1969 White Paper - Knowledge

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paper proposed eliminating Indian status as a distinct legal status within Canada. The paper proposed that this would make First Nations Peoples equal to other Canadians by making them official Canadian citizens with the franchise. The Paper said that Indian status was derived from legislation that encouraged separation among peoples, and its benefits occurred too slowly to be efficient and effective. The White Paper also proposed all special programs available to Indigenous peoples because of their Indian status should be removed. This would end special or individualized treatment by ethnicity. Trudeau's vision of a just society was one in which all discriminatory legislation was repealed. The Paper said that eliminating Indian status would "enable the Indian people to be free—free to develop Indian cultures in an environment of legal, social and economic equality with other Canadians.".

876:, or the "Brown Paper", which rejected the White Paper and asserted the continued existence of Aboriginal title. The Brown Paper proposed that new programs and services should be put in place for Indigenous peoples to help them to continue to grow and to thrive at a pace that is consistent with indigenous beliefs and culture. While it stated that it was the responsibility of the federal Government to institute the new social and economic programs, it also emphasized that such programs should not be overseen or administered by the government but simply set them up in a way that indigenous communities could facilitate the programs themselves. It also discussed how indigenous peoples should not surrender self-governance and control of indigenous issues simply because they denied federal control. 772:

Paper, whose conclusions were the opposite of what they had wanted, was seen as a betrayal. The White Paper was seen by First Nations as an arrogant document, with the state declaring that it knew better about what was good for them than they did themselves. Also, the White Paper gave only the most limited recognition to First Nations land claims and implied that would be no more land claims, as it argued the First Nations peoples would become part of Canadian society and would own land as individuals, just like anyone else. Given the number of unsettled land claims, most notably in British Columbia, where the Crown had never signed treaties covering land claims with any of the First Nations peoples, that aspect of the White Paper was considered provocative.

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locally involved level. Among the groups were 33 provincial organizations and 4 national indigenous associations. Opposition to the White Paper created the first national First Nations movement spanning the entire country. However, the opposition led to the sidelining of the young Red Power militants and reinforced the traditional ascendancy of the band chiefs as the leaders of the First Nations communities. Across the country, more Indian friendship centres began to emerge more than before. One of the key points to the newfound indigenous activism was the focus on the growth of what the term indigenous rights meant, and by 1981, it had been changed to include a focus on not only land rights but also self-government.

869:(UBCIC) during the conference. The White Paper was considered to be especially provocative in British Columbia, as the Crown had never signed treaties with any of the Indian peoples of British Columbia on land cessation and so the White Paper was felt to be an attempt by the Trudeau government to avoid dealing with the issue. It is the contention of the First Nations of British Columbia that because no treaties were ever signed with them, they are still the lawful owners of all land in British Columbia, and the Crown had to return the land to them or to compensate them at the full market value of the land, which could cost the Crown hundreds of billions of dollars. 986:. The responsibilities of the Department of Indigenous Services includes overseeing matters as they pertain to the improvement in the quality of services that indigenous peoples are receiving, with the eventual goal of the services being handled by the indigenous communities themselves, rather than the government outside of the indigenous community. Indigenous relations with the government include issues of treaty right and self-governance are overseen by the Department of Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs. The goal of the departments is described by the government as one of the next steps towards the eventual abolishment of the 845:" and that the First Nations were equally opposed to "a White Paper for white people created by the white elephant." Cardinal called the assumptions of the White Paper "cultural genocide" and argued that Trudeau and Chrétien had merely changed the traditional American slogan for dealing with the Indians "the only good Indian is a dead Indian" to "the only good Indian is a non-Indian." Cardinal ridiculed the claim that Trudeau and Chrétien would "lead the Indians to the promised land" and insisted that the First Nations people had to determine their own fates without the government telling them what to do. 576:. Indigenous people would be granted full rights as citizens instead of being regarded as wards of the state. First Nations Peoples would be incorporated fully into provincial government responsibilities as equal Canadian citizens, and reserve status would be removed; laws of private property would be imposed in indigenous communities. Any special programs or considerations that had been allowed to First Nations people under previous legislation would be terminated. The Government believed that such special considerations acted to separate Indian peoples from other Canadian citizens. 494: 747:. A commissioner would be appointed to investigate outstanding land claims by First Nations and to terminate treaties. Finally, the White Paper proposed transferring jurisdiction for Aboriginal affairs from the federal government to the provinces, and gradually integrating services to them with the services provided to other Canadian citizens. The White Paper said that these actions would reduce costs associated with the federal government's administration of Indian Affairs and responsibilities under existing treaties. 825:, which attacked the premise that a society that treated its Aboriginal population like Canada did could be considered "just". The title of Cardinal's book, with its inversion of Trudeau's slogan of a "just society," was one of the many ways that Cardinal used rhetorical devices to make his points. Cardinal attacked in his book what he called the "buckskin curtain" to convey what he regarded as the indifference shown by Canadian society to First Nations concerns. The "buckskin curtain" was an allusion to the " 483: 908:. They presented the White Paper and the Red Paper, symbolically rejecting the former by placing it on the table in front of Chrétien and endorsing the latter by handing a copy to Trudeau. Surprising many, Trudeau responded by acknowledging the White Paper as a failure. Though he did not apologize for it, he admitted, "We had perhaps the prejudices of small 'l" liberals and white men at that who thought that equality meant the same law for everybody." 880:

Paper and said at a press conference, "We'll keep them in the ghetto as long as they want." In 1974, a caravan consisting of many Native people traveled the county to gather support for its opposition. Its main goal was to spread the message that there should be constitutional recognition for the rights of indigenous peoples, including non-status Indians and Métis. That movement would go on to be known as "Red Power."

