Metabolism - Knowledge

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assembly into a novel reaction pathway. The relative importance of these mechanisms is unclear, but genomic studies have shown that enzymes in a pathway are likely to have a shared ancestry, suggesting that many pathways have evolved in a step-by-step fashion with novel functions created from pre-existing steps in the pathway. An alternative model comes from studies that trace the evolution of proteins' structures in metabolic networks, this has suggested that enzymes are pervasively recruited, borrowing enzymes to perform similar functions in different metabolic pathways (evident in the

2560: 3321: 20304: 3542: 950: 1281: 12614: 3695: 12644: 12632: 2026: 12724: 12708: 20315: 19134: 12692: 12680: 12668: 616: 12656: 938: 3433: 2807: 2159: 20335: 1561: 1460: 53: 20345: 3770: 20325: 20294: 19123: 2430:. This process is often coupled to the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds, as part of photosynthesis, which is discussed below. The energy capture and carbon fixation systems can, however, operate separately in prokaryotes, as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use sunlight as a source of energy, while switching between carbon fixation and the fermentation of organic compounds. 61: 89: 2537:, on the other hand, require a source of more complex substances, such as monosaccharides and amino acids, to produce these complex molecules. Organisms can be further classified by ultimate source of their energy: photoautotrophs and photoheterotrophs obtain energy from light, whereas chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs obtain energy from oxidation reactions. 3140:. This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic (phase I) and then conjugate water-soluble groups onto the molecule (phase II). The modified water-soluble xenobiotic can then be pumped out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized before being excreted (phase III). In 3495:

Many models have been proposed to describe the mechanisms by which novel metabolic pathways evolve. These include the sequential addition of novel enzymes to a short ancestral pathway, the duplication and then divergence of entire pathways as well as the recruitment of pre-existing enzymes and their

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may be the result of these reactions having been an optimal solution to their particular metabolic problems, with pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle producing their end products highly efficiently and in a minimal number of steps. The first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism may

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is the set of constructive metabolic processes where the energy released by catabolism is used to synthesize complex molecules. In general, the complex molecules that make up cellular structures are constructed step-by-step from smaller and simpler precursors. Anabolism involves three basic stages.

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to release acetyl-CoA, which then is fed into the citric acid cycle. Fatty acids release more energy upon oxidation than carbohydrates. Steroids are also broken down by some bacteria in a process similar to beta oxidation, and this breakdown process involves the release of significant amounts of

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being most abundant of those. Metal cofactors are bound tightly to specific sites in proteins; although enzyme cofactors can be modified during catalysis, they always return to their original state by the end of the reaction catalyzed. Metal micronutrients are taken up into organisms by specific

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In many organisms, the capture of solar energy is similar in principle to oxidative phosphorylation, as it involves the storage of energy as a proton concentration gradient. This proton motive force then drives ATP synthesis. The electrons needed to drive this electron transport chain come from

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in cells that contain thousands of different enzymes is given by the figure showing the interactions between just 43 proteins and 40 metabolites to the right: the sequences of genomes provide lists containing anything up to 26.500 genes. However, it is now possible to use this genomic data to

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Catabolism is the set of metabolic processes that break down large molecules. These include breaking down and oxidizing food molecules. The purpose of the catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions which build molecules. The exact nature of these

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Torres-Romero JC, Alvarez-Sánchez ME, Fernández-Martín K, Alvarez-Sánchez LC, Arana-Argáez V, Ramírez-Camacho M, Lara-Riegos J (2018). "Zinc Efflux in Trichomonas vaginalis: In Silico Identification and Expression Analysis of CDF-Like Genes". In Olivares-Quiroz L, Resendis-Antonio O (eds.).

