Look Medicine: Metabolism
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1111:. Saunders College Publishing.
508:system (ATP-PCr) occurs in the
52:needs additional citations for
1577:10.1113/jphysiol.1980.sp013190
1273:, Elsevier, pp. 339–361,
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887:, the liver produces ketones.
512:(a gel-like substance) of the
13:
1:
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724:of normal body cells, or the
478:ATP–CP: the phosphagen system
867:
7:
1265:Bhagavan NV, HA CE (2015),
1079:Living With McArdle Disease
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737:flavin adenine dinucleotide
543:During muscle contraction:
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1660:Coffee, Carole J. (1999).
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166:from the bloodstream, and
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1614:The Journal of Physiology
1565:The Journal of Physiology
1046:10.1016/j.nmd.2021.10.006
984:The Journal of Physiology
760:oxidative phosphorylation
622:oxidative phosphorylation
444:
337:
296:
648:This system is known as
550:Creatine kinase reaction
1734:Chemical energy sources
1561:"Post-exercise ketosis"
1222:The Biochemical Journal
1033:Neuromuscular Disorders
856:Purine nucleotide cycle
850:Purine nucleotide cycle
630:purine nucleotide cycle
383:Plasma free fatty acids
32:Energy Systems Language
1105:Edward L. Fox (1979).
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837:Amino acid degradation
829:Amino acid degradation
823:Amino acid degradation
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286:Exercise intensity (%W
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199:Adenosine triphosphate
156:adenosine triphosphate
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76:"Bioenergetic systems"
1267:"Contractile Systems"
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559:O + ATP → H + ADP + P
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338:Percent of substrate
297:Exercise intensity (W
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218:adenosine diphosphate
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804:Fatty acid oxidation
798:Fatty acid oxidation
650:anaerobic glycolysis
636:Anaerobic glycolysis
618:anaerobic glycolysis
473:Anaerobic metabolism
148:Bioenergetic systems
61:improve this article
1399:10.1155/2010/905612
1183:Practical Neurology
528:compartment of the
332:Moderate-intensity
314:Very low-intensity
291:
222:inorganic phosphate
1527:10.3390/nu15040843
1479:10.1002/jimd.12223
1076:Wakelin A (2017).
914:Ethanol metabolism
908:Ethanol metabolism
877:
844:protein catabolism
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705:Aerobic glycolysis
693:Aerobic glycolysis
688:Aerobic metabolism
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569:muscle contraction
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491:Creatine phosphate
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406:(intramuscular and
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170:, which does not.
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1696:978-0-7817-7976-0
1446:978-0-12-370491-7
1346:10.1002/bmb.21486
1318:978-0-7167-2009-6
1307:Stryer L (1995).
1234:10.1042/bj2810021
1118:978-0-7216-3829-4
1108:Sports physiology
1039:(12): 1296–1310.
990:(Pt 1): 295–304.
749:acetyl coenzyme A
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402:Other fat sources
256:glycolytic system
212:Coupled reactions
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16:(Redirected from
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117:February 2010
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78: –
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72:Find sources:
66:
62:
56:
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50:This article
48:
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1309:Biochemistry
1308:
1302:
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1270:
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1186:. Retrieved
1182:
1172:
1164:the original
1154:
1143:. Retrieved
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1032:
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987:
983:
932:high lactate
925:
921:
902:hit the wall
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753:mitochondria
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188:muscle cells
181:
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83:
71:
59:Please help
54:verification
51:
950:Second wind
741:metabolites
718:Krebs cycle
658:lactic acid
249:lactic acid
1520:(4): 843.
1452:2023-10-10
1392:: 905612.
1294:2022-12-21
1188:2023-07-31
1145:2023-05-28
957:References
726:sarcoplasm
654:Glycolysis
514:sarcoplasm
506:phosphagen
241:phosphagen
220:(ADP) and
87:newspapers
1571:: 79–90.
1514:Nutrients
1495:211121921
1362:231577993
1063:240123241
894:ketolysis
868:Ketolysis
817:lipolysis
764:electrons
722:cytoplasm
530:cytoplasm
526:cytosolic
192:isometric
168:anaerobic
152:metabolic
1728:Category
1644:27861911
1546:36839201
1487:32060930
1418:21188163
1354:33427394
1177:Bhai S.
1055:34848128
1014:11579177
938:See also
881:low-carb
862:fumarate
745:pyruvate
306:At rest
267:marathon
184:exercise
178:Overview
1635:5407977
1595:6997456
1586:1279383
1537:9964801
1409:3005844
1252:1731757
1243:1130636
1005:2278845
889:Ketones
780:cristae
612:ADP + P
534:cardiac
522:myocyte
510:cytosol
160:aerobic
101:scholar
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1002:
573:ATPase
428:Total
270:acids.
245:oxygen
164:oxygen
103:
96:
89:
82:
74:
1491:S2CID
1358:S2CID
1083:(PDF)
1059:S2CID
440:100%
437:100%
434:100%
431:100%
108:JSTOR
94:books
1692:ISBN
1666:ISBN
1640:PMID
1591:PMID
1542:PMID
1483:PMID
1441:ISBN
1414:PMID
1390:2010
1350:PMID
1313:ISBN
1283:ISBN
1248:PMID
1113:ISBN
1051:PMID
1010:PMID
916:and
766:and
714:NADH
620:and
536:and
504:The
420:24%
417:24%
396:15%
393:25%
390:31%
387:56%
377:58%
374:38%
371:35%
358:18%
355:13%
352:10%
349:44%
327:75%W
318:55%W
309:40%W
150:are
80:news
1630:PMC
1622:doi
1618:595
1581:PMC
1573:doi
1569:301
1532:PMC
1522:doi
1475:doi
1404:PMC
1394:doi
1342:doi
1275:doi
1238:PMC
1230:doi
1226:281
1041:doi
1000:PMC
992:doi
988:536
652:. "
571:by
532:of
524:'s
516:of
457:85
454:65
451:50
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423:9%
329:max
320:max
311:max
299:Max
288:max
63:by
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673:pH
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565:Mg
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224:(P
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