589:, which for 60 years had restricted status Indians to reserves. They could leave only with a pass issued by an Indian Agent. With more freedom of movement, status Indians could become more involved in Canadian society. Parliament created a Special Joint Committee in 1946, which, with the help of the Senate and the House of Commons, sought to assess the effects of the 970:

new forms of government and be given the opportunity to be self-governing. The indigenous governments would function outside federal and provincial governments. As of January 2015, three self-governance agreements have been put into effect, and 26 land claims have been settled by the federal government.

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Self-administration had been taking place since the 1960s, but there continued to be unrest regarding how the administrated powers were delegated. The response to the unrest was a report released in 1983 with recommendations for indigenous communities to be allowed the opportunity to create their own

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Despite the abandonment, many still feel that the intent of the White Paper and the values of its legislation continue to be held by the Canadian government and that assimilation remains the long-term goal. Since the abandonment of the White Paper, indigenous interest in politics has increased and so

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played a primary role in the Canadian Government's decision to retract the White Paper. The controversy served to mobilize the more recent indigenous rights movements. Many of the groups that emerged from the movement were considered to be pioneers in the organization of indigenous peoples past a

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during the consultations had been largely ignored and met with a proposal for abolishment. The scholar Gordon Gibson noted that many Indians had become accustomed to the reserve system and so attached to it despite its many "defects" and were thus stunned by the news of its proposed abolition, which

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has been one of the main goals of the policy, and part of official legislation for over a century. It reinstated Indian Status that had been lost and its rights of band membership for those people who had lost them by either compulsory enfranchisement, or inheritance policies. The amendments to the

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chief Frank Calder. Its purpose was to review the existence of indigenous land title, which had been claimed over lands that had been previously occupied by the Nisga'a people of British Columbia. The case was lost, but the Supreme Court's final ruling noted for the first time that Indigenous land

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in which he defended the objective of terminating the treaties: "It's inconceivable I think that in a given society, one section of the society have a treaty with the other section of the society." In the same speech, he added "We can't recognize aboriginal rights because no society can be built on

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It was the 1969 White Paper that first brought Chrétien to widespread public attention in Canada. At a press conference announcing the White Paper, Chrétien openly clashed with Indian activists, with one First Nations woman asking Chrétien "When did we lose our identity?" to which he replied, "When

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A major First Nations grievance about the White Paper was the sweeping claim that the Canadian state would change their entire status without being allowed any input. The way that Chrétien had invited First Nations leaders to Ottawa to consult them in May 1969 and a month later introduced the White

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When presenting the White Paper in 1969, Trudeau and Chrétien proposed it as a definitive means of dealing with First Nations issues. They suggested that existing policies that applied only to Indigenous peoples were discriminatory in nature, since they did not apply to other Canadian citizens. The

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Many public protests and marches were held opposing the White Paper and demanding more appropriate action be taken to address First Nations issues. Indian Affairs offices as well as a park in Ontario were occupied, and bridges were blockaded in many areas. In 1970, Trudeau withdrew the White

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within five years, abolishing the reserve system, and converting reserve land into private property owned by the band or Aboriginal landholders, which could be sold on a fee simple basis. A $ 50 million fund for economic development was to be established to compensate for the termination of the

639:, which failed to provide students with the necessary skills to succeed in the modern economy. Hawthorne recommended all forced assimilation programs, such as the residential schools, be abolished, and that Aboriginal peoples be seen as "citizens plus", and given opportunities and resources for 623:

and saying that they would achieve their own goals "by any means necessary". Malcolm X was not talking about the status of First Nations peoples in Canada, but his militant advocacy of Black Pride, racial separatism, and a willingness to use violence made him a hero to the Canada's budding "Red

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becoming part of the Canadian Constitution. Section 35 protects the existing indigenous treaty rights and "Indian Status" includes all First Nations peoples, now including Inuit and Métis. However, there is still much ambiguity to that section, and it is a matter of continued controversy for

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Opponents thought that the White Paper proposals failed to meet any historical promises that had been made by the federal government to First Nations people in Canada. In addition, they thought the Paper failed to take into account any of the suggestions made by Indigenous peoples during the

852:. The document, which was popularly known as the Red Paper, embodied the national Aboriginal stance on the White Paper its statement: "There is nothing more important than our treaties, our lands and the well-being of our future generations." Though just one part of the overall reason, 920:

public awareness of indigenous issues and goals has increased as well. With that increased political activity in the indigenous community, experienced and knowledgeable aboriginal leaders have emerged to meet the government's willingness to discuss indigenous issues.

