Indian hospital - Knowledge

265: 1218:, served a dual use as a residential school, where tuberculosis-diagnosed children received education. Some rooms were converted for classroom use, and students who were bedridden received bedside lessons. This school received funding from the Department of Indian Affairs for its educational expenses. Reports indicate that "'at least one teacher provided education to Aboriginal children between 1942 and 1945'" and that it "housed a Provincial School starting as early as 1944 to as late as 1971, and an Indian Day School between 1950 and 1953." Survivors of Fort William petitioned to have their cases included in the Residential Schools Settlement, but were denied as the sanatorium was not accepting patients primarily for educational purposes. 40: 1056:

and families. Even when they were aware of their condition, it was not always made clear to the patients where they were being taken or if they would ever be returned, contributing to an atmosphere of fear and desperation. In some cases, Inuit who knew that they were seriously ill would hide out on the land once they had heard that the hospital boat was arriving. In these situations, a helicopter, originally intended to fly ahead of the boat to check ice conditions or bring medical personnel to shore if the boat could not dock, was used to survey the land, find anyone hiding, and bring them to the boat for examination.

1634: 1738: 724: 210: 1752: 713: 907: 1368: 982:, a ship which was specially fitted after 1946 with medical facilities quarantined away from crew quarters, which ran from 1950 to 1969. The C. D. Howe had 30 beds for Inuit patients and crew space for 58, as well as a helicopter for transferring patients. The ships were equipped with x-ray technology to diagnose infections, and patients were marked on the hand with identifying numbers and the results of their tests. The 1010:, where healthy children were routinely exposed to infected children and poor sanitary conditions and ventilation contributed to the spread. In one school, the death toll was as high as 69%. In some residential schools, TB infection rates were as high as 80%; schools that held infected children due to overburdened hospitals were given a stipend to provide healthcare to their students of fifteen cents per child per day. 1305:, many family members and community members who had relatives in the Indian hospitals are still searching for closure after the deaths and disappearances of their loved ones, including looking for the locations of grave sites. In 2021, amidst a number of discoveries of unmarked gravesites at former residential schools, searches were started as 1165:

non-Indigenous patients improved during the 1940s and 1950s, these innovations were not propagated to the Indian hospitals. In hospitals such as the Queen Mary (Toronto), where settler and Indigenous children were treated side-by-side, a white former patient reports being given pills while Indigenous patients were given injections.

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great emotional distress, knowing that it would be difficult for their family to survive without them. As exemplified in the quote above, so great was the desperation, that the minister would often marry couples when one of them had to leave for the hospital, in order to sanctify the union while there was still time to do so.

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Documentation was uneven at best; people's names were written down incorrectly, sometimes resulting in a cured patient being sent home to the wrong area, or the family of a dead patient not being notified. Many patients who returned home after their confinement found it difficult to readjust to their

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There are survivor reports of sexual assault by hospital staff, including children being groped as a matter of course during monthly X-ray examinations, and a pre-teen having a sexual relationship with an adult orderly. Patients report being threatened and told not to talk about their experiences at

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Medical professionals continue to congratulate themselves on successfully stemming the tide of the disease through such interventions of forcible removal of infected individuals from their homes. At several points when rates of TB diagnosis lessened, the efforts to prevent the disease were defunded,

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The Canadian government has yet to perform any reconciliatory efforts or offer apologies for the forcible confinement of Inuit. Government officials have started to meet with Inuit representatives to discuss access to archival documents and begin the process. A federal program called Nanilavut has

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Low salaries, poor working conditions, and the isolated locations of many hospitals made it difficult to maintain adequate numbers of qualified staff. These hospitals also did not receive the same level of funding as facilities for non-Indigenous communities. Although treatment for tuberculosis in

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When an Indigenous person had a tuberculosis diagnosis confirmed, they were rarely allowed back into their communities until deemed free of tuberculosis. Evacuees could not go ashore to collect their belongings, say good-bye, or make arrangements for their families - children were often adopted by

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were given federal funding to develop drugs to fight the TB epidemic. In 1933, they began running experimental vaccination trials on Indigenous children from nearby communities. The vaccination was declared a success despite limited validation; there were also several problems, including a need to

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Being told that they had to leave with the hospital boat or airplane to go to a hospital in the South was a frightening experience for most of the patients.... Many were diagnosed while still asymptomatic, and as such there was often great confusion as to why they were being taken from their homes

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policies following the Second World War. The national government began a large-scale operation, run under the auspices of the Advisory Committee for the Control and Prevention of Tuberculosis among Indians, to isolate and reduce the occurrence of the disease in northern populations. This included

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Children, even infants, who were diagnosed with tuberculosis would be taken from their parents and sent with the boat. Men and women would be forced to leave their families behind at times left without a father to hunt or a mother to make clothes or care for the children. Evacuees in turn faced

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Settler medical professionals believed the "Indian TB" was a strain that posed a threat to the settler population, misunderstanding at the time the process of immunity through exposure, and the Aboriginal populations' lack of resistance to the disease brought unknowingly by settler carriers. The

1172:"Perhaps you are wondering why you are brought down from your home leaving your friends and perhaps family behind. The reason is that you are sick, and if you were left at home, you may endanger those at home. So you are here to get well again… But do not be afraid. Nobody here will harm you."– 1358:

In January 2018, a $ 1.1 billion class-action lawsuit was filed against the Canadian government to provide compensation for victims of Indian hospitals and their descendants. The lawsuit represented 30 former patients by the end of January 2018. This lawsuit also points to the inadequate care,

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Several hospitals were converted military buildings that were improperly equipped for their new use. Overcrowding was common and many patients were at risk of inadequate emergency exits in case of fire. Patients were often underfed or deprived of food and drink. Others report being force-fed

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on Indigenous patients during such processes as chest surgery and rib removals, so that the patients would be awake and aware during the procedures. Other hospital patients report forced sterilization, with 125 sterilizations documented at the Charles Camsell hospital between 1971 and 1974.

