741:, the magistrate judge discusses the requirement that the government present evidence of the total loss of the victim by showing the losses under 18 U.S.C. § 2259(c)(2)(A)-(F) (for example, medical services, lost income, therapy, or any other relevant losses incurred by the victim). The judge determines that the amended statute does not solve the problem of a situation in which the government cannot prove the total losses of the victim. The amended statute requires calculating the total loss before the $ 3,000 floor comes into play, so no restitution can be ordered if they government does not show total losses. The district court judge rejected the recommendation to gather more evidence, but agreed with the magistrate judge's logic.
234:
derived from tort law, which finds causation in fact when a defendantâs conduct, combined with conduct by other persons, is âmore than sufficient to cause the harm.â The majority chose neither. Rather, the majority held that where losses can be shown but it is impossible to trace a particular amount of the losses to the individual defendant, âa court applying § 2259 should order restitution in an amount that comports with the defendantâs relative role in the causal process that underlies the victimâs general losses.â
25:
226:.â The majority then applied this language to all victim losses, rather than only the last category, to find an explicit requirement of proximate cause. Thus, according to the majority, to recover restitution, a victim must prove both elements of proximate cause: causation in fact (the former event caused the latter) and proximate cause (sufficient connection to the result).
704:
continued by saying the amount fit with
Congress' goal of proportionality in sentencing because $ 3,000 "reflects the amount of restitution currently being sought and ordered in district courts throughout the country." A United States Sentencing Commission report showed that $ 3,000 was the mean amount of payment ordered for child pornography crimes.
238:
defendants. At the end, she suggested that âCongress might amend the statute . . . to include the term âaggregate causation.ââ She also suggested that
Congress might enact minimum restitution amounts, such as the statutorily imposed $ 150,000 minimum civil remedy for child pornography victims under 18 U.S.C. § 2255.
681:
In a statement before the Senate
Judiciary Committee on February 5, 2015, for the AVA of 2015 (S. 295), Senator Hatch explained that no restitution was ordered at all in 75 percent of child pornography cases, and that this bill would prevent victims from "the never-ending burden of chasing defendants
653:
and emphasize the bill's intent to solve the Court's question of who bears the burden of seeking out all other defendants for restitution. The AVA of 2014 would shift the burden to the defendants, who may have to pay all of the victim's losses and then sue others who have harmed the victim to spread
233:
However, the majority did not find causation in fact. The traditional causation standard is but-for causation, which would lead to no losses being a proximate cause of the defendantâs conduct. The victim and the government advocated for applying an aggregate causation standard for causation in fact,
661:
Many elements of the legislation changed between the first version and the final bill that became law in 2018. There is no longer language about joint and several liability or burden shifting. The floor for all child pornography offenses is $ 3,000. The goal remains to change the law to accommodate
253:
opinion argued that it muddied restitution decisions in child pornography cases throughout the country due to a lack of guidance on how to determine how much restitution particular possessor defendants owed particular victims. Many lower courts found that the majorityâs rules that the amount should
181:
using assessments from defendants convicted of child pornography offenses and set-aside funds. Victims of child pornography trafficking are entitled to receive a one-time payment of $ 35,000 from this fund instead of fighting for restitution if they so choose. The court can assess the defendant for
776:
requested $ 47,000 for six victims against a defendant convicted of receipt of child pornography. The district court judge did not order restitution because there was no evidence that the defendant possessed images of the particular victims. The judge included a footnote that acknowledged the AVAA
672:
First, it considers a victimâs total losses, including from individuals who may not have yet been identified. This step reflects the unique nature of child pornography and its ongoing impact on its victims. Secondly, the bill requires real and timely restitution and gives judges options for making
221:
analyzed the meaning of the âfull amount of the victimâs lossesâ definition in the then-current 1996 version of 18 U.S.C. § 2259(b). The defendant in the case was convicted of possessing child pornography featuring the victim, and the victim was attempting to recover restitution. Economist Stan V.