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in 1784, to which Chrétien had no reply. Chrétien's response made him very unpopular among many Indian activists. However, Chrétien felt that the White Paper was in the best interests of the First Nations and was rather taken aback by the charges made against him of

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On February 23, 2014, the Liberal Party of Canada, at its biennial convention, renounced with regret the White Paper of 1969 as a step towards reconciliation between the First Nations, Canada and the party. Under legislation brought forth by Liberal Prime Minister

718:. For instance, he argued that the best way of protecting French-Canadian rights, as in Quebec, was to strengthen individual rights. although group rights were favoured by many of his fellow French-Canadians. Given that background, Trudeau had questioned the 635:. He concluded that Canada's Aboriginal peoples were the most marginalized and disadvantaged group among the Canadian public. It described them as "citizens minus." Hawthorn attributed these conditions to years of bad government policy, especially the 759:

and other organizations issued statements against it. Many people within and outside indigenous communities believed that, rather than acknowledging historical wrongdoings and fault, the Canadian government was trying to absolve itself of its fault.

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In November 1969, Rose Charlie of the Indian Homemakers' Association, Philip Paul of the Southern Vancouver Island Tribal Federation, and Don Moses of the North American Indian Brotherhood invited British Columbia's band leaders to join them in

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finished the debate by recognizing Aboriginal title in Canadian law and agreeing that indigenous title to land claims has existed significantly before European colonization in Canada. The case was brought to the courts by the

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After fighting in the First and Second World Wars on behalf of the United Kingdom, First Nations peoples returned home motivated to improve their status and living conditions in Canada. In 1945, the government abolished the

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Although the White Paper recognized past policy failures by the federal government and the socio-economic situation of Aboriginal peoples, it was seen by many Aboriginal peoples as the latest in a series of attempts at

569:. It proposed to assimilate First Nations as an ethnic group equal to other Canadian citizens. The White Paper was met with widespread criticism and activism, causing the proposal to be officially withdrawn in 1970. 2134: 1685: 939:

title had a place in Canadian law. The case served as the basis for the creation of the Nisga'a Treaty in 2000, which established the Nisga'a people's right to self-govern in its traditional territory.

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to compensate for previous injustices suffered because of government policies and actions. The Paper also did not include any proposal for meaningful Aboriginal participation in public policymaking.

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By July 1970, the Canadian government had backed away from the recommendations of the White Paper. Trudeau officially withdrew the White Paper proposal in 1970, but indigenous activism continued.

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Activists noted the abuses of First Nations peoples and the deplorable conditions in which many were forced to live. In 1963 the federal government commissioned anthropologist

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asked Chrétien, "How can you come here and ask us to become citizens, when we were here long before you?"; she noted that the Crown had granted the Grand River Valley to

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in Ottawa, and on June 3, they endorsed the Red Paper as their official response to the White Paper. On June 4, the Indigenous leaders obtained a meeting with the full

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Government of Canada (n.d.). General Briefing Note on Canada's Self-government and Comprehensive Land Claims Policies and the Status of Negotiations. Briefing Note.

680:, and implied that they been killed by whites. The presenter of the documentary characterized the reserves of northern Saskatchewan, where the people lived at a 593:

of 1876. In 1959, status Indians were granted the right to vote in Canadian elections and to hold office. (Non-status Indians had the right to vote since 1876).

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In the late 1950s, activism continued to rise on reserves; by the 1960s, a widespread civil rights movement had blossomed. In 1963, the journalist

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consultations while the paper was drafted. The Paper did not honour any of the promises made to indigenous peoples by the Canadian government for

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Both indigenous and non-indigenous peoples reacted quickly with strong opposition to most of the policies and actions proposed in the paper. The

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Cardinal considered the White Paper as "passing the buck" to the provinces and led the association's 1970 rejection of the White Paper

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documentary was aired about the life on reserves in northern Saskatchewan. It focused on several unsolved murders of Indians and

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The government's initial response to the backlash was to defend the White Paper. On August 8, 1969, Trudeau gave a speech in

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in the United States, a Red Power movement had emerged in Canada. Several activists advocated aggressive actions, quoting

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occurred in 1985, and one of the key concepts of the act, the concept of enfranchisement, was removed. That part of the

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Note: "Aboriginal law" refers to Canadian law dealing with Indigenous peoples; "Indigenous law" refers to the

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to examine the social conditions of First Nations people in Canada. In 1966, he published his report,

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In May 1969, the government held a meeting of regional Aboriginal leaders from across the nation in

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A Survey of the Contemporary Indians of Canada: Economic, Political, Educational Needs and Policies

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A Survey of the Contemporary Indians of Canada: Economic, Political, Educational Needs and Policies

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to build a response to the White Paper. Representatives from 140 bands were present and formed the

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A Survey of the Contemporary Indians of Canada: Economic, Political, Educational Needs and Policies

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A new look at Canadian Indian policy : respect the collective - promote the individual

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Aboriginal Peoples and Politics: The Indian Land Question in British Columbia, 1849-1989

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At the beginning of June 1970, leaders of the National Indian Brotherhood gathered at

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and consulted Aboriginal communities across Canada in pursuit of an amendment to the

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recognized that bands would facilitate the control of band membership themselves.