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skin test for TB that was in standard use, meaning successfully inoculated people would end up in hospital anyhow. In 1952 two inoculated girls tested positive for TB, but this was hushed up by government officials. By 1954, this vaccination was a mandatory treatment across Canada.

1321:. The Chedoke Hospital (formerly Mountain Sanatorium) had kept a set of 55 pieces created by its patients, which was brought up to 132 pieces through donations from buyers. The lot of 75 pieces of soapstone carvings in the collection of the AGH has been valued at $ 300,000CAD. 997:

A particularly strong wave of the epidemic started in 1952. Canadian settler medical professionals attribute the spread of the disease, besides the Indigenous populations' lack of immunity, to overcrowded living conditions in Inuit communities - after forcible relocation by the

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In the 1950s tuberculosis became a grave problem with the mortality rate approaching 1% per annum and the incident rate almost 3%. The annual risk of infection has been estimated at 25% per annum. These are probably the highest rates recorded anywhere in the world in the 20th

1337:. The group is asking for help with identifying the graves of Inuit patients buried in the south of Canada, as well as counselling services for former patients and their descendants. The government has acknowledged a future apology but not confirmed a date or location. 1181:

unfamiliar foods, and being forced to eat their own vomit. Some patients were tied to their beds, including being tied face-down overnight, and suffered other abuses from hospital staff. One patient reports being tied to her bed for almost 24 hours a day for nine years:

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The Nanilavut initiative will be more than just an apology. That means it will include measures, which have already started, aimed at helping Inuit find the graves of family members who were transported to southern Canada for TB treatment between the 1940s and the

1157:-speaking staff, which made communication difficult. It has been alleged that hospitals were staffed by foreign-trained doctors whose credentials were not recognized in Canada. In several hospitals, patients were referred to by assigned identification numbers, the 1119:

Some rates of removal of Indigenous people from their communities have been quoted as 5,240 Inuit from 1953 and 1961, compared to a total population in the Eastern Arctic of about 11,500. The Nanaimo hospital saw 14,000 patients during its two-decade tenure.

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surveys of infection as well as forcible removal and confinement of those infected. The federal government made the choice not to build hospitals in the north but to evacuate infected individuals to the south of Canada and invest in facilities there. Several

1185:"The only time we were untied was first thing in the morning to have a bath and then change our pajamas and go back to bed." She said the ties were also taken off for meals they ate in the bed. If they needed to use the bathroom, they were brought a bedpan. 1013:

In 1953, mortality rates from TB in the Inuit population was 298.1 per 100,000 patients, compared to 9.9 per 100,000 in southern and settler communities. It is estimated that by 1955, almost 1,000 Inuit had been removed for treatment in southern Canada.

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Overall, Canada consistently has a TB rate of fewer than 10 people per 100,000. Among Inuit populations though, this rate is as high as 195 per 100,000. That’s even higher than the global average, 122, and comparable to rates in Afghanistan, India, and

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Many northern communities still have high rates of infection for TB, despite improvements in vaccination in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. In some cases, the rates of TB are 50% higher in the Inuit population compared to southern Canada. In

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In 1953 it was also made a crime for an Indigenous person to refuse treatment or to leave a hospital before being discharged. Patients who wished to return home to their communities were arrested and taken to jail or brought back to the hospitals.

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in Indigenous people. Besides treatment with drugs, surgical procedures were performed on patients, including the intentional collapsing of lungs and removal of ribs, causing deformities. At Charles Camsell in Edmonton, medical staff used

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into a medical facility. By 1960, there were 22 federally-funded Indian hospitals. Most estimate that the cost of care in Indian hospitals was about half of what settler patients received, often in segregated hospitals side by side.

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Many of those who died while in treatment were buried in unmarked graves; many bodies were not returned to their families. One estimate puts the number of missing people and unreturned bodies at 700-800. A then-student of a nearby

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Medical ships' helicopters were sometimes used to seek out and forcibly pick up Inuit who were hiding in rural areas. Some former patients assert that they were sent to sanatoria for treatment without actually testing positive for

2601: 2831: 1495:, Ontario and the associated Toronto Free Hospital for Consumptives c. 1904 / Queen Mary Hospital for Tuberculosis c. 1914 (closed 1970 and all are now under West Park Health Centre) which specialized in pediatric cases of TB 3526: 839:, from the 19th century onwards. These exposures to new diseases reduced the population by as much as 90%. At best, waves of infection are partially documented. Tuberculosis moved more slowly, but by 1950, one in five 2874: 3902: 2434: 4307: 1189:

Most were on strict bed rest and some lost the ability to walk after several years of confinement. There are documented cases of hospital staff putting casts on the legs of patients who would not comply.

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An unconfirmed number of hospitals were run by the Department of National Health and Welfare across Canada from the mid-1940s onward (under the Indian Health Services Branch in 1944). These include:

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Because the skin test for TB was unreliable, diagnostic ships began to rely more on chest x-rays, exposing children and adults to yearly doses of radiation, for some community members over 40 years.

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Some researchers assert that hospitals kept patients interned for years or decades to increase government funding received, and to provide a supply of patients for experimental medical procedures.

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As of October 2018, there are expectations of a future federal apology for the Indian hospital system. Discussions around an official apology were held in 2017 between the federal government and

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patients from the general population because of a fear among health officials that "Indian TB" posed a danger to the non-indigenous population. Many of these hospitals were located on

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Government officials' request for the legal backing to forcibly remove Inuit and other Indigenous people from their communities is documented as far back as 1920. An amendment to the

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Whonnock recalled a time when she had chickenpox and was served turnips. The smell made her ill and she threw up on her plate. A nurse hit her with a rod and made her eat the vomit.