292:
suggests that district courts, âas a starting point, determine the amount of the victimâs losses caused by the continuing traffic in the victimâs images' . . . . he Court believes . . . it is simply not possible for the
Government to show, âas a starting point,â the amount of losses caused by the
237:
Chief
Justice Roberts and Justice Sotomayor wrote separate dissents, both criticizing the statute and calling on Congress to amend it. Justice Sotomayorâs dissent argued for applying the aggregate causation standard and holding the defendant liable for all of the victimâs losses for harm from all
273:
factors are determinable with some precision, a number of other factors are virtually unknown and unknowable, regardless of the detail available in the record. For example, how is a district judge to make a 'reliable estimate of the broader number of offenses involvedâ when even the U.S. Supreme
718:
The passage of the AVAA prompted discussions of what will come next to help protect victims of child pornography offenses and other offenses. Paul G. Cassell and James M. Marsh wrote a law review article that called the AVAA a "modest but useful step" towards a system that prioritizes victims'
185:
It clarifies that the "full amount of the victim's losses" for trafficking in child pornography cases includes any costs incurred, or reasonably projected to be incurred in the future, as a proximate result of all the trafficking in child pornography offenses that involve the same victim. This
703:
Senator Hatch mentioned in his statement for the record for
President Trump that the $ 3,000 floor is "reasonable, fair, and equitable" and was determined by "considering a range of options with a specific goal of fully compensating victims of child pornography in a swift and just manner." He
204:
The
Mandatory Victim Restitution Act of 1996, codified in part at 18 U.S.C. § 3363A, requires courts to order that a defendant pay a victim restitution in certain cases, such as those that involve crimes of violence or pecuniary loss to the victim. Child pornography cases are included in this
229:
The majority found proximate cause easily: âhe victimâs costs of treatment and lost income resulting from the trauma of knowing that images of her abuse are being viewed over and overâ are direct and foreseeable results of child pornography crimes, including the defendantâs possession crime.
758:
was convicted of possession of child pornography. The district court judge ordered $ 54,000 in restitution, split among eight victims. The judge stated, "restitution is mandatory pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 2259 in the full amount of the victims' losses attributable to
Defendantâs activities."
662:
the "unique" ways child pornography crimes harm victims over and over again, but the purpose has gone from making sure victims are "fully compensated for all the harms resulting from each and every perpetrator who contributes to their anguish" to dropping "each and" to dropping "fully."
693:, also questioned whether the joint and several liability standard would violate the Eighth Amendment and expressed concerns that this issue would delay restitution because of the need to litigate constitutional questions. The bill died in committee in the House after this hearing.
688:
Various professors and practitioners expressed a want for a fixed compensation without litigation option in a hearing on the House companion bill for the AVA of 2015 (H.R. 595). Jill
Steinberg, the National Coordinator for Child Exploitation Prevention and Interdiction at the
777:
amending 18 U.S.C. § 2259 but did not apply it because it did not order restitution. The judge did not discuss the possibility of the victim recovering $ 35,000 from the Child
Pornography Victims Reserve or the new evidence rules about reviewing the images in question.
222:
Smith, Ph.D., had calculated the economics losses for the plaintiff in the case. The central question was the appropriate causation standard to apply. The majority highlighted that the final category of victimâs losses read, âany other losses suffered by the victim
719:
interests. The authors discussed the low floor of $ 3,000 and encouraged district court judges to use it as "simply a floor" and give larger awards. The authors also proposed that the AVAA may set a precedent for expanding restitution of victims in the future.
696:
About two and a half years later, when Senator Hatch spoke in a Senate Judiciary Hearing about the AVAA, he focused on the opportunity for the victims to choose a one-time fixed compensation amount of $ 35,000. He did not mention "full" recovery or
153:
call on Congress to clarify the meaning of the restitution statute. It aims to create an effective system suited for the unique nature of child pornography crimes. It is codified in various sections of Title 18 and Title 34 of the
374:, Congress had been trying to address the courts' requests for years. Senator Hatch, who introduced the AVAA, tried to get similar legislation passed two times before the AVAA succeeded. A timeline for all three bills is below.