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you signed the treaties," which prompted boos and jeers. Another woman from the

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as an anomaly that treated one group of Canadians as different from the others.

2531: 2176: 975: 834: 830: 673: 647: 628: 548: 543:) was a policy paper proposal set forth by the Government of Canada related to 459: 424: 293: 2010:(Report). Vol. Part 2. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Archived from 1994:(Report). Vol. Part 1. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Archived from 1140: 1076: 2748: 2695: 2608: 2579: 2566: 2552: 2188: 2139: 2099: 1105: 1049: 700: 597: 498: 401: 217: 182: 1169: 841:. Cardinal wrote that Cree like himself wanted to remain "a red tile in the 2702: 2587: 2559: 2524: 1770: 1731: 1436: 942:

In 1982, Indigenous and treaty rights were recognized in Section 35 of the

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of the United States. He drew public attention to the First Nations issue.

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United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act

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This is Not a Peace Pipe: Towards a Critical Indigenous Philosophy

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Lagace, Naithan; Sinclair, Niigaanwewidam James (May 21, 2019).

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https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1373385502190/1542727338550

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Making Canadian Indian policy : the hidden agenda 1968-70

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Making Canadian Indian policy : the hidden agenda 1968-70

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A Declaration of Indian Rights: The B.C. Indian Position Paper

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Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian Policy, 1969

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Canada's 1960s The Ironies of Identity in a Rebellious Era

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Making Canadian Indian Policy: The Hidden Agenda 1968-1970

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Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

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Declaration Of Indian Rights The BC Indian Position Paper

1548: 1154:. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto Press. 1117:. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto Press. 664:. The federal government issued the information booklet 1972: 1881:"Federal Departments of Indigenous and Northern Affairs" 1656: 1654: 1652: 1639: 1637: 1635: 1633: 1631: 1618: 1616: 1614: 1565: 1563: 1502: 1500: 1414:

Making Canadian Indian policy: the hidden agenda 1968-70

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Citizens Plus: Aboriginal Peoples and the Canadian State

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would mean a complete alternation in their way of life.

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Moss, Wendy; Gardner-O'Toole, Elaine (November 1991).

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Surviving as Indians: The Challenge of Self-government

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Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian Policy