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There are high rates of reported depression in patients. People forcibly transported and confined in sanatoria were often given little information about their treatment and rights:

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Drees said in cases of bone TB, the bacterium would make bones brittle, so children and adults would be immobilized in full-body casts or strapped onto stretchers to be still.

1313:“It’s more than a belief,” Bruneau said. “We got research and documents – even a map – that shows in the southeast corner of that property where potential human remains are.” 1098:

In 1955, RCMP reported that Inuit in the Kimmirut area were now avoiding the settlement at shiptime because they had no desire of “being evacuated to the Land of No Return.”

2908: 2076: 4293: 3179: 2565: 1512: 1474: 2858: 1127:, alone. At this hospital, Inuit patients carved and sold around 200 soapstone pieces a month, with the hospital taking a 30% commission on all sales. The total value of 4807: 4516: 2749: 2108: 878:

in 1896. Other "Indian annexes" (or "Indian wards" or "wings") were provided for segregated medical care, such as in the basements of hospitals for settler populations.

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been performing research since 2008 and has identified at least partial records for over 4,500 evacuees. This database is being prepared for release as of fall 2017.

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the rates are said to be 296 times higher for Inuit compared to non-Aboriginal people and that of the 25 communities in the territory at least 17 have TB cases, with

1434: 1410: 3894: 3147: 2426: 3242: 1716:, a film released in 2008, tells the story of an evacuee being sent to a sanatorium in Quebec City in 1952, where he meets and befriends an infected orphan child. 3775: 2630: 1380: 1115:

Declaring individuals contagious was a good means of control, keeping them out of trouble or out of circulation while the task of clearing the land was underway.

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Some researchers agree with this assessment, indicating that some Indigenous community members were forcibly removed from their land by means of a TB diagnosis:

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Shawn Selway states that while leaving their homes for treatment was not mandatory, most Inuit felt pressured in a way that could not be considered consensual.

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Some patients report that in the early stages of tuberculosis care, children were being used "as guinea pigs" for experimental treatment for the infection:

4025: 1942: 1488: 3582: 2772:"A Long Way from Home: The Tuberculosis Epidemic among the Inuit - Pat Sandiford Grygier - Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994, xxiv + 233 p." 2672: 1847: 4511: 1397:, Alberta, converted to Indian hospital from a residential school in 1946, with a new building added in 1967, integrated in the 1970s, and closed in 1996 373: 3292: 2933: 1892: 4969: 3113: 1648: 699: 3547: 3263: 2388: 1107:" was told she had TB, but many years later, when she went to the doctor, they said to her, 'No — you would have had scars on your lungs,'" Hunt said. 5086: 4058: 3810: 3632: 2045: 1683: 1007: 674: 578: 5112: 4011: 2009: 1679: 1038:

Indian hospitals began being phased out in the late 1960s and every Indian hospital was closed or converted to desegregated institutions by 1981.

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Part of the national operation were ships dedicated to carrying TB-infected passengers from Northern Canada to the sanatorium. One such ship was

548: 3960: 3205: 2973: 1667: 543: 133: 3413: 4795: 4642: 4382: 3843: 1694: 1671: 345: 3737: 3043: 1407:, British Columbia, one of the first independent treatment facilities for Indigenous people, from 1941 to 1969, with 150+ beds. Site closed. 4387: 3990: 1260:

culture, having forgotten skills and languages. Two separate cases of babies being switched at birth (sent home with the wrong parents) at

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Research conducted by Oloffson, Holson, and Partridge describes the conditions endured by Inuit communities during the diagnosis process:

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Indigenous populations had been affected by various diseases brought by European settlers and missionaries, including tuberculosis,

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at the Charles Camsell Indian Hospital. In 1956, Charles Camsell Indian Hospital in Edmonton used its patients to test versions of

1807:. The use of the name also provides relevant context about the era in which the system was established, specifically one in which 4938: 4369: 2900: 2069: 452: 328: 4528: 3171: 2557: 5127: 4617: 4602: 1137:

The average stay in sanatoria ranged depending on the availability of drug treatments introduced in the 1940s. In 1949, at the

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Fear of removal was a deterrent to getting tested, and even deterred remote Inuit from going to town while the ship was docked:

867: 558: 467: 432: 396: 2741: 2100: 4558: 4171: 4155: 3672: 1875: 738: 679: 573: 490: 457: 422: 224: 4196:. McGill-Queen's/Associated Medical Services Studies in the History of Medicine. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. 4735: 3768:"'Canada must carry that guilt and that shame': Trudeau apologizes for 1940s-'60s mistreatment of Inuit with TB | CBC News" 2260: 437: 3322:"The health system in Canada's North is failing — but not by accident. 'It is designed to do what it is doing' | The Star" 4548: 4403: 4089: 3139: 1123:

From 1950 to 1965, 1,274 Inuit and Cree patients were removed from their communities and placed in institutional care in

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Inuit populations was considered to be "racially careless" about their health and containing the spread of the disease.

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physical and sexual abuse, and the long term negative health and psychological impacts associated with the hospitals.

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peoples.. Use of Indian is limited throughout the page to proper nouns and references to government legislation.

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Indian Hospital, opened in 1949, to "isolate the disease" on an island. The first state-run Indian Hospital was

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Lux, Maureen K. (2010). "Care for the "racially careless": Indian hospitals in the Canadian West, 1920-1950s".

