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328:. The comparison between the mosaic and sarcophagus has gained traction in the scholarly field, supported by other scholars such as Andrew Stewart. Alexander is shown mounted, wearing a lion skin on his head, and preparing to throw a spear at the Persian cavalry. There remains debate surrounding the importance of the historicity of the figures seen in the hunting and battle scenes. While historians such as von Grave interpret them as accurate portrayals of historic figures, other historians like Schefold focus on them as mythic subjects of the battles and royal hunt. Some scholars, as well, believe that a second mounted
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222:. In order to support this assertion, Heckel questions why a sarcophagus for Abdalonymus, a king from Sidon, would feature so many Persian figures and iconographies, arguing that the dress, facial features, and activities of the central figure is more historically aligned with Persian rather than Phoenician nobility. The answer to this, according to Heckel, is that the relevance of these figures and iconographies would be more fitting for the Persian nobleman instead. In support, he theorizes that one of the side friezes depicts the
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Greeks. Due to the cross-cultural influences in Greek art at the time, however, there are conflicting attributes within the sarcophagus itself. For example, the lions found on the corners of the roof have specifically Asian attributes. There are also several mythologized creatures, such as "three ram horns growing on feline heads" that would have been entirely foreign to the
132:, the King of Sidon, helps narrow down the time period in which this sarcophagus was most likely created. We know that Abdalonymus was appointed to this position by Alexander the Great in 333 to 332 BC, and is said to have died in roughly 311 BC (although the exact date is unknown). It was demonstrated by archaeologist and scholar
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warriors depicted on the sarcophagus are shown fighting in the nude, as was typical of Greek iconography. They were, however, painted, showing the colorful details of their skin tones, hair colors, helmets, and shields. The
Persians these warriors fought against, on the other hand, were painted with
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in 312 BC- if this is the case, the pediment above that end would be showing the murder of
Perdiccas in 320 BC. It has been conjectured that Abdalonymus ultimately died in the Battle of Gaza, although this is unsubstantiated. If this is the case, however, then this pediment would be the depiction of
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together with
Abdalonymus and the Persians. Stewart has also presented that this may be an example of Alexander hunting in the Sidonian game park in 332 BC. This is a unique depiction of the Macedonians and Persians collaborating in the hunt. This is significant due to the fact that the scene on the
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and ending in 306/305 BC. Andrew
Stewart argues that the sarcophagus offers no unified program or obviously coherent message at all, as the scenes in each relief contradict the other, with iconography mixing both Western and Eastern standards. The themes of battle and hunt are consistent throughout
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city-state, which has led other scholars like
Caroline Houser to argue its stylistic origins being rooted in Phoenicia. It has been argued that the majority of the sculptural detailing can be attributed to ancient Greek styles, drawing back to the capture of this Near Eastern city by the ancient
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of the sarcophagus, each lending to different interpretations of the overall theme of the sarcophagus itself. These different interpretations have varied due to the complex styles and subject matters. Some scholars have interpreted these narratives as biographically relating to the life of
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Although it has been widely accepted that this was not the actual sarcophagus of
Alexander the Great himself from early on in its analysis, there has been great scholarly debate surrounding who the patron of the sarcophagus was. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of
376:. Evidence of polychromy, referring to the colorful paintwork found on statuary (especially ancient statuary), has been found on the sarcophagus, and would have actually been seen during the unearthing of the sarcophagus during its excavation in 1887. The
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kings regularly commissioned their tombs ante-mortem in consideration of their "posthumous reputations." This is a commonly supported claim that has been continuously upheld by many scholars, but it has also been equally contested. For example,
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According to many scholars, both the provenance and date of the
Alexander Sarcophagus remain uncontested, landing it firmly in the city of Sidon and having been most likely commissioned after 332 BC. The pertinent and continuous depiction of
144:, contrasting against the stylistic progression marked by the work of Lysippos. He also asserts that his tomb would have been prepared before his death, although the vague timeline of Abdalonymus's life leaves this open-ended.
160:, an underground temple or tomb that consists of a series of rooms. It likely functioned as a royal necropolis, which also assists in supporting the scholarly debate regarding the possible patron of this sarcophagus.
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idiom. Stewart concurs with
Schefold, claiming that the unification of the varying stylistic elements is associated with Attic sculpture. However, according to archaeologist
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One of the short ends leads the eye towards the mythic lion hunt, portraying a scene in which
Abdalonymus hunts a panther. On the other short end is a battle, perhaps the
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This sarcophagus in particular is one of four massive carved sarcophagi that formed two pairs. These pairs were discovered during the 1887 excavations conducted by
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and scrolling historical and mythological narratives. The work is considered to be remarkably well preserved, and has been used as an exemplar for its retention of
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201:(333 BC). Scholar Andrew Stewart asserts that the Alexander Sarcophagus was patronized by Abdalonymus for a number of reasons: mainly, for the reason that
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bright, vibrant armor. The polychromy depicts the detailed patterns of their pants and skirts, as well as the intricate paint work done on their shields.