1649: 1628: 1611: 1587: 1560: 1497: 722:, and proposed abolishing it. Trudeau considered the 1862:"Indigenous Peoples and Government Policy in Canada" 1599: 1458: 1443: 1389: 1293: 2224: 1939:"Aboriginal People: History of Discriminatory Laws" 1575: 1932:(Report). Indian Affairs and Northern Development. 1178: 1006: 572:The White Paper proposed legislation to eliminate 2734:Index of articles related to Indigenous Canadians 1751:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 1712:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 1417:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 1061:. Vancouver, BC, Canada: Douglas & McIntyre. 2746: 1833: 1744: 1705: 1478:Lagace, Nathan; Sinclair, Niigaanwewidam James. 1410: 2434:Ongoing treaty negotiations in British Columbia 699:. It heard their concerns about Aboriginal and 646:In 1968, the Liberals, under their new leader, 16:Policy paper issued by the Government of Canada 2029: 2070: 1834:Beaulne-Stuebing, Laura (February 21, 2014). 688:of Canada", referring to a poor state in the 516: 2135:Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867 1946:Flaherty, Kathleen (May 27 – June 3, 2010). 1265:. Vancouver: BC Open Textbooks. p. 770. 914: 809:One prominent critic of the White Paper was 738:Specific provisions included abolishing the 1783: 2077: 2063: 1477: 523: 509: 2130:Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 2002: 1989: 1945: 1879:Derworiz, Colette E. (August 10, 2018). 1878: 1860:Taylor, John Leonard (August 19, 2019). 1784:Cruickshank, David A. (March 21, 2018). 1056: 1013:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 604:, exploring the murder of Allan Thomas ( 2630:St Catharines Milling and Lumber Co v R 2378:James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement 1693:Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs 1260: 1194:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 1083: 867:Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs 829:" that divided the communist states of 2747: 2504:Native Women's Assn of Canada v Canada 1901: 1859: 1660: 1643: 1622: 1605: 1593: 1569: 1554: 1506: 1452: 1398: 1377:from the original on December 18, 2015 1304: 1287: 1275: 1189: 1176: 1147: 1112: 1027: 984:Minister of Crown–Indigenous Relations 714:Trudeau's philosophy tended to favour 608:) on 11 May 1963 by nine white men in 600:published an article "Our Alabama" in 167:Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada 2644:Tsilhqot'in Nation v British Columbia 2058: 1975:"Foundational Document: Citizen Plus" 1911:. Vancouver, B.C.: Fraser Institute. 1581: 1519: 1517: 1515: 1357: 1355: 1353: 1351: 1349: 1347: 1345: 1343: 1341: 1339: 1337: 1335: 1333: 1004: 193:Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women 2038:(online ed.). Historica Canada. 2003:Hawthorn, H.B., ed. (October 1967). 1990:Hawthorn, H.B., ed. (October 1966). 1887:(online ed.). Historica Canada. 1868:(online ed.). Historica Canada. 1331: 1329: 1327: 1325: 1323: 1321: 1319: 1317: 1315: 1313: 1263:Canadian History: Post Confederation 2455:Attorney General of Canada v Lavell 2044:"1969 White Paper on Indian Policy" 716:individual rights over group rights 615:By the late 1960s, inspired by the 13: 2760:Canadian commissions and inquiries 1960:from the original on June 14, 2010 1809:Assembly of First Nations (2020). 1512: 993: 14: 2791: 2476:Chippewas of Sarnia Band v Canada 1973:Indian Chiefs of Alberta (2011). 1895: 1811:"What Is Bill C-31 and Bill C-3?" 1535:Canadian Broadcasting Corporation 1367:IndigenousFoundations.Arts.UBC.ca 1310: 904:in the Railway Committee Room in 2102:of individual Indigenous groups. 893:historical 'might-have-beens.'" 637:Indian residential school system 492: 481: 33: 2755:First Nations history in Canada 2410:Duty to consult and accommodate 2246:Lake Simcoe–Lake Huron Purchase 2115:Aboriginal land title in Canada 1872: 1853: 1827: 1802: 1777: 1738: 1699: 1678: 1666: 1233:laws towards Indigenous peoples 980:Minister of Indigenous Services 139:British Columbia Treaty Process 1941:. Law and Government Division. 1404: 1371:University of British Columbia 1254: 883: 833:from the democratic states of 1: 2770:Premiership of Pierre Trudeau 2497:Delgamuukw v British Columbia 2384:Nunavut Land Claims Agreement 2195:Peace and Friendship Treaties 2048:Canada's Human Rights History 1247: 1185:. Toronto: Lester Publishing. 