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concluded that fermentation was catalyzed by substances within the yeast cells he called "ferments". He wrote that "alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells." This discovery, along with the

2115:. This oxidation consumes molecular oxygen and releases water and the waste product carbon dioxide. When oxygen is lacking, or when pyruvate is temporarily produced faster than it can be consumed by the citric acid cycle (as in intense muscular exertion), pyruvate is converted to 3156:

and oil spills. Many of these microbial reactions are shared with multicellular organisms, but due to the incredible diversity of types of microbes these organisms are able to deal with a far wider range of xenobiotics than multicellular organisms, and can degrade even

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in the cell that need to transfer hydrogen atoms to their substrates. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell, NADH and NADPH. The NAD/NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions, while NADP/NADPH is used in anabolic reactions.

2280: 981:). As these molecules are vital for life, metabolic reactions either focus on making these molecules during the construction of cells and tissues, or on breaking them down and using them to obtain energy, by their digestion. These biochemicals can be joined to make 2783:

groups on the ring of the substrate can be acceptors, the polysaccharides produced can have straight or branched structures. The polysaccharides produced can have structural or metabolic functions themselves, or be transferred to lipids and proteins by the enzymes

19924: 2972:. Just as the letters of the alphabet can be combined to form an almost endless variety of words, amino acids can be linked in varying sequences to form a huge variety of proteins. Proteins are made from amino acids that have been activated by attachment to a 3354:

of the activities of multiple enzymes in the pathway. Extrinsic control involves a cell in a multicellular organism changing its metabolism in response to signals from other cells. These signals are usually in the form of water-soluble messengers such as

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through the pathway). For example, an enzyme may show large changes in activity (i.e. it is highly regulated) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway, then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway.

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is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions. There is only a small amount of ATP in cells, but as it is continuously regenerated, the human body can use about its own weight in ATP per day. ATP acts as a bridge between

3500:) These recruitment processes result in an evolutionary enzymatic mosaic. A third possibility is that some parts of metabolism might exist as "modules" that can be reused in different pathways and perform similar functions on different molecules. 2760:, where it can be used for the production of glucose. Other than fat, glucose is stored in most tissues, as an energy resource available within the tissue through glycogenesis which was usually being used to maintained glucose level in blood. 3345:

There are multiple levels of metabolic regulation. In intrinsic regulation, the metabolic pathway self-regulates to respond to changes in the levels of substrates or products; for example, a decrease in the amount of product can increase the

3813:, and is notable for being the first organic compound prepared from wholly inorganic precursors. This proved that the organic compounds and chemical reactions found in cells were no different in principle than any other part of chemistry. 2123:, a process that also oxidizes NADH back to NAD for re-use in further glycolysis, allowing energy production to continue. The lactate is later converted back to pyruvate for ATP production where energy is needed, or back to glucose in the 3577:

at the whole-organism, tissue and cellular levels, which define the paths from precursors to final products by identifying radioactively labelled intermediates and products. The enzymes that catalyze these chemical reactions can then be

2949:, lack all amino acid synthesis and take their amino acids directly from their hosts. All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway. Nitrogen is provided by 2720:

run in reverse, as several steps are catalyzed by non-glycolytic enzymes. This is important as it allows the formation and breakdown of glucose to be regulated separately, and prevents both pathways from running simultaneously in a

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Meléndez-Hevia E, Waddell TG, Cascante M (September 1996). "The puzzle of the Krebs citric acid cycle: assembling the pieces of chemically feasible reactions, and opportunism in the design of metabolic pathways during evolution".

3737:(The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet's Biography) which included the following phrase "Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment, so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change." 3304:. Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments. Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled. Firstly, the 3745:

The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans several centuries and has moved from examining whole animals in early studies, to examining individual metabolic reactions in modern biochemistry. The first controlled

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of atoms and their bonds within molecules. This common chemistry allows cells to use a small set of metabolic intermediates to carry chemical groups between different reactions. These group-transfer intermediates are called

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All organisms are constantly exposed to compounds that they cannot use as foods and that would be harmful if they accumulated in cells, as they have no metabolic function. These potentially damaging compounds are called

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Macromolecules cannot be directly processed by cells. Macromolecules must be broken into smaller units before they can be used in cell metabolism. Different classes of enzymes are used to digest these polymers. These

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González-Pajuelo M, Meynial-Salles I, Mendes F, Andrade JC, Vasconcelos I, Soucaille P (2005). "Metabolic engineering of Clostridium acetobutylicum for the industrial production of 1,3-propanediol from glycerol".