1765: 1334: 596: 4612: 4582: 4332: 1897: 1002:- and weakened constitutions through limited food supplies. Tuberculosis spread easily through the Inuit and 621: 616: 568: 378: 323: 169: 100: 23: 4654: 3105: 1870:. G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. University of Toronto Press. p. 7. 4317: 1808: 1344:

issued an apology on March 8, 2019, and announced a federal government project called "Nanilavut," saying:

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re-vaccinate every two years. Also, people vaccinated with the drug would test as false positives by the

911: 78: 56: 2070:"Reserve Hospitals and Medical Officers: Health Care and Indian Peoples in Southern Alberta, 1890s-1930" 4622: 505: 4435: 4772: 4693: 3952: 1937: 990:. It was more common in western parts of the country to airlift patients than to ship them by water. 871: 553: 2965: 1663:, Liberal MP and son of a woman who was removed from her family in 1956 and died in hospital in 1958 4984: 4918: 4767: 4688: 4341: 1800: 1338: 1306: 881:

Slowly, the Department of Indian Affairs took control of the hospitals away from the churches. The

531: 3835: 2824:"'Canadians would be shocked': Survivors describe treatment at Nanaimo Indian Hospital | CBC News" 1141:

in Hamilton, a patient stayed for an average of 562 days; in 1956, the average stay was 332 days.

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which operated during the 20th century. The hospitals were originally used to isolate Indigenous

4991: 4666: 4541: 4536: 3445:"Bad weather grounds Trudeau in Labrador en route to Iqaluit for tuberculosis apology | CBC News" 3035: 1893:"We Demand 'Unconditional Surrender': Making and Unmaking the Blackfoot Hospital, 1890s to 1950s" 1812: 1712: 1522: 1318: 1272:

remembers digging graves for tuberculosis victims from the Charles Camsell Hospital in Edmonton.

1215: 1003: 847: 363: 275: 3982: 3923: 3523:"TB still a killer in Nunavut, as health workers and politicians struggle to stop the outbreaks" 2901:"Former Nanaimo Indian Hospital part of $ 1.1-billion class-action suit - Nanaimo News Bulletin" 1226:

From 1949 to 1953, 374 experimental surgeries were performed on TB patients, without the use of

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Children who did such things as sit up in bed or put a foot on the floor were punished by being

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Evacuee artists whose soapstone carvings were later collected by museums and galleries include

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were infected. Mortality rates in the 1930s and 1940s rose higher than 700 people per 100,000.

73: 4948: 4730: 4458: 3106:"Canada to apologize for treatment of Inuit with tuberculosis in mid-20th century | CBC News" 3065: 2293: 1526: 1231: 159: 3172:"N.W.T. filmmaker to shine light on historical abuse at former Edmonton segregated hospital" 1991: 1865: 1317:

Art created by evacuees in the sanatorium in Hamilton has been collected and donated to the

788: 4705: 4575: 3865: 2339: 2101:"Library and Archives finally releases 98-year-old document on sick First Nations children" 999: 264: 164: 107: 39: 31: 4279: 8: 4913: 4740: 3385:"An ailing boy, a residential school infirmary and a father's clandestine rescue mission" 2594:"Database to offer answers for relatives of Inuit taken south for tuberculosis treatment" 1227: 2343: 1725:

Raymond Yakeleya is planning an upcoming documentary about the Charles Camsell Hospital.

1633: 1464: 536: 4923: 3633:"Scanning for burial site is set to happen at the Charles Camsell Building in Edmonton" 3552: 3036:"'We were savages to them': Legacy of segregated hospitals haunts Indigenous survivors" 2934:"Nobody Here Will Harm You: Mass Medical Evacuation from the Eastern Arctic, 1950–1965" 2363: 2171: 1424: 1404: 930:

took over the building and running of Indian hospitals in 1946 as part of Canada's new

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hospital was replaced with a new structure paid for by the department in 1928, and the

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An error in judgement : the politics of medical care in an Indian/White community

2859:"Canada must release data on Inuit tuberculosis treatment in 1950s-60s: Stephen Lewis" 1803:

because of the historical nature of the page and the precision of the name similar to

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hospital was replaced in 1923, partially with funds taken from the band's trust fund.

289: 5081: 5049: 4883: 4762: 4676: 4425: 4347: 4258: 4239: 4220: 4213: 4197: 4167: 4151: 4005: 3790: 3705: 3467: 3071: 2866: 2705: 2558:"Indian hospital that employed teachers not a residential school - judge - APTN News" 2505: 2497: 2463: 2367: 2355: 2299: 2231: 2163: 2155: 1999: 1871: 1811:

were homogeneously referred to as Indians rather than by language that distinguishes

1482: 1458: 1438: 1124: 987: 427: 196: 191: 184: 112: 68: 62: 4315: 3895:"Telling the story of hundreds of Inuit, sick with TB, who were shipped to Hamilton" 3443:

Mar 07, Sara Frizzell · CBC News · Posted; March 7, 2019 3:00 AM CT | Last Updated.

2698:"Class-action lawsuit filed over alleged abuse at government-run 'Indian Hospitals'" 2427:"Telling the story of hundreds of Inuit, sick with TB, who were shipped to Hamilton" 2175: 4905: 4671: 4570: 3698:"Art Gallery of Hamilton acquires major collection of Inuit art from TB sanatorium" 3356:"APTN Investigates: Reliving Indian and Inuit Tuberculosis Sanatoriums - APTN News" 2782: 2347: 2221: 2147: 1642: 1506: 1478: 1244: 1150: 1138: 919: 3657: 5005: 4745: 4698: 4413: 1992: 1492: 1154: 766: 626: 601: 179: 4359: 1485:, Ontario, a community hospital that began accepting Inuit patients in the 1950s 1301:

However, by 2017 rates had risen to over 261 per 100,000. As in the case of the

4391: 3579:"Major effort underway to fight tuberculosis outbreak in Qikiqtarjuaq, Nunavut" 1341: 1239: 886: 800: 689: 654: 523: 4148:

Medicine Unbundled: A Journey Through the Minefields of Indigenous Health Care

4079: 3604:"10% of residents in Nunavut community infected with TB, crisis team to visit" 2460:

Medicine Unbundled: A Journey through the Minefields of Indigenous Health Care

2351: 1722:, a 2016 13-minute documentary about the Charles Camsell Hospital, on YouTube. 5101: 5035: 5019: 4898: 4757: 4750: 4408: 4255:

Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia, 1900-50

3709: 2870: 2709: 2665:"$ 1.1B class action alleges 'horrific treatment' at former Indian hospitals" 2501: 2359: 2235: 2159: 1775: 1743: 1654: 1468: 968: 948: 931: 927: 882: 832: 728: 631: 447: 412: 214: 49: 4977: 4453: 2167: 1448: 1286: 1261: 1072: 796: 500: 383: 2787: 2771: 2509: 5042: 4496: 2330:

Mackinnon, C. S. (April 1991). "Canada's Eastern Arctic Patrol 1922–68".

2151: 1698: 1660: 1651:, artist, sent away when she was 5 years old, then again from ages 7 to 8 1502: 1202:, spanked, or being forced to wear a straitjacket for a period of time. 1158: 875: 606: 3264:"Court rules Ft. William Sanatorium school was not a residential school" 3000:"Government Ignored Horrific Abuse At Indian Hospitals, Lawsuit Alleges" 2210:"Negotiating identities: Inuit tuberculosis evacuees in the 1940s-1950s" 1264:

have been reported; these errors were only discovered many years later.

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mostly delivered patients to the hospital in Edmonton; the Eastern, to

936: 894: 828: 784: 389: 4055:"Collection glen-3418 - Abraham Okpik's Inuit oral history collection" 3811:"Former patients still haunted by memories of Nanaimo Indian Hospital" 4888: 3548:"Out in the cold: What the TB crisis in Nunavut reveals about Canada" 3293:"'Indian hospital' survivors want in on residential school agreement" 2226: 1853:. library and Archives Canada - University of British Columbia. 2012. 1690: 1367: 1128: 855: 836: 485: 402: 4026:"Inuit art created at Hamilton TB Sanatorium to be showcased at AGH" 3766:

Mar 08, CBC News · Posted; March 8, 2019 8:05 AM CT | Last Updated.

3738:"Canada to say sorry next month for past abuse of Inuit TB patients" 2208:

Olofsson, Ebba; Holton, Tara L.; Partridge, Imaapik "Jacob" (2008).

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Separate Beds: A History of Indian Hospitals in Canada, 1920s-1980s

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Separate Beds: A History of Indian Hospitals in Canada, 1920s-1980s

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Separate Beds: A History of Indian Hospitals in Canada, 1920s-1980s

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United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act

1820: 4725: 4084: 1414: 1282: 1235: 940: 863: 820: 1427:, Saskatchewan, constructed in 1935 with 50 beds Closed in 2004. 4831: 4194:

A Long Way from Home: The Tuberculosis Epidemic among the Inuit

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Canada, Government of Canada; Indigenous and Northern Affairs.

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A Long Way from Home: The Tuberculosis Epidemic Among the Inuit

944: 2742:"Bacille de Calmette-Guérin, or BCG Vaccine for Tuberculosis" 1816: 1697:, he later (1968-1971) headed Project Surname which replaced 840: 824: 282: 3206:"Former sanatorium patient searches for answers, validation" 2488:

Grzybowski, S.; Dorken, E. (1983). "Tuberculosis in Inuit".

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National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women

3235:"Families want sanatorium recognized as residential school" 3491:"Tuberculosis Is Still a Major Concern for Canada's Inuit" 1628: 4164:

Healing Histories: Stories from Canada's Indian Hospitals

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sold through this process was over $ 10,000CAD per year.

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The 29 hospitals listed in a class-action lawsuit are:

3414:"Second case of Norway House babies switched at birth" 1693:, hunter and author, was the first Inuk to sit on the 1221: 1617:

Frobisher Bay Indian Hospital (Northwest Territories)

3866:"Manitoba History: The Manitoba Sanatorium, Ninette" 1994:

A history of the original peoples of Northern Canada

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Historically racially segregated hospitals in Canada

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Richard Cardinal: Cry from a Diary of a Métis Child

2524:"Natives died in droves as Ottawa ignored warnings" 1848:"Terminology Guide Research on Aboriginal Heritage" 1614:

Fort Norman Indian Hospital (Northwest Territories)

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neighbours and family members in Inuit communities.