819:Indian Association of Alberta 729: 579: 2240:Penetanguishene Bay Purchase 740:Department of Indian Affairs 144:Crown and Indigenous peoples 7: 2294:Gradual Enfranchisement Act 1214: 1199: 757:National Indian Brotherhood 750: 382:Indigenous English Dialects 10: 2796: 2120:Royal Proclamation of 1763 1530:Canada: A People's History 1243:laws regarded collectively 930:Calder v. British Columbia 684:level of poverty, as the " 656:Minister of Indian Affairs 553:Minister of Indian Affairs 2729: 2667: 2518:R v Marshall; R v Bernard 2469:Calder v British Columbia 2446: 2283: 2164: 2155: 2107: 2096: 2036:The Canadian Encyclopedia 1979:Aboriginal Policy Studies 1948:"WHITE PAPER / RED PAPER" 1885:The Canadian Encyclopedia 1866:The Canadian Encyclopedia 1791:The Canadian Encyclopedia 1745:Weaver, Sally M. (1981). 1706:Weaver, Sally M. (1981). 1484:The Canadian Encyclopedia 1411:Weaver, Sally M. (1981). 1261:Belshaw, John D. (2016). 1221:Indian termination policy 1181:Chrétien: The Will to Win 1177:Martin, Lawrence (1995). 1113:Weaver, Sally M. (1981). 1057:Cardinal, Harold (1999). 915:Advancements in relations 872:In 1970, UBCIC published 488:Indigenous North Americas 2669:Indigenous customary law 2214:Gradual Civilization Act 2201:Treaties of Fort Niagara 998: 266:Indigenous personalities 2539:Paul v British Columbia 2396:Nisga'a Final Agreement 2264:Saugeen Tract Agreement 2183:Great Peace of Montreal 2032:"The White Paper, 1969" 1902:Gibson, Gordon (2009). 1480:"The White Paper, 1969" 1237:Canadian Indigenous law 1227:Canadian aboriginal law 925:Supreme Court of Canada 658:, set out to amend the 567:Canadian Aboriginal law 2158:governmental relations 1363:"The White Paper 1969" 1207:"The White Paper 1969" 1190:Palmer, Bryan (2009). 1084:Tennant, Paul (1990). 793:(Iroquois) reserve at 1223:- American equivalent 1148:Turner, Dale (2006). 1028:Cairns, Alan (2000). 1005:Boldt, Menno (1993). 950:indigenous leaders. 778:cultural assimilation 539:(officially entitled 2252:Huron Tract Purchase 1695:. November 17, 1970. 617:Black Power movement 392:Aboriginal syllabics 367:Indigenous languages 2086:Canadian Aboriginal 2050:. January 27, 2015. 1794:(online ed.). 1133:10.3138/j.ctvfrxf9d 898:Carleton University 420:Traditional beliefs 261:Indigenous cultures 104:Residential schools 94:Settler colonialism 2692:Great Law of Peace 2416:Jordan's Principle 2284:Post-Confederation 2272:(1850, 1854, 1859) 1557:, p. 402-403. 1525:"Native Awakening" 1290:, p. 398-399. 1278:, p. 396-398. 1059:The Unjust Society 953:Amendments to the 823:The Unjust Society 711:on June 25, 1969. 641:self-determination 25:Indigenous peoples 2742: 2741: 2658:Restoule v Canada 2483:Corbiere v Canada 2442: 2441: 2301:Numbered Treaties 2279: 2278: 2270:Robinson Treaties 2017:on March 22, 2020 1998:on June 28, 2001. 1918:978-0-88975-243-6 804:cultural genocide 743:treaties and the 624:Power" movement. 547:. Prime Minister 533: 532: 499:Canada portal 445:Index of articles 198:Numbered Treaties 2787: 2651:Daniels v Canada 2637:R v Van der Peet 2490:Daniels v Canada 2234:Toronto Purchase 2222: 2221: 2207:Douglas Treaties 2162: 2161: 2079: 2072: 2065: 2056: 2055: 2051: 2039: 2026: 2024: 2022: 2016: 2009: 1999: 1986: 1969: 1967: 1965: 1942: 1933: 1931: 1922: 1910: 1889: 1888: 1876: 1870: 1869: 1857: 1851: 1850: 1848: 1846: 1831: 1825: 1824: 1822: 1820: 1815: 1806: 1800: 1799: 1796:Historica Canada 1781: 1775: 1774: 1742: 1736: 1735: 1703: 1697: 1696: 1690: 1682: 1676: 1670: 1664: 1658: 1647: 1641: 1626: 1620: 1609: 1603: 1597: 1591: 1585: 1579: 1573: 1567: 1558: 1552: 1546: 1545: 1543: 1541: 1521: 1510: 1504: 1495: 1494: 1492: 1490: 1475: 1456: 1450: 1441: 1440: 1408: 1402: 1396: 1387: 1386: 1384: 1382: 1359: 1308: 1302: 1291: 1285: 1279: 1273: 1267: 1266: 1258: 1231:Canadian State's 1210: 1195: 1186: 1184: 1173: 1144: 1109: 1080: 1053: 1024: 1012: 945:Constitution Act 709:House of Commons 537:1969 White Paper 525: 518: 511: 497: 496: 495: 486: 485: 484: 203:Royal Commission 109:Indian hospitals 82:Pre-colonization 37: 21: 20: 2795: 2794: 2790: 2789: 2788: 2786: 2785: 2784: 2745: 2744: 2743: 2738: 2725: 2677:Self-government 2663: 2546:Paulette Caveat 2438: 2427:specific claims 2418:(proposed 2005) 2403:Paix des Braves 2285: 2275: 2226: 2220: 2169: 2157: 2151: 2103: 2092: 2083: 2042: 2020: 2018: 2014: 2007: 1963: 1961: 1929: 1925: 1919: 1908: 1898: 1893: 1892: 1877: 1873: 1858: 1854: 1844: 1842: 1832: 1828: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1807: 1803: 1782: 1778: 1763: 1743: 1739: 1724: 1704: 1700: 1688: 1684: 1683: 1679: 1671: 1667: 1659: 1650: 1642: 1629: 1621: 1612: 1604: 1600: 1592: 1588: 1580: 1576: 1568: 1561: 1553: 1549: 1539: 1537: 1523: 1522: 1513: 1505: 1498: 1488: 1486: 1476: 1459: 1451: 1444: 1429: 1409: 1405: 