337:
Congress is currently considering a enacting a law that would provide for a graduated system of restitution for victims of child pornography beginning with a minimum amount of $ 25,000 for possession. If enacted,
189:
It allows child pornography victims to enjoy equal rights with criminal defendants to review the child pornography in question in the case. This access will help victims prepare expert testimony and identify
1446:
Decision, Hearing, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, Homeland Security, and Investigations, Committee of the Judiciary, House of Representatives, 114th Cong., Serial No. 114-8 (March 19, 2015),
866:
174:
It sets a floor of $ 3,000 in restitution that courts must order defendants to pay to victims, representing the defendant's relative role in the causal process that underlies the victim's losses.
1733:
Decision, Hearing, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, Homeland Security, and Investigations, Committee of the Judiciary, House of Representatives, 114th Cong., Serial No. 114-8 (March 19, 2015),
658:
dissent. The AVA of 2014 would also create restitution floors of $ 250,000 for child pornography production offenses, $ 150,000 for distribution offenses, and $ 25,000 for possession offenses.
357:
The AVAA is named after three victims of some of the most widely distributed child pornography series in the world. All three victims have expressed their support for the bill in statements.
205:
mandate, as codified in 18 U.S.C. § 2259. Specifically, defendants convicted of sexual exploitation or other child abuse crimes must pay the victim the "full amount of the victim's losses."
276:
It appears to this Court that some of the factors the Supreme Court suggests be considered are at best difficult, and at worst impossible to calculate in this case as in most similar cases.
89:
61:
68:
678:
Representatives talked about the House companion bill (H.R. 4981) as giving victims "full protection and compensation." However, the bill did not pass the Senate or the House.
75:
57:
1303:
254:
not be severe, token, or nominal, and should be reasonable and circumscribed, were not useful in practice. Some examples of lower court cases trying to apply the
685:
Senators Feinstein and Grassley described the bill's solution as joint and several liability and Senator Grassley said it would overturn the Supreme Court.
305:
his area, in which Congress has adopted a scheme that at least approaches the limits of fair adjudication despite attempts by the courts to avoid caprice,
744:
The magistrate judge mentions that the victim can still get relief through the one-time $ 35,000 compensation from the Child Pornography Victims Reserve.
1784:
1589:
Hatch, Orrin G. (2014-05-07). "Text - S.2301 - 113th Congress (2013-2014): Amy and Vicky Child Pornography Victim Restitution Improvement Act of 2014".
870:
570:
S. 2152 referred to the House Committee on the Judiciary; referred to the House Subcommittee on Crime, terrorism, Homeland Security, and Investigations
186:
expands what counts as "total losses," and therefore increases the defendant's restitution amount for the defendant's relative role, as discussed above.
46:
39:
997:
82:
1893:
1832:
United States v. Hollman, 2019 WL 418208 (C.D. Ill. Jan. 14, 2019), rejected by United States v. Hollman, 2019 WL 418404 (C.D. Ill. Feb. 1, 2019).
1747:
673:
that happen. Third, it allows defendants who have contributed to the same victimâs losses to spread the cost of restitution among themselves.
149:
that changes how federal courts determine the amount of restitution victims of child pornography offenses receive. The AVAA responds to the
792:
654:
out the costs. The legislation justifies this shift by invoking joint and several liability, as Justice Sotomayor argues for in her
1304:
https://childvictims.us/senator-hatch-introduces-the-amy-vicky-andy-child-pornography-victim-assistance-act-of-2017/#.XPOal1NKg0p
333:, a district court judge in Massachusetts discussed the potential for Congress to improve consistency in the restitution system:
321:
Some courts have difficulty determining a starting point for the losses caused by the âcontinuing traffickingâ of images. . . .