1035:resulting in an increase in infection rates again. 1021:A 1983 study by S. Grzybowski and E. Dorken titled 850:were mostly church-run, in a manner similar to the 4212: 2261:"Chartering the right to healthcare | The Journal" 1896: 939:, referred to as Indian Hospitals, were opened in 5087:Index of articles related to Indigenous Canadians 4191: 1292:Rates in 2013 are similar to those found in 1953: 5099: 2487: 3070:. University of Toronto Press. pp. 77–78. 1578:North Battleford Indian Hospital (Saskatchewan) 3517: 3515: 1602:Coqualeetza Indian Hospital (British Columbia) 1575:Fort Qu'Appelle Indian Hospital (Saskatchewan) 765:For an article about healthcare in India, see 4301: 4210: 2462:. Canada: Heritage House Publishing Co. Ltd. 2389:"Aaniajurliriniq: Health Care in Qikiqtaaluk" 1611:Fort Simpson Hospital (Northwest Territories) 1605:Miller Bay Indian Hospital (British Columbia) 1149:Many evacuees were sent to institutions with 746: 232: 4010:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2966:"Hamilton TB Sanitorium - Abandoned Ontario" 2075:. University of Saskatchewan Library. 1996. 2042:"A Brief Look at Indian Hospitals in Canada" 1964:"A Brief Look at Indian Hospitals in Canada" 1857: 4965:Portrayals of the residential school system 3953:"Lasting Images - Kenojuak Ashevak | UNews" 3795:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 3512: 3472:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 4308: 4294: 3695: 3655: 1998:. McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP. p. 127. 1608:Nanaimo Indian Hospital (British Columbia) 1569:Clearwater Lake Indian Hospital (Manitoba) 753: 739: 239: 225: 4162:Drees, Laurie Meijer (15 November 2012). 4111:"New Short Documentary about the Camsell" 3765: 3442: 3144:University of Alberta Faculty of Law Blog 2786: 2627:University of Alberta Faculty of Law Blog 2329: 2225: 1805:Canadian Indian residential school system 1758:Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal 1695:Northwest Territories Legislative Council 1599:Charles Camsell Indian Hospital (Alberta) 1566:Fort Alexander Indian Hospital (Manitoba) 1545:Lady Willington Indian Hospital (Ontario) 928:Department of National Health and Welfare 4655:Violence against Wetʼsuwetʼen protesters 4238:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 3863: 3631:Team, The Buffalo Tribune (2021-06-25). 2064: 2062: 1895:. Shm.oxfordjournals.org. Archived from 1890: 1842: 1840: 1705: 1632: 1366: 905: 5113:History of Indigenous peoples in Canada 3836:"HistoricPlaces.ca - HistoricPlaces.ca" 2818: 2291: 1629:Notable Inuit confined for tuberculosis 1620:Inuvik Hospital (Northwest Territories) 1590:Morley/Stoney Indian Hospital (Alberta) 1572:Norway House Indian Hospital (Manitoba) 1563:Fisher River Indian Hospital (Manitoba) 1554:Sioux Lookout Indian Hospital (Ontario) 1551:Moose Factory Indian Hospital (Ontario) 1539:Tobique Indian Hospital (New Brunswick) 1289:having 10% of the population infected. 1234:(PAS); they also performed trials of a 5100: 3732: 3730: 3626: 3624: 3485: 3483: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3200: 3198: 3196: 3166: 3164: 3134: 3132: 3130: 3100: 3098: 3030: 3028: 3026: 3024: 2994: 2992: 2990: 2931: 2895: 2893: 2891: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2806: 2804: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2736: 2734: 2732: 2730: 2691: 2689: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2653: 2651: 2649: 2647: 2552: 2550: 2548: 2457: 2453: 2451: 2383: 2381: 2379: 2377: 1542:Manitowaning Indian Hospital (Ontario) 1254: 1144: 901: 397:Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada 4289: 4184:The Cure Was Worse: APTN Investigates 4180: 4161: 3424:from the original on January 31, 2018 2960: 2958: 2927: 2925: 2856: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2695: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2582: 2483: 2481: 2479: 2421: 2419: 2287: 2285: 2203: 2201: 2199: 2197: 2195: 2193: 2191: 2189: 2187: 2185: 2133: 2131: 2129: 2127: 2125: 2059: 2035: 2033: 2031: 2029: 2027: 2012:from the original on 12 February 2018 1989: 1837: 1799:Indian has been used in keeping with 959:, opened in 1946 after converting an 807:, while others were in nearby towns. 423:Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women 4736:Justice for our Stolen Children Camp 4316:Violence and discrimination against 4252: 3630: 3140:"Edmonton's Own Hospital of Horrors" 2775:Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 1985: 1983: 1927: 1925: 1923: 1921: 1919: 1917: 1915: 1238:-stimulating hormone for a study of 4796:Truth and Reconciliation Commission 4404:First Nations nutrition experiments 4233: 3727: 3621: 3480: 3343: 3193: 3161: 3127: 3095: 3063: 3021: 2987: 2888: 2795: 2727: 2686: 2644: 2545: 2448: 2374: 2137: 1863: 1596:Blackfoot Indian Hospital (Alberta) 1548:Squaw Bay Indian Hospital (Ontario) 1222:Surgery, drugs, and experimentation 1066:In 1928, doctors who later ran the 1008:Canadian Indian residential schools 898:was passed in 1927 to this effect. 13: 5064:The Unnatural and Accidental Women 4139: 3980: 3813:. Nanaimo Daily News. 2011-12-16. 3658:"Memories of Sanatorium Inuit Art" 3656:Williamson, Robert (August 2016). 