1397: 1390: 1380: 1378: 1361: 1360: 1311: 1303: 1294: 1286: 1282: 1274: 1270: 1259: 1255: 1250: 1217: 1205: 1202: 1162: 1125: 1098: 1069: 1042: 1021: 1001: 996: 994:Further reading 917: 886: 843:Canadian mosaic 811:Harold Cardinal 753: 732: 666:Choosing a Path 582: 529: 493: 491: 490: 482: 480: 475: 474: 440: 432: 431: 415: 407: 406: 372:Inuit languages 362: 354: 353: 294:Indian reserves 289: 281: 280: 251: 243: 242: 213:Specific claims 208:Self-government 169: 129: 121: 120: 72: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 2793: 2783: 2782: 2780:1969 documents 2777: 2775:1969 in Canada 2772: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2740: 2739: 2737: 2736: 2730: 2727: 2726: 2724: 2723: 2711: 2699: 2689: 2679: 2673: 2671: 2665: 2664: 2662: 2661: 2654: 2647: 2640: 2633: 2626: 2619: 2612: 2605: 2598: 2591: 2584: 2583: 2582: 2570: 2563: 2556: 2549: 2542: 2535: 2532:Mitchell v MNR 2528: 2521: 2514: 2507: 2500: 2493: 2486: 2479: 2472: 2465: 2458: 2450: 2448: 2444: 2443: 2440: 2439: 2437: 2436: 2431: 2430: 2429: 2419: 2413: 2407: 2399: 2393: 2387: 2381: 2375: 2369: 2368:(1876–present) 2361: 2360: 2359: 2354: 2349: 2344: 2339: 2334: 2329: 2324: 2319: 2314: 2309: 2298: 2289: 2287: 2281: 2280: 2277: 2276: 2274: 2273: 2267: 2261: 2255: 2249: 2243: 2237: 2230: 2228: 2219: 2218: 2210: 2204: 2198: 2192: 2186: 2180: 2177:Covenant Chain 2173: 2171: 2159: 2153: 2152: 2150: 2149: 2142: 2137: 2132: 2127: 2122: 2117: 2111: 2109: 2108:Sources of law 2105: 2104: 2097: 2094: 2093: 2090:Indigenous law 2082: 2081: 2074: 2067: 2059: 2053: 2052: 2040: 2027: 2000: 1987: 1970: 1943: 1934: 1923: 1917: 1897: 1896:External links 1894: 1891: 1890: 1871: 1852: 1826: 1801: 1776: 1761: 1737: 1722: 1698: 1677: 1665: 1663:, p. 407. 1648: 1646:, p. 403. 1627: 1625:, p. 195. 1610: 1598: 1596:, p. 401. 1586: 1574: 1572:, p. 402. 1559: 1547: 1511: 1509:, p. 393. 1496: 1457: 1455:, p. 394. 1442: 1427: 1403: 1401:, p. 399. 1388: 1309: 1307:, p. 400. 1292: 1280: 1268: 1252: 1251: 1249: 1246: 1245: 1244: 1234: 1224: 1216: 1213: 1212: 1211: 1201: 1198: 1197: 1196: 1187: 1174: 1160: 1145: 1123: 1110: 1096: 1081: 1067: 1054: 1040: 1025: 1019: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 976:Justin Trudeau 916: 913: 885: 882: 835:Western Europe 831:Eastern Europe 817:leader of the 791:Haudenosaunnee 752: 749: 731: 728: 674:CBC Television 648:Pierre Trudeau 629:Harry Hawthorn 581: 578: 549:Pierre Trudeau 531: 530: 528: 527: 520: 513: 505: 502: 501: 477: 476: 473: 472: 467: 462: 457: 452: 447: 441: 438: 437: 434: 433: 430: 429: 428: 427: 425:Inuit religion 416: 413: 412: 409: 408: 405: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 369: 363: 360: 359: 356: 355: 352: 351: 346: 341: 336: 331: 326: 321: 316: 311: 310: 309: 304: 296: 290: 287: 286: 283: 282: 279: 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 252: 249: 248: 245: 244: 241: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 163: 156: 151: 146: 141: 136: 134:Indigenous law 130: 127: 126: 123: 122: 119: 118: 116:Reconciliation 113: 112: 111: 106: 101: 91: 90: 89: 79: 73: 70: 69: 66: 65: 64: 63: 56: 49: 39: 38: 30: 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2792: 2781: 2778: 2776: 2773: 2771: 2768: 2766: 2765:Jean Chrétien 2763: 2761: 2758: 2756: 2753: 2752: 2750: 2735: 2732: 2731: 2728: 2721: 2717: 2716: 2712: 2709: 2705: 2704: 2700: 2697: 2696:Haudenosaunee 2693: 2690: 2687: 2683: 2682:Grand Council 2680: 2678: 2675: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2666: 2660: 2659: 2655: 2653: 2652: 2648: 2646: 2645: 2641: 2639: 2638: 2634: 2632: 2631: 2627: 2625: 2624: 2620: 2618: 2617: 2613: 2611: 2610: 2609:R v Pamajewon 2606: 2604: 2603: 2599: 2597: 2596: 2592: 2590: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2580:Gladue report 2578: 2577: 2576: 2575: 2571: 2569: 2568: 2567:R v Gladstone 2564: 2562: 2561: 2557: 2555: 2554: 2553:Powley ruling 2550: 2548: 2547: 2543: 2541: 2540: 2536: 2534: 2533: 2529: 2527: 2526: 2522: 2520: 2519: 2515: 2513: 2512: 2508: 2506: 2505: 2501: 2499: 2498: 2494: 2492: 2491: 2487: 2485: 2484: 2480: 2478: 2477: 2473: 2471: 2470: 2466: 2464: 2463: 2459: 2457: 2456: 2452: 2451: 2449: 2445: 2435: 2432: 2428: 2425: 2424: 2423: 2420: 2417: 2414: 2411: 2408: 2405: 2404: 2400: 2397: 2394: 2391: 2388: 2385: 2382: 2379: 2376: 2373: 2370: 2367: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2355: 2353: 2350: 2348: 2345: 2343: 2340: 2338: 2335: 2333: 2330: 2328: 2325: 2323: 2320: 2318: 2315: 2313: 2310: 2308: 2305: 2304: 2302: 2299: 2296: 2295: 2291: 2290: 2288: 2282: 2271: 2268: 2265: 2262: 2259: 2256: 