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group. The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups: in animals and fungi, all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional type I protein, while in plant

3406:, the enzyme that makes it. These enzymes are regulated in a reciprocal fashion, with phosphorylation inhibiting glycogen synthase, but activating phosphorylase. Insulin causes glycogen synthesis by activating 915:, normal metabolism is disrupted. The metabolism of cancer cells is also different from the metabolism of normal cells, and these differences can be used to find targets for therapeutic intervention in cancer. 3606:

mathematical models that may explain and predict their behavior. These models are especially powerful when used to integrate the pathway and metabolite data obtained through classical methods with data on

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Effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism. Insulin binds to its receptor (1), which in turn starts many protein activation cascades (2). These include: translocation of Glut-4 transporter to the

3594:. Overall, these studies give a good view of the structure and function of simple metabolic pathways, but are inadequate when applied to more complex systems such as the metabolism of a complete cell. 2252:

In oxidative phosphorylation, the electrons removed from organic molecules in areas such as the citric acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP. This is done in

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Organisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids. Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty, but mammals can only synthesize eleven nonessential amino acids, so nine

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and the transportation of substances into and between different cells, in which case the above described set of reactions within the cells is called intermediary (or intermediate) metabolism.

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organization, an architecture able to input a wide range of nutrients and produce a large variety of products and complex macromolecules using a relatively few intermediate common currencies.

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from fatty acids to replace glucose in tissues such as the brain that cannot metabolize fatty acids. In other organisms such as plants and bacteria, this metabolic problem is solved using the

19919: 10368: 1517:. Catabolism breaks down molecules, and anabolism puts them together. Catabolic reactions generate ATP, and anabolic reactions consume it. It also serves as a carrier of phosphate groups in 5070:

Heymsfield SB, Waki M, Kehayias J, Lichtman S, Dilmanian FA, Kamen Y, et al. (August 1991). "Chemical and elemental analysis of humans in vivo using improved body composition models".

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groups attached, that can exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of

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studies. Using these techniques, a model of human metabolism has now been produced, which will guide future drug discovery and biochemical research. These models are now used in

11736: 1532:, most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification; for example, all water-soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells. 16069: 15422: 7722: 7533: 8752: 4695:

Raman R, Raguram S, Venkataraman G, Paulson JC, Sasisekharan R (November 2005). "Glycomics: an integrated systems approach to structure-function relationships of glycans".

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Ebenhöh O, Heinrich R (January 2001). "Evolutionary optimization of metabolic pathways. Theoretical reconstruction of the stoichiometry of ATP and NADH producing systems".

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that polymerize and then reduce acetyl-CoA units. The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acyl group, reduce it to an alcohol,

14330: 8174: 2575:). In plants, cyanobacteria and algae, oxygenic photosynthesis splits water, with oxygen produced as a waste product. This process uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the 18667: 18514: 3258:

that maintain their state of high complexity by causing a larger increase in the entropy of their environments. The metabolism of a cell achieves this by coupling the

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Munekage Y, Hashimoto M, Miyake C, Tomizawa K, Endo T, Tasaka M, Shikanai T (June 2004). "Cyclic electron flow around photosystem I is essential for photosynthesis".

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as a sole source of carbon, and genes involved in the cholesterol-use pathway(s) have been validated as important during various stages of the infection lifecycle of

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Krämer M, Bongaerts J, Bovenberg R, Kremer S, Müller U, Orf S, et al. (October 2003). "Metabolic engineering for microbial production of shikimic acid".