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1968) maintain this opinion; Schefold's is the modern monograph from which more recent opinion departs; its many photographs are by Max Seidel.
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opposite end has been largely interpreted as the Battle of Issus, which is broadly understood as a symbol of
Macedonian defeat of the Persians.
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to have been made before Abdalonymus's death, due to its still-classical manner being purportedly uninfluenced by the style of
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200 cm Ă— 170 cm Ă— 320 cm (79 in Ă— 67 in Ă— 130 in)
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The opposite long side shows Alexander, recognized as the "horseman at the center left," and the Macedonians hunting
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The roof ridge of the Alexander Sarcophagus, made of two "massive blocks" of marble, is lined with alternating
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his last moments in battle. The other pediment on the lid above shows Abdalonymus in an unidentified battle.
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140:. Schefold argues that the sarcophagus retains a more conservative approach to its composition and
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in 331 BC, showing the strength of Mazaeus' military leadership in directing the Persian army.
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Sismondo Ridgway, Brunilde (1969). "Review: Der Alexander-Sarkophag by Karl Schefold".
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workshop, in this case working at Sidon. It is helpful to note here, that Sidon was a
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Cross-section of the Ayaa Necropolis. The Alexander sarcophagus is bottom middle.
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Sismondo Ridgway, Brunilde. "Review: Der Alexander-Sarkophag by Karl Schefold."
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Alexander routs Persians on one of the long sides of the Alexander Sarcophagus
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One aspect of the sarcophagus's history that remains widely debated is which
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on one long side of the piece depict Alexander fighting the Persians at the
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the friezes: one long side and one short side depicts each of these scenes.
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Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity.
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Ancient Greece: From the Archaic Period to the Death of Alexander the Great
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Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity
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Heckel, Waldemar. "Mazaeus, Callisthenes and the Alexander Sarcophagus."
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Heckel, Waldemar. "Mazaeus, Callisthenes and the Alexander Sarcophagus".
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Color reconstruction of Achaemenid infantry on the Alexander Sarcophagus
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Color reconstruction of Achaemenid cavalry on the Alexander Sarcophagus
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701:. Oxford, England: University of California Press. pp. 294–298.
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Colour reconstruction of one of the short sides of the Sarcophagus
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763:. Oxford, England: University of California Press. p. 43.
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Abdalonymos, with the series beginning in 333/332 BC with the
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Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics.
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Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics
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Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics
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sculptors' hands have been distinguished, working in an
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culture may have created it. According to Schefold, six
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Oxford, England: University of California Press, 1993.
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291:) and eagles. Different narratives decorate the
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856:Der Alexandersarkophag und seine Werkstatt.
638:.2, Alexander the Great , pp. 183–188) and
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152:The Alexander Sarcophagus was found in the
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744:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
732:Der Alexandersarkophag und seine Werkstatt
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716:. Cambridge University Press. p. 122.
457:, Britannica Educational Publishing, p.176
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821:Historia: Zeitschrift fur Alte Geschichte
546:Historia: Zeitschrift fĂĽr Alte Geschichte
522:. Oxbow Books, Limited. pp. 281–289.
520:Regional Schools in Hellenistic Sculpture
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97:Royal necropolis of Ayaa
644:Der Alexander-Sarkophag
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230:Attribution
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142:iconography
130:Abdalonymus
93:sarcophagus
89:Hellenistic
1122:Categories
772:References
552:: 385–396.
370:polychromy
360:Polychromy
330:Macedonian
285:statuettes
256:Phoenician
113:polychromy
36:Dimensions
967:Buildings
844:73, 1969.
823:55, 2006.
740:cite book
734:. Berlin.
338:Perdiccas
289:Atargatis
148:Discovery
95:from the
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906:(1892),
876:(1892),
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477:Archived
423:See also
297:pediment
138:Lysippos
60:Istanbul
52:Location
1148:War art
580:: 482.
293:friezes
267:world.
252:Rhodian
220:Babylon
216:Persian
212:Mazaeus
158:hypogea
123:History
105:Lebanon
47:15 tons
923:Plates
594:504019
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322:Naples
240:Ionian
188:Patron
91:stone
44:Weight
1078:Egypt
590:JSTOR
440:Notes
345:lions
261:fauna
244:Attic
101:Sidon
99:near
746:link
308:The
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