2955: 2922: 2845: 2769: 2579: 2476: 2416: 2282: 2182: 2122: 2039: 2024: 1771:Compulsory sterilization in Canada 1623:Whitehorse Indian Hospital (Yukon) 1560:Dynevor Indian Hospital (Manitoba) 1557:Brandon Indian Hospital (Manitoba) 1214:At least one Indian hospital, the 14: 5144: 4825:An Act to amend the Criminal Code 4273: 3696:Rockingham, Graham (2016-06-29). 1980: 1912: 1593:Hobbema Indian Hospital (Alberta) 874:founded a hospital on the nearby 5118:Tuberculosis sanatoria in Canada 4684:Death of Regis Korchinski-Paquet 4282:- University of British Columbia 2623:"Tuberculosis in Inuit Nunangat" 1750: 1736: 1584:Sarcee Indian Hospital (Alberta) 1581:Peigan Indian Hospital (Alberta) 1309:, a former hospital and school: 1161:system, instead of their names. 947:to accept evacuees, such as the 866:in 1893 with the support of the 722: 711: 263: 208: 38: 5133:Medical controversies in Canada 4879:British Columbia Treaty Process 4192:Sandiford Grygier, Pat (1994). 4166:. University of Alberta Press. 4121:from the original on 2018-03-12 4103: 4092:from the original on 2020-01-21 4072: 4061:from the original on 2018-11-28 4047: 4036:from the original on 2018-01-30 4018: 3993:from the original on 2017-10-29 3974: 3963:from the original on 2017-10-28 3945: 3934:from the original on 2017-06-23 3916: 3905:from the original on 2017-11-13 3887: 3876:from the original on 2017-11-01 3857: 3846:from the original on 2016-03-05 3828: 3817:from the original on 2014-03-16 3803: 3778:from the original on 2019-03-08 3759: 3748:from the original on 2019-02-12 3716:from the original on 2017-10-29 3689: 3678:from the original on 2017-10-29 3649: 3610:from the original on 2018-10-20 3596: 3585:from the original on 2018-12-14 3571: 3560:from the original on 2018-04-04 3540: 3529:from the original on 2018-12-12 3501:from the original on 2017-10-29 3455:from the original on 2019-03-07 3436: 3406: 3395:from the original on 2020-01-18 3377: 3366:from the original on 2017-10-30 3332:from the original on 2018-10-24 3314: 3303:from the original on 2018-02-02 3285: 3274:from the original on 2018-02-19 3256: 3245:from the original on 2018-02-19 3227: 3216:from the original on 2018-02-02 3182:from the original on 2018-03-07 3150:from the original on 2018-11-03 3116:from the original on 2018-11-03 3084:from the original on 2018-02-20 3057: 3046:from the original on 2018-03-11 3010:from the original on 2018-02-07 2976:from the original on 2017-10-29 2944:from the original on 2017-10-29 2911:from the original on 2018-02-10 2877:from the original on 2017-10-29 2834:from the original on 2018-02-08 2763: 2752:from the original on 2018-02-10 2716:from the original on 2018-02-10 2675:from the original on 2018-02-09 2633:from the original on 2018-11-03 2615: 2604:from the original on 2018-11-13 2568:from the original on 2018-02-17 2534:from the original on 2020-01-12 2516: 2437:from the original on 2017-11-13 2405:from the original on 2019-02-10 2323: 2312:from the original on 2020-01-16 2298:. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. 2271:from the original on 2017-10-29 2253: 2242:from the original on 2017-10-29 2111:from the original on 2018-02-17 2093: 2082:from the original on 2014-02-22 2048:from the original on 2018-02-10 1945:from the original on 2018-01-30 1587:Blood Indian Hospital (Alberta) 1455:Ninette Tuberculosis Sanatorium 1421:Fort Qu'Appelle Indian Hospital 1391:Charles Camsell Indian Hospital 1371:Fort Qu'Appelle Indian Hospital 1362: 1068:Fort Qu'Appelle Indian Hospital 953:Charles Camsell Indian Hospital 858:opened a small hospital on the 369:British Columbia Treaty Process 2970:www.ontarioabandonedplaces.com 2292:Grygier, Pat S. (March 1997). 2140:The Canadian Historical Review 1956: 1884: 1793: 1766:Pass system (Canadian history) 1509:was confined from 1952 to 1955 1: 5128:History of medicine in Canada 1968:Indigenous Corporate Training 1830: 1465:Moose Factory Indian Hospital 1041: 980:Eastern Arctic Medical Patrol 4318:Indigenous peoples in Canada 4211:Culhane Speck, Dara (1989). 1933:"Indian Hospitals in Canada" 1809:Indigenous peoples in Canada 1645:, confined from 1952 to 1955 1445:Norway House Indian Hospital 1431:Fisher River Indian Hospital 1046: 868:Department of Indian Affairs 793:indigenous peoples in Canada 374:Crown and Indigenous peoples 7: 4939:Old-growth logging protests 2696:Purdy, Chris (2018-01-30). 1729: 1401:Coqualeetza Indian Hospital 1176:, Hamilton Sanatorium, 1955 912:Coqualeetza Indian Hospital 803:, and might also be called 612:Indigenous English Dialects 10: 5149: 4706:Judge David William Ramsay 4280:Indian Hospitals in Canada 2396:Qikiqtani Truth Commission 1513:Miller Bay Indian Hospital 1475:Sanatorium on the Mountain 1461:, Manitoba, opened in 1909 1451:, Manitoba, opened in 1952 1353: 1324: 1303:Indian residential schools 1079: 1006:populations, including in 926:The newly-created federal 852:Indian residential schools 810: 764: 5077: 4957: 4897: 4860: 4851: 4827:for trafficking of minors 4816: 4781: 4718: 4694:Saskatoon freezing deaths 4641: 4557: 4485: 4476: 4434: 4378:Residential school system 4368: 4331: 4324: 4253:Kelm, Mary-Ellen (1999). 4219:. Vancouver: Talonbooks. 2857:Weber, Bob (2017-09-11). 