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Lees ND, Skaggs B, Kirsch DR, Bard M (March 1995). "Cloning of the late genes in the ergosterol biosynthetic pathway of Saccharomyces cerevisiae--a review".

7347: 5812:"Glycolysis, tumor metabolism, cancer growth and dissemination. A new pH-based etiopathogenic perspective and therapeutic approach to an old cancer question" 7059:

Pilkis SJ, el-Maghrabi MR, Claus TH (June 1990). "Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate in control of hepatic gluconeogenesis. From metabolites to molecular genetics".

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metabolic processes that are not essential for survival are lost and preformed amino acids, nucleotides and carbohydrates may instead be scavenged from the

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Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units. Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells after they have been digested into

1948:, are digested into their smaller components outside cells. Next, these smaller molecules are taken up by cells and converted to smaller molecules, usually 18672: 17185: 17141: 16656: 16037: 3665:. These genetic modifications usually aim to reduce the amount of energy used to produce the product, increase yields and reduce the production of wastes. 8349:"Structure, function and evolution of glutathione transferases: implications for classification of non-mammalian members of an ancient enzyme superfamily" 5105: 20685: 20052: 17893: 1497:

for a set of enzymes that produce it, and a set of enzymes that consume it. These coenzymes are therefore continuously made, consumed and then recycled.

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for an open flow model to be made. He believed that at each stage of the process, materials from food were transformed, with heat being released as the

18677: 14892: 13705: 6487:"Diel variations in carbon metabolism by green nonsulfur-like bacteria in alkaline siliceous hot spring microbial mats from Yellowstone National Park" 20082: 19538: 15415: 2506:, secondly, their activation into reactive forms using energy from ATP, and thirdly, the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules such as 7280: 1936:

The most common set of catabolic reactions in animals can be separated into three main stages. In the first stage, large organic molecules, such as

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catabolic reactions differ from organism to organism, and organisms can be classified based on their sources of energy, hydrogen, and carbon (their

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in pathways that require large amounts of metabolic energy. Consequently, most organisms have efficient systems to salvage preformed nucleotides.

18507: 16746: 7961: 804:) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy. 9804:

Pál C, Papp B, Lercher MJ, Csermely P, Oliver SG, Hurst LD (March 2006). "Chance and necessity in the evolution of minimal metabolic networks".

3246:(disorder) cannot decrease. Although living organisms' amazing complexity appears to contradict this law, life is possible as all organisms are 2103:

for use in powering many processes within the cell. Pyruvate is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways, but the majority is converted to

19219: 17668: 6734: 647: 2744:; plants do, but animals do not, have the necessary enzymatic machinery. As a result, after long-term starvation, vertebrates need to produce 20670: 19974: 14158: 13909: 11212: 9937:

Sterck L, Rombauts S, Vandepoele K, Rouzé P, Van de Peer Y (April 2007). "How many genes are there in plants (... and why are they there)?".

9241: 3828:. The mass of biochemical knowledge grew rapidly throughout the early 20th century. One of the most prolific of these modern biochemists was 14870: 3590:

investigated. A parallel approach is to identify the small molecules in a cell or tissue; the complete set of these molecules is called the

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Microbes simply secrete digestive enzymes into their surroundings, while animals only secrete these enzymes from specialized cells in their

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as sources of reducing power and they gain energy from the oxidation of these compounds. These microbial processes are important in global

1649:(proteins, lipids and carbohydrates) contain the majority of the carbon and nitrogen; most of the oxygen and hydrogen is present as water. 869:

A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways among vastly different species. For example, the set of

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such as plants can construct the complex organic molecules in their cells such as polysaccharides and proteins from simple molecules like

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Metabolism involves a vast array of chemical reactions, but most fall under a few basic types of reactions that involve the transfer of

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simulations. These techniques have allowed the discovery and detailed analysis of the many molecules and metabolic pathways in cells.

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Single lines: pathways common to most lifeforms. Double lines: pathways not in humans (occurs in e.g. plants, fungi, prokaryotes).