2253: 2250: 2247: 2244: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2231: 2229: 2223: 2216: 2215: 2211: 2208: 2205: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2190: 2189:Nanfan Treaty 2187: 2184: 2181: 2178: 2175: 2174: 2172: 2168: 2167:Confederation 2163: 2160: 2156:Treaties and 2154: 2148: 2147: 2143: 2141: 2140:Treaty rights 2138: 2136: 2133: 2131: 2128: 2126: 2123: 2121: 2118: 2116: 2113: 2112: 2110: 2106: 2101: 2100:customary law 2095: 2091: 2087: 2080: 2075: 2073: 2068: 2066: 2061: 2060: 2057: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2028: 2013: 2006: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1971: 1959: 1955: 1954: 1949: 1944: 1940: 1935: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1914: 1907: 1906: 1900: 1899: 1886: 1882: 1875: 1867: 1863: 1856: 1841: 1837: 1830: 1812: 1805: 1797: 1793: 1792: 1787: 1786:"Calder Case" 1780: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1749: 1741: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1710: 1702: 1694: 1687: 1681: 1675: 1669: 1662: 1657: 1655: 1653: 1645: 1640: 1638: 1636: 1634: 1632: 1624: 1619: 1617: 1615: 1608:, p. 47. 1607: 1602: 1595: 1590: 1584:, p. 85. 1583: 1578: 1571: 1566: 1564: 1556: 1551: 1536: 1532: 1531: 1526: 1520: 1518: 1516: 1508: 1503: 1501: 1485: 1481: 1474: 1472: 1470: 1468: 1466: 1464: 1462: 1454: 1449: 1447: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1415: 1407: 1400: 1395: 1393: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1358: 1356: 1354: 1352: 1350: 1348: 1346: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1338: 1336: 1334: 1332: 1330: 1328: 1326: 1324: 1322: 1320: 1318: 1316: 1314: 1306: 1301: 1299: 1297: 1289: 1284: 1277: 1272: 1264: 1257: 1253: 1242: 1241:First Nations 1238: 1235: 1232: 1228: 1225: 1222: 1219: 1218: 1208: 1204: 1203: 1193: 1188: 1183: 1182: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1161:9780802080165 1157: 1153: 1152: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1124:9781487584849 1120: 1116: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1097:9780774854788 1093: 1089: 1088: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1068:9781550544831 1064: 1060: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1041:9780774852036 1037: 1033: 1032: 1026: 1022: 1020:9780802077677 1016: 1011: 1010: 1003: 1002: 991: 989: 985: 981: 977: 971: 967: 965: 960: 956: 951: 948: 946: 940: 937: 932: 931: 926: 923:In 1973, the 921: 912: 909: 907: 903: 899: 894: 891: 881: 877: 875: 870: 868: 864: 858: 855: 854:Citizens Plus 851: 850:Citizens Plus 846: 844: 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 816: 812: 807: 805: 800: 796: 792: 786: 783: 779: 773: 769: 767: 761: 758: 748: 746: 741: 736: 727: 725: 721: 717: 712: 710: 706: 702: 701:treaty rights 698: 693: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 672:. In 1969, a 671: 667: 663: 662: 657: 653: 652:Jean Chrétien 649: 644: 642: 638: 634: 630: 625: 622: 618: 613: 611: 607: 603: 599: 598:Peter Gzowski 594: 592: 588: 577: 575: 574:Indian status 570: 568: 564: 563: 558: 557:Jean Chrétien 554: 550: 546: 545:First Nations 542: 538: 526: 521: 519: 514: 512: 507: 506: 504: 503: 500: 489: 479: 478: 471: 468: 466: 463: 461: 458: 456: 455:First Nations 453: 451: 448: 446: 443: 442: 436: 435: 426: 423: 422: 421: 418: 417: 411: 410: 403: 402:Inuit grammar 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 364: 358: 357: 350: 349:Pacific Coast 347: 345: 342: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 327: 325: 322: 320: 317: 315: 312: 308: 305: 303: 300: 299: 297: 295: 292: 291: 285: 284: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 253: 247: 246: 239: 236: 234: 233:Organizations 231: 229: 226: 224: 221: 219: 218:Treaty rights 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 183:Land defender 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 168: 164: 162: 161: 157: 155: 152: 150: 149:Health Policy 147: 145: 142: 140: 137: 135: 132: 131: 125: 124: 117: 114: 110: 107: 105: 102: 100: 97: 96: 95: 92: 88: 85: 84: 83: 80: 78: 75: 74: 68: 67: 62: 61: 57: 55: 54: 50: 48: 47: 46:First Nations 43: 42: 41: 40: 36: 32: 31: 28: 23: 22: 19: 2713: 2703:Pittailiniit 2701: 2656: 2649: 2642: 2635: 2628: 2621: 2614: 2607: 2600: 2593: 2588:R v Gonzales 2586: 2572: 2565: 2560:R v Drybones 2558: 2551: 2544: 2537: 2530: 2525:R v Marshall 2523: 2516: 2509: 2502: 2495: 2488: 2481: 2474: 2467: 2460: 2453: 2412:(since 2004) 2401: 2371: 2363: 2303:(1871–1921) 2292: 2225:Upper Canada 2212: 2145: 2047: 2035: 2019:. 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