1652:
These findings quotes come from the AVA of 2014, AVAA of 2017 as introduced, and AVAA of 2018 as signed into law respectively.
1086:
at 446 (citing 18 U.S.C. § 2259(b)(3)(F)) (emphasis added) (section 2259(b)(3)(F) has since changed to section 2259(c)(2)(F)).
1343:"Actions - H.R.4981 - 113th Congress (2013-2014): Amy and Vicky Child Pornography Victim Restitution Improvement Act of 2014"
1396:"Actions - H.R.595 - 114th Congress (2015-2016): Amy and Vicky Child Pornography Victim Restitution Improvement Act of 2015"
1318:"Actions - S.2301 - 113th Congress (2013-2014): Amy and Vicky Child Pornography Victim Restitution Improvement Act of 2014"
1368:"Actions - S.295 - 114th Congress (2015-2016): Amy and Vicky Child Pornography Victim Restitution Improvement Act of 2015"
293:âcontinuing traffickingâ in Cindy and Vickyâs images. This theoretical starting point will simply not exist in many cases.
690:
349:, served as a call to action for Congress. Congress' response will be explored in the legislative history section below.
1605:"Text - S.2301 - 113th Congress (2013-2014): Amy and Vicky Child Pornography Victim Restitution Improvement Act of 2014"
1676:"Cartwright Introduces Bipartisan Legislation to Create Effective Restitution Process for Victims of Child Pornography"
1538:"Actions - H.R.6845 - 115th Congress (2017-2018): Amy, Vicky, and Andy Child Pornography Victim Assistance Act of 2018"
1513:"Actions - H.R.4963 - 115th Congress (2017-2018): Amy, Vicky, and Andy Child Pornography Victim Assistance Act of 2018"
150:
1785:
https://www.ussc.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/research-and-publications/annual-reports-and-sourcebooks/2013/Table15.pdf
867:"Hatch's Child Pornography Victim Assistance Act Signed into Law - Press Releases - United States Senator Orrin Hatch"
1461:"Actions - S.2152 - 115th Congress (2017-2018): Amy, Vicky, and Andy Child Pornography Victim Assistance Act of 2018"
953:
902:"Actions - S.2152 - 115th Congress (2017-2018): Amy, Vicky, and Andy Child Pornography Victim Assistance Act of 2018"
108:
517:
Hearing on H.R. 595 in the House Judiciary Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, Homeland Security, and Investigations
1734:
1630:"Text - S.2152 - 115th Congress (2017-2018): Amy, Vicky, and Andy Child Pornography Victim Assistance Act of 2018"
1487:
1447:
1419:
1878:
1772:
1717:
1898:
1662:
1561:
1287:
1022:
1560:
Statements on Introduced Bills and Joint Resolutions, Congressional Record S2797, S2798-S2799 (May 7, 2014),
1460:
1317:
700:
A newspaper editorial described the AVAA as a "good compromise between previous Senate and House proposals."
1537:
1512:
1367:
1342:
1146:
at 451-52 (quoting 1 Restatement (Third) of Torts: Liability for Physical and Emotional Harm § 27, Comment
831:"S.2152 - 115th Congress (2017-2018): Amy, Vicky, and Andy Child Pornography Victim Assistance Act of 2018"
665:
The following statements and other information provide context for why these amendments may have occurred:
1395:
142:
1629:
1240:
United States v. Crisostomi, 31 F. Supp. 3d 361, 364 (D.R.I. 2014) (emphasis added) (citations omitted).