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As well as the evolution of new metabolic pathways, evolution can also cause the loss of metabolic functions. For example, in some

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that had extensive amino acid, nucleotide, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. The retention of these ancient pathways during later

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Gianchandani EP, Brautigan DL, Papin JA (May 2006). "Systems analyses characterize integrated functions of biochemical networks".

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that separated the study of the chemical reactions of metabolism from the biological study of cells, and marked the beginnings of

811:, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific 20017: 18608: 18049: 17777: 16982: 11351: 10567: 10516: 9648:

Teichmann SA, Rison SC, Thornton JM, Riley M, Gough J, Chothia C (December 2001). "Small-molecule metabolism: an enzyme mosaic".

8716: 1952:(acetyl-CoA), which releases some energy. Finally, the acetyl group on acetyl-CoA is oxidized to water and carbon dioxide in the 8886:

Soyer OS, Salathé M, Bonhoeffer S (January 2006). "Signal transduction networks: topology, response and biochemical processes".

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Gupta R, Gupta N, Rathi P (June 2004). "Bacterial lipases: an overview of production, purification and biochemical properties".

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Stasolla C, Katahira R, Thorpe TA, Ashihara H (November 2003). "Purine and pyrimidine nucleotide metabolism in higher plants".

5365:"Contributions of anoxygenic and oxygenic phototrophy and chemolithotrophy to carbon and oxygen fluxes in aquatic environments" 1162:. Amino acids also contribute to cellular energy metabolism by providing a carbon source for entry into the citric acid cycle ( 20761: 20008: 19956: 19861: 16703: 15827: 10603: 9324: 8864: 7906: 5504: 5227: 5046: 4671: 4475: 4029: 3762:, working, sex, fasting, drinking, and excreting. He found that most of the food he took in was lost through what he called " 1383:. Nucleic acids are critical for the storage and use of genetic information, and its interpretation through the processes of 8959:

Westerhoff HV, Groen AK, Wanders RJ (January 1984). "Modern theories of metabolic control and their applications (review)".

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Testa B, Krämer SD (October 2006). "The biochemistry of drug metabolism--an introduction: part 1. Principles and overview".

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Galvão TC, Mohn WW, de Lorenzo V (October 2005). "Exploring the microbial biodegradation and biotransformation gene pool".

8142:"Characterisation of multiple substrate-specific (d)ITP/(d)XTPase and modelling of deaminated purine nucleotide metabolism" 7325: 6255: 419: 18492: 13348: 7577: 6598: 5341: 5144: 4966: 2461:. These protons move back through the membrane as they drive the ATP synthase, as before. The electrons then flow through 1134:

the chemical reactions in metabolism. Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as those that form the

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Kornberg HL, Krebs HA (May 1957). "Synthesis of cell constituents from C2-units by a modified tricarboxylic acid cycle".

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Shively JM, van Keulen G, Meijer WG (1998). "Something from almost nothing: carbon dioxide fixation in chemoautotrophs".

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Danielson PB (December 2002). "The cytochrome P450 superfamily: biochemistry, evolution and drug metabolism in humans".

19212: 17156: 16646: 15936: 15184: 15022: 14859: 10623:. Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine. Kuwait: Islamic Medical Organization. 10254:

Ma HW, Zeng AP (July 2003). "The connectivity structure, giant strong component and centrality of metabolic networks".

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Freeze HH, Hart GW, Schnaar RL (2015). "Glycosylation Precursors". In Varki A, Cummings RD, Esko JD, Stanley P (eds.).

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Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). "Energy Conversion: Mitochondria and Chloroplasts".

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Kruger, Nicholas J; von Schaewen, Antje (2003). "The oxidative pentose phosphate pathway: structure and organisation".

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Wernegreen JJ (December 2005). "For better or worse: genomic consequences of intracellular mutualism and parasitism".

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uses light energy to remove electrons from water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. The electrons then flow to the

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The central pathways of metabolism described above, such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, are present in all

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exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway (the

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Jetten MS, Strous M, van de Pas-Schoonen KT, Schalk J, van Dongen UG, van de Graaf AA, et al. (December 1998).