2352:10.1017/S0032247400012213 1938:The Canadian Encyclopedia 1275: 961:Indian residential school 872:Anglican Church of Canada 718:Indigenous North Americas 5123:Social history of Canada 4768:Walking With Our Sisters 4689:Killing of Chantel Moore 4583:Winnipeg serial killings 4342:Gradual Civilization Act 4234:Lux, Maureen K. (2016). 4150:. Heritage House Press. 1990:Crowe, Keith J. (1991). 1786: 1232:para-aminosalicylic acid 783:, originally serving as 496:Indigenous personalities 4944:Trans Mountain pipeline 4667:Gustafsen Lake standoff 3064:Lux, Maureen K (2016). 1713:The Necessities of Life 1657:, confined in childhood 1523:Fort William Sanatorium 1505:, Quebec, where artist 1435:Percy E. Moore Hospital 1411:Nanaimo Indian Hospital 1319:Art Gallery of Hamilton 1216:Fort William Sanatorium 787:but later operating as 136:Diagnostic Services Act 4919:Caledonia land dispute 4773:Women's Memorial March 4533:Healthcare inequality 4421:High Arctic relocation 4146:Geddes, Gary. (2017). 3864:Goldsborough, Gordon. 3702:The Hamilton Spectator 2932:Selway, Shawn (2016). 1781:High Arctic relocation 1638: 1372: 1351: 1315: 1299: 1208: 1196: 1187: 1178: 1117: 1109: 1100: 1092: 1058: 1032: 1023:Turburculosis in Inuit 923: 785:tuberculosis sanatoria 134:Hospital Insurance and 123:Comparison with the US 4618:Jean Virginia Sampare 4603:Tammy Lamondin-Gagnon 4181:Moore, Holly (2017). 3987:www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca 3840:www.historicplaces.ca 2905:Nanaimo News Bulletin 2788:10.3138/cbmh.12.2.447 2458:Geddes, Gary (2017). 1706:Depictions in culture 1636: 1477:, renamed in 1961 as 1381:Blood Indian Hospital 1370: 1346: 1335:Nunavut Tunngavik Inc 1311: 1294: 1204: 1192: 1183: 1170: 1113: 1105: 1096: 1087: 1053: 1027: 984:Western Arctic Patrol 976:Eastern Arctic Patrol 914:which was located in 909: 4999:Missing and Murdered 4559:Missing and Murdered 4399:Forced sterilization 3983:"Discover Inuit Art" 2265:www.queensjournal.ca 2214:Études/Inuit/Studies 2152:10.3138/chr.91.3.407 1801:page name guidelines 1676:Alivaktak Petaloosie 1529:, Ontario, 1935-1974 1499:Parc Savard Hospital 846:Early hospitals for 622:Aboriginal syllabics 597:Indigenous languages 85:Controlled Drugs and 79:Non-Insured Benefits 32:Healthcare in Canada 4914:Burnt Church Crisis 4741:Moose Hide campaign 4613:Helen Betty Osborne 4512:Criminal sentencing 4486:Structural violence 4333:Settler colonialism 3637:The Buffalo Tribune 3420:. August 25, 2016. 3418:Winnipeg Free Press 3239:Wawatay News Online 2344:1991PoRec..27...93M 1255:Discharge and death 1145:Hospital conditions 1139:Mountain Sanatorium 1000:Canadian government 902:National initiative 854:. For example, the 778:racially segregated 650:Traditional beliefs 491:Indigenous cultures 334:Residential schools 324:Settler colonialism 101:History of medicine 5108:Racial segregation 4924:Clayoquot protests 4517:Mass incarceration 4490:and discrimination 3924:"Chedoke Hospital" 3553:The Globe and Mail 3389:The Globe and Mail 2598:The Globe and Mail 2528:The Globe and Mail 2490:Ecology of Disease 2267:. 9 January 2009. 1864:Lux, M.K. (2016). 1639: 1489:Toronto Sanatorium 1373: 1270:residential school 1228:general anesthetic 924: 255:Indigenous peoples 118:Father of medicare 57:Minister of Health 5095: 5094: 5082:Indigenous rights 5073: 5072: 4929:Keystone Pipeline 4884:Yukon Land Claims 4847: 4846: 4763:Sisters in Spirit 4714: 4713: 4598:Pamela Holopainen 4472: 4471: 4426:RCMP dog killings 4348:Numbered Treaties 4173:978-0-88864-650-7 4156:978-1-77203-164-5 4115:ghosts of camsell 3665:Mountain Memories 3556:. 29 March 2018. 2770:Twohig, Peter L. 1877:978-1-4426-1386-7 1125:Hamilton, Ontario 876:Blackfoot reserve 805:reserve hospitals 789:general hospitals 763: 762: 729:Canada portal 675:Index of articles 428:Numbered Treaties 249: 248: 215:Canada portal 63:Canada Health Act 5140: 5030: 4992:Highway of Tears 4949:Unistʼotʼen Camp 4906:Water protection 4904: 4865: 4858: 4857: 4779: 4778: 4672:Ipperwash Crisis 4646: 4643:Police brutality 4633:Lisa Marie Young 4623:Loretta Saunders 4588:Immaculate Basil 4571:Highway of 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Project 4710: 4699:Neil Stonechild 4644: 4637: 4576:list of victims 4560: 4553: 4524:Food insecurity 4487: 4478: 4468: 4430: 4414:Kimelman Report 4364: 4320: 4314: 4276: 4271: 4265: 4246: 4227: 4204: 4174: 4142: 4140:Further reading 4136: 4134: 4133: 4124: 4122: 4109: 4108: 4104: 4095: 4093: 4078: 4077: 4073: 4064: 4062: 4053: 4052: 4048: 4039: 4037: 4024: 4023: 4019: 4003: 4002: 3996: 3994: 3979: 3975: 3966: 3964: 3951: 3950: 3946: 3937: 3935: 3928:fhs.mcmaster.ca 3922: 3921: 3917: 3908: 3906: 3893: 3892: 3888: 3879: 3877: 3862: 3858: 3849: 3847: 3834: 3833: 3829: 3820: 3818: 3809: 3808: 3804: 3788: 3787: 3781: 3779: 3764: 3760: 3751: 3749: 3736: 3735: 3728: 3719: 3717: 3694: 3690: 3681: 3679: 3675: 3660: 3654: 3650: 3641: 3639: 3629: 3622: 3613: 3611: 3602: 3601: 3597: 3588: 3586: 3577: 3576: 3572: 3563: 3561: 3546: 3545: 3541: 3532: 3530: 3521: 3520: 3513: 3504: 3502: 3489: 3488: 3481: 3465: 3464: 3458: 3456: 3441: 3437: 3427: 3425: 3412: 3411: 3407: 3398: 3396: 3383: 3382: 3378: 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