1213:
The New Amy, Vicky, and Andy Act: A Positive Step Towards Full Restitution for Child Pornography Victims
901:
594:
Companion bill #2 (H.R. 6845) introduced in the House; referred to the House Committee on the Judiciary
429:
H.R. 4981 referred to the House Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, Homeland Security, and Investigations
417:
Companion bill (H.R. 4981) introduced in the House and referred to the House Committee on the Judiciary
1797:
The New Amy, Vicky, and Andy Act: A Positive Step Toward Full Restitution for Child Pornography Victims
1661:
Statements on Introduced Bills and Joint Resolutions, Congressional Record S2797, S2798 (May 7, 2014),
1286:
Statements on Introduced Bills and Joint Resolutions, Congressional Record S2797, S2798 (May 7, 2014),
455:
Companion bill (H.R. 595) introduced in the House and referred to the House Committee on the Judiciary
130:
1874:
1712:
Statement, Download. "Executive Business Meeting | United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary".
1699:
Statement, Download. "Executive Business Meeting | United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary".
1604:
797:
582:
Companion bill (H.R. 4963) introduced in the House; referred to the House Committee on the Judiciary
217:
1593:. Retrieved 2019-06-02; Paroline v. United States, 572 U.S. 434 (2014) (Sotomayor, J., dissenting).
998:"Senator Hatch Introduces the Amy Vicky & Andy Child Pornography Victim Assistance Act of 2017"
505:
H.R. 595 referred to House Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, Homeland Security, and Investigations
146:
1866:
139:
1870:
1300:
Senator Hatch Introduces the Amy Vicky & Andy Child Pornography Victim Assistance Act of 2017
274:
Court admits parenthetically that âmost of whom will, of course, never be caught, or convicted?'
35:
830:
786:
669:
The original purpose of the AVA of 2014 (S. 2301) as proposed by Senator Hatch had three parts:
533:
Introduced as AVAA of 2017 (S. 2152) in the Senate; referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee
1277:
United States v. Shultz, 2015 WL 5972421, at *3 n.2 (D. Mass. Oct. 14, 2015) (emphasis added).
1216:
890:
18 U.S.C. §§ 1 NT, 2251 NT, 2252A, 2256, 2259, 2259A, 2259B, 3509, 3613; 34 U.S.C. § 20101.
493:
S. 295 sent to and received in the House; referred to the House Committee on the Judiciary
8:
762:
If split equally, each victim recovered $ 6,750, which is over double the $ 3,000 floor.
727:
A few cases have discussed or applied the amended 18 U.S.C. § 2259 since it became law.
182:
up to $ 17,000, $ 35,000, or $ 50,000, depending on the type of child pornography crime.
178:
155:
340:
this law would eliminate much of the present variability in victim restitution awards.
1675:
1039:
933:
634:
Senator Hatch sent statement for the record to President Trump on December 3, 2018
1199:
979:
159:
1215:, 31 Fed. Sentencing Reporter (forthcoming 2019) (manuscript at 6) (available at
1448:
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-114hhrg93798/pdf/CHRG-114hhrg93798.pdf.
1773:
https://childvictims.us/wp-content/uploads/Hatch-STATEMENT-FOR-RECORD-AVAA.pdf.
1735:
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-114hhrg93798/pdf/CHRG-114hhrg93798.pdf
1250:
United States v. Reynolds, 2014 WL 4187936, at *5-6 (E.D. Mich. Aug. 22, 2014).
1488:"Executive Business Meeting | United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary"
1420:"Executive Business Meeting | United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary"
1259:
United States v. Galan, 804 F. 3d 1287, 1291 (9th Cir. 2015) (emphasis added).
170:
The AVAA adds four key protections for victims of child pornography offenses:
1887:
1663:
https://www.congress.gov/113/crec/2014/05/07/CREC-2014-05-07-pt1-PgS2797.pdf
1562:
https://www.congress.gov/113/crec/2014/05/07/CREC-2014-05-07-pt1-PgS2797.pdf
1288:
https://www.congress.gov/113/crec/2014/05/07/CREC-2014-05-07-pt1-PgS2797.pdf
1040:"18 U.S. Code § 3663A - Mandatory restitution to victims of certain crimes"
805:
1268:
United States v. Austin, 2015 WL 5224917, at *2 (D. Nev. Sept. 8, 2015).