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the mechanisms of carbon fixation are more diverse. Here, carbon dioxide can be fixed by the Calvin–Benson cycle, a

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Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals. Their main structural uses are as part of internal and external

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Zrenner R, Stitt M, Sonnewald U, Boldt R (2006). "Pyrimidine and purine biosynthesis and degradation in plants".

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Lichtenthaler HK (June 1999). "The 1-Deoxy-D-Xylulose-5-Phosphate Pathway of Isoprenoid Biosynthesis in Plants".

374: 1605:) while others function at minute concentrations. About 99% of a human's body weight is made up of the elements 20380: 20189: 20062: 19899: 19866: 18558: 18142: 17752: 17564: 17539: 17215: 16696: 16691: 15956: 14665: 14596: 14588: 13894: 13473: 10593: 8062: 5113: 3468: 3308:

of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals. Secondly, the

3263: 2957:. Nonessensial amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha-keto acid, which is then 2576: 2435: 104: 20712:"Galactose Mutarotase: Purification, Characterization, and Investigations of Two Important Histidine Residues" 12970: 11304: 9094:

Cohen P (December 2000). "The regulation of protein function by multisite phosphorylation--a 25 year update".

7673:"Methanocaldococcus jannaschii uses a modified mevalonate pathway for biosynthesis of isopentenyl diphosphate" 6182:

Capaldi RA, Aggeler R (March 2002). "Mechanism of the F(1)F(0)-type ATP synthase, a biological rotary motor".

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Barrett MP, Walmsley AR, Gould GW (August 1999). "Structure and function of facilitative sugar transporters".

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Dunn LL, Suryo Rahmanto Y, Richardson DR (February 2007). "Iron uptake and metabolism in the new millennium".

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who made huge contributions to the study of metabolism. He discovered the urea cycle and later, working with

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word μεταβολή—"metabole" for "a change" which is derived from μεταβάλλειν—"metaballein", meaning "to change"

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Kinne-Saffran E, Kinne RK (1999). "Vitalism and synthesis of urea. From Friedrich Wöhler to Hans A. Krebs".

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Alves R, Chaleil RA, Sternberg MJ (July 2002). "Evolution of enzymes in metabolism: a network perspective".

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Schmidt S, Sunyaev S, Bork P, Dandekar T (June 2003). "Metabolites: a helping hand for pathway evolution?".

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Plant cells (bounded by purple walls) filled with chloroplasts (green), which are the site of photosynthesis

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and carbon dioxide to produce energy. The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a

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A very well understood example of extrinsic control is the regulation of glucose metabolism by the hormone

3247: 3235: 3158: 2604: 896: 815:. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require 11524: 11513: 10678: 8631:

Vertuani S, Angusti A, Manfredini S (2004). "The antioxidants and pro-antioxidants network: an overview".

7412:"Recent developments in the cell biology and biochemistry of glycosylphosphatidylinositol lipids (review)" 3296:

As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing, the reactions of metabolism must be finely

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present, with most photosynthetic bacteria only having one type, while plants and cyanobacteria have two.

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Friedrich B, Schwartz E (1993). "Molecular biology of hydrogen utilization in aerobic chemolithotrophs".

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Souba WW, Pacitti AJ (1992). "How amino acids get into cells: mechanisms, models, menus, and mediators".

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Anabolism in organisms can be different according to the source of constructed molecules in their cells.

2054: 1778:), as shown in the table below. Organic molecules are used as a source of hydrogen atoms or electrons by 1728:

depends upon the movement of calcium, sodium and potassium through ion channels in the cell membrane and

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Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). "How Cells Obtain Energy from Food".

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Dulhunty AF (September 2006). "Excitation-contraction coupling from the 1950s into the new millennium".

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to free fatty acids and glycerol. The glycerol enters glycolysis and the fatty acids are broken down by

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Alfarouk KO, Verduzco D, Rauch C, Muddathir AK, Adil HH, Elhassan GO, et al. (18 December 2014).

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that cause the cells to take up glucose and convert it into storage molecules such as fatty acids and

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Sierra S, Kupfer B, Kaiser R (December 2005). "Basics of the virology of HIV-1 and its replication".

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Most of the structures that make up animals, plants and microbes are made from four basic classes of

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Eknoyan G (1999). "Santorio Sanctorius (1561-1636) - founding father of metabolic balance studies".

10268: 9354: 6726: 2996:, which joins the amino acid onto the elongating protein chain, using the sequence information in a 20552: 20135: 19496: 19488: 19331: 18579: 18574: 18039: 17854: 17309: 16886: 16315: 16237: 16054: 15921: 14843: 14826: 14778: 14631: 14315: 13187: 12908: 12849: 12755: 12121: 11831: 11618: 4277:"Metabolic Flexibility as an Adaptation to Energy Resources and Requirements in Health and Disease" 3872: 2607:. These differ by the route that carbon dioxide takes to the Calvin cycle, with C3 plants fixing CO 2296: 2265: 2257: 1957: 1494: 1384: 1163: 866:

of an organism is the measure of the amount of energy consumed by all of these chemical reactions.

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Bonora M, Patergnani S, Rimessi A, De Marchi E, Suski JM, Bononi A, et al. (September 2012).

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In these early studies, the mechanisms of these metabolic processes had not been identified and a

2018:. The amino acids or sugars released by these extracellular enzymes are then pumped into cells by 20115: 20027: 19468: 19343: 18832: 18527: 17874: 17618: 17577: 17040: 17015: 16943: 16925: 16706:– this diagram does not include the pathway for β-leucine synthesis via leucine 2,3-aminomutase) 16686: 16396: 16320: 16116: 16093: 16031: 15634: 15615: 15475: 15359: 15027: 14833: 14601: 14259: 14178: 13963: 13931: 13832: 13734: 13514: 13509: 13383: 13281: 13030: 13025: 13011: 12986: 12712: 12700: 12636: 12358: 12103: 11224: 8676:"Does microbial life always feed on negative entropy? Thermodynamic analysis of microbial growth" 7494:

White SW, Zheng J, Zhang YM (2005). "The structural biology of type II fatty acid biosynthesis".

4493:"Analysis of tricarboxylic acid-cycle metabolism of hepatoma cells by comparison of 14CO2 ratios" 3950: 3851: 3763: 3674: 3368: 3364: 3189: 3129: 3013: 2210: 2058: 511: 449: 114: 109: 10947: 4467: 4460: 3838:

Modern biochemical research has been greatly aided by the development of new techniques such as

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through the Calvin–Benson cycle, but use energy from inorganic compounds to drive the reaction.

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Carbon Catabolism pathway map for free energy including carbohydrate and lipid sources of energy

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Chirala SS, Wakil SJ (November 2004). "Structure and function of animal fatty acid synthase".

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van der Meer MT, Schouten S, Bateson MM, Nübel U, Wieland A, Kühl M, et al. (July 2005).

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can also refer to the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, including

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Borodina I, Nielsen J (June 2005). "From genomes to in silico cells via metabolic networks".

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Hendrickson WA (November 2005). "Transduction of biochemical signals across cell membranes".

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Nelson N, Ben-Shem A (December 2004). "The complex architecture of oxygenic photosynthesis".

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into other compounds first, as adaptations to deal with intense sunlight and dry conditions.