960:
Am. Jur. 2d Lewdness, Indecency, and Obscenity § 42 Victimsâ Remedies.
177:
It creates a Child Pornography Victims Reserve Fund within the federal
558:
S. 2152 passed the Senate with minor amendments and sent to the House
325:
is of limited use because no logical starting point can be determined.
58:"Amy, Vicky, and Andy Child Pornography Victim Assistance Act of 2018"
682:
across the country for the rest of only to recover next to nothing."
1867:
Amy, Vicky, and Andy Child Pornography Victim Assistance Act of 2018
285:, a district court judge in the Eastern District of Michigan stated:
123:
Amy, Vicky, and Andy Child Pornography Victim Assistance Act of 2018
24:
1844:
United States v. Penaloza, 2019 WL 328944 (E.D.N.Y. Jan. 17, 2019).
980:"18 U.S. Code § 3509 - Child victims' and child witnesses' rights"
1771:
Senator Orrin G. Hatch, Statement for the Record (Dec. 3, 2018),
789: â Case of child sexual abuse, prosecution, and restitution
1853:
United States v. Block, 2019 WL 316002 (D.S.D. Jan. 24, 2019).
1748:"U.S. House must support child-pornography victim restitution"
808: â Legal remedy taking away a benefit wrongfully obtained
597:
H.R. 6845 matched the amendments made to S. 2152 in the House
1217:
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3317733
631:
President Trump signed S. 2152; became Public Law 115-299
607:
S. 2152 considered and passed the House with amendments
810:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
345:
These cases, along with Justice Sotomayor's dissent in
1783:
United States Sentencing Commission, table 15 (2013),
645:
The AVA of 2014 was introduced in direct response to
545:
Hearing on S. 2152 in the Senate Judiciary Committee
856:
Paroline v. United States, 572 U.S. 434, 443 (2014).
483:
Statements by Senators Grassley, Hatch, and Schumer
467:
Hearing on S. 295 in the Senate Judiciary Committee
265:, a district court judge in Rhode Island explained:
199:
131:
1885:
649:. Senator Hatch's introductory remarks discuss
404:AVA of 2014 (S. 2301) introduced in the Senate
444:AVA of 2015 (S. 295) introduced in the Senate
370:Although the AVAA became law four years after
1729:Child Exploitation Restitution Following The
1442:Child Exploitation Restitution Following The
802: â 2014 United States Supreme Court case
619:Senate agreed to House amendments on S. 2152
317:, a district court judge in Nevada mentioned:
747:
208:
793:Child pornography laws in the United States
730:
470:Statements by Senators Hatch and Feinstein
269:In this Courtâs opinion, while some of the
1510:
1393:
1340:
765:
520:Statements by various interested parties
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
1894:Acts of the 115th United States Congress
1574:
1572:
1570:
1482:
1480:
241:
162:The act became law on December 7, 2018.
1840:
1838:
1389:
1387:
1302:, Marsh Law Firm PLLC (Nov. 16, 2017),
852:
850:
1886:
1795:Paul G. Cassell & James M. Marsh,
1211:Paul G. Cassell & James R. Marsh,
1174:at 475-76 (Sotomayor, J., dissenting).
407:Introductory remarks by Senator Hatch
360:
307:cries out for a congressional solution
45:Please improve this article by adding
1799:, 31 Fed. Sent. Rep. 187, 193 (2019).
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224:as a proximate result of the offense
18:
691:United States Department of Justice
13:
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136:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
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1044:LII / Legal Information Institute
984:LII / Legal Information Institute
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200:Mandatory Victim Restitution Act
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1529:
1511:Cartwright, Matt (2018-02-07).
1504:
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1394:Cartwright, Matt (2015-03-17).
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1341:Cartwright, Matt (2014-07-21).
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1628:Hatch, Orrin G. (2018-12-07).
1603:Hatch, Orrin G. (2014-05-07).
1459:Hatch, Orrin G. (2018-12-07).
1366:Hatch, Orrin G. (2015-02-12).
1316:Hatch, Orrin G. (2014-05-07).
1231:, 572 U.S. 434, 458-59 (2014).
947:
938:
927:
918:
900:Hatch, Orrin G. (2018-12-07).
893:
884:
859:
829:Hatch, Orrin G. (2018-12-07).
822:
301:, the Ninth Circuit commented:
215:In 2014, the Supreme Court in
1:
815:
194:
165:
151:United States Supreme Court's
47:secondary or tertiary sources
869:. 2018-12-23. Archived from
480:S. 295 passed in the Senate
7:
934:34 U.S.C. § 20101(d)(6)(A).
780:
722:
548:Statement by Senator Hatch
365:
263:United States v. Crisostomi
10:
1915:
1536:Gowdy, Trey (2018-09-20).
924:18 U.S.C. § 2259(b)(2)(B).
1731:Paroline v. United States
1718:Congressional Record S916
1444:Paroline v. United States
799:Paroline v. United States
749:United States v. Penaloza
283:United States v. Reynolds
218:Paroline v. United States
210:Paroline v. United States
158:. The primary section is
147:United States federal law
16:United States federal law
1716:. Retrieved 2019-06-02;
1714:www.judiciary.senate.gov
1701:www.judiciary.senate.gov
1680:Amy, Vicky, and Andy Act
1492:www.judiciary.senate.gov
1424:www.judiciary.senate.gov
1002:Amy, Vicky, and Andy Act
732:United States v. Hollman
1703:. Retrieved 2019-06-02.
969:18 U.S.C. § 2259(c)(2).
331:United States v. Shultz
315:United States v. Austin
787:Abuse of Kylie Freeman
767:United States v. Block
675:
343:
327:
311:
299:United States v. Galan
295:
279:
34:relies excessively on
1899:Child pornography law
670:
335:
319:
303:
287:
267:
1879:US Statutes at Large
1877:) as enacted in the
1150:, pg. 380-81 (2005).
1065:18 U.S.C. § 2259(b).
944:18 U.S.C. § 2259(d).
604:September 28, 2018
591:September 20, 2018
378:
361:Legislative history
258:factors are below.
1004:. 16 November 2017
772:The government in
641:Legislative intent
616:November 15, 2018
542:December 14, 2017
530:November 16, 2017
490:February 12, 2015
477:February 11, 2015
377:
179:Crime Victims Fund
156:United States Code
1752:The Seattle Times
954:18 U.S.C. § 2259A
754:The defendant in
709:Potential effects
638:
637:
628:December 7, 2018
579:February 7, 2018
567:January 25, 2018
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806:Restitution
437:AVA of 2015
397:AVA of 2014
1888:Categories
1758:2019-06-02
1686:2019-06-02
1639:2019-06-02
1614:2019-06-02
1547:2019-06-02
1522:2019-06-02
1497:2019-06-02
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1327:2019-06-02
1008:2019-06-02
911:2019-06-02
877:2019-06-02
840:2019-06-02
816:References
195:Background
166:Provisions
69:newspapers
36:references
99:July 2019
1229:Paroline
1198:(citing
958:See also
781:See also
756:Penaloza
723:Case law
656:Paroline
651:Paroline
647:Paroline
372:Paroline
366:Timeline
347:Paroline
323:Paroline
290:Paroline
271:Paroline
256:Paroline
251:Paroline
244:Paroline
190:victims.
1875:details
1823:at 187.
1811:at 191.
1186:at 488.
1162:at 458.
1134:at 450.
1122:at 459.
1110:at 444.
1098:at 446.
739:Hollman
388:Action
145:) is a
132:Pub. L.
83:scholar
391:Notes
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1026:(PDF)
774:Block
385:Date
143:(PDF)
90:JSTOR
76:books
382:Act
127:AVAA
121:The
62:news
1871:PDF
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