2584: 2423: 2308: 2299:. This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called 2218: 2120: 2100: 1412: 620: 555: 459: 313: 291: 234: 7890: 6124: 1544:), is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor. Hundreds of separate types of 20446: 20318: 19632: 19461: 19316: 18886: 18652: 18522: 18242: 18123: 17869: 17093: 16867: 16600: 16590: 16576: 16452: 16009: 15799: 15541: 15321: 14959: 14502: 13958: 13842: 13768: 13617: 13564: 13378: 13260: 12965: 12941: 12903: 12660: 12209: 11485: 11470: 10322: 10173: 10114: 10055: 9813: 9696: 9438: 9381: 9138: 8895: 8793: 8447: 8106: 7201: 7023: 6680: 6629: 6498: 5870: 5208: 4233: 4128: 4066: 3715: 3579: 3550: 3489: 2936: 2930: 2926: 2898: 2839: 2797: 2401: 2369: 2320: 2050: 1388: 878: 863: 787: 540: 379: 359: 40: 13727: 10702:

Manchester KL (December 1995). "Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)--chance and the prepared mind".

10044:"Global reconstruction of the human metabolic network based on genomic and bibliomic data" 5364: 4990:"The power to reduce: pyridine nucleotides--small molecules with a multitude of functions" 4632: 4591:

Fahy E, Subramaniam S, Brown HA, Glass CK, Merrill AH, Murphy RC, et al. (May 2005).

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19 May 2016 at the Portuguese Web Archive Undergraduate-level guide to molecular biology.

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approach that focuses on a single metabolic pathway. Particularly valuable is the use of

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Krebs HA, Henseleit K (1932). "Untersuchungen über die Harnstoffbildung im tierkorper".

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Thykaer J, Nielsen J (January 2003). "Metabolic engineering of beta-lactam production".

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Lienhard GE, Slot JW, James DE, Mueckler MM (January 1992). "How cells absorb glucose".

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King CD, Rios GR, Green MD, Tephly TR (September 2000). "UDP-glucuronosyltransferases".

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Kuzuyama T, Seto H (April 2003). "Diversity of the biosynthesis of the isoprene units".

7205: 7107:"Revisiting the glyoxylate cycle: alternate pathways for microbial acetate assimilation" 7027: 7016:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

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Quantitative Models for Microscopic to Macroscopic Biological Macromolecules and Tissues

4861:"Catalytic and mechanical cycles in F-ATP synthases. Fourth in the Cycles Review Series" 4791: 4237: 4132: 4070: 2209:. Several of these keto acids are intermediates in the citric acid cycle, for example α- 19936: 19889: 19831: 19715: 19387: 19186: 19166: 18906: 18896: 18764: 18428: 17944: 17936: 17660: 17519: 17483: 17279: 16828: 16572: 15854: 15299: 14574: 14460: 14455: 14430: 14415: 14230: 14123: 14086: 13973: 13328: 13001: 12946: 12933: 12716: 12626:. Click any text (name of pathway or metabolites) to link to the corresponding article. 12020: 11981: 11927: 11790: 11188: 10907: 10882: 10836: 10762: 10659: 10589: 10541: 10345: 10312: 10300: 10196: 10161: 10137: 10102: 10078: 10043: 10042:

Duarte NC, Becker SA, Jamshidi N, Thiele I, Mo ML, Vo TD, et al. (February 2007).

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acetyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, and pyruvate, which can all be used by the cell for energy.

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The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find

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Wimmer MJ, Rose IA (1978). "Mechanisms of enzyme-catalyzed group transfer reactions".

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reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from reduced donor molecules such as

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Kelleher JK, Bryan BM, Mallet RT, Holleran AL, Murphy AN, Fiskum G (September 1987).

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are detoxified by a set of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. In humans, these include

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Lawrence JG (December 2005). "Common themes in the genome strategies of pathogens".

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nucleotide metabolism, while previous metabolic pathways were a part of the ancient

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NAD into NADH. This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the

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Miziorko HM, Lorimer GH (1983). "Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase".

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that exchange matter and energy with their surroundings. Living systems are not in

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as substrates. One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is

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is an organic compound needed in small quantities that cannot be made in cells. In

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available to run cellular processes; the conversion of food to building blocks of

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Himmelreich R, Hilbert H, Plagens H, Pirkl E, Li BC, Herrmann R (November 1996).

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