837:, but because of their realization of their own inability to obtain the support of a majority of the peasants and workers by means of free propaganda. This was the fundamental cause of the Bolshevist coup d'etat against the representatives of the revolutionary workers and peasants. Hence, the abolition of all rights of all other socialists who refused to submit to the crack of the Bolshevist whip. Hence, the establishment of a political regime which leaves but one form of open political action for the opposition — civil war.... The real crime of which the Socialists-Revolutionists are guilty before the Bolsheviki at the present moment is not in the preparation of terroristic acts and armed uprisings, but in that... are acquiring in ever increasing measure the confidence of the toiling masses of Russia. This bids fair to bring about the complete isolation of the Bolsheviki in a short time..."
297:
31:
735:
316:(NEP). This critical change meant abandonment of the old force-based system of commodity acquisition and the ration-based system of product distribution, in favor of a restoration of stable currency and the use of markets — a change which involved the delegation of greater power to the producing peasantry. With the political position of the Bolshevik regime commensurately weakened, the Soviet government intensified its effort to suppress and eliminate all political opposition within the country.
413:
88:
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their attorney's services. This was achieved and at the evening session of June 26 the trial ground to a halt due to departure of the defense. Piatakov announced that the defense was effectively relieved of their duties and notice served to the
Commissariat of Justice that new legal representation would be henceforth required. Muraviev and two other leading attorneys were said to have been subsequently arrested as a result of these actions.
542:
799:
ultimately allowed to present potentially exculpatory evidence. Prosecution witnesses included not only those PSR members on trial with the 12 Central
Committee defendants but also a group of another 19 former party members who had been arrested prior to the great trial and threatened with their own trial and sentencing unless evidence useful to the prosecution's case was presented.
276:, Evgenii Timofeev, Dmitrii Rakov, and others arrested in early 1920. By the middle of 1921, all members of the Central Committee who had not emigrated were in Cheka custody, with the secret police continuing to arrest all known party members who could be located. A new five member Central Bureau was named to guide the shattered party, but it too was decimated by arrests.
651:
179:, a national parliament initially supported by all anti-tsarist parties. In these elections, held in the first days of Bolshevik power, the PSR polled a total of more than 16 million votes — a total which, when combined with the votes cast for similar pro-agrarian parties, amounted to more than half of the 42 million votes cast. The rival
491:), and three members of the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries in exile. This list of ten was accepted by the Comintern early in May but suffered attrition when the three SRs and several others dropping out for assorted reasons. Ultimately only four of these would make their way to Moscow in May — Vandervelde and Belgian socialist
550:
and having committed treason through contract with hostile foreign powers. The PSR was held to be largely responsible for several peasant uprisings which erupted in 1920, including revolts in Tambov province, Siberia, and the Black Sea region, and with having been in communication with mutinous sailors involved in the
791:
defense counsel, asserting that it was a "public law obligation" for these attorneys to stay on the case. Krylenko called for a complaint to be filed with the Moscow Soviet, governing authority of the
College of Advocates, with a view to disbarring these striking defense attorneys from the further practice of law.
787:
depend." Muraviev called for the tribunal to be dissolved, declaring, "Woe to the country, woe to the people, who show contempt of the law and who mock those who defend the law." This demand was summarily rejected by
Piatakov and the tribunal, which emphasized its "revolutionary conception of proletarian law."
425:
which the parties and leaders of the Two-and-a-Half tended to distance themselves from the armed struggle of the PSR against the Soviet government, while seeking a fair trial and the opportunity for unfettered international investigation of the question of PSR participation in counterrevolutionary crimes.
713:
On June 14 the defendants met with their
Western defenders and determined that they should no longer provide validation for the Soviet "parody of justice" through their presence at the sessions. The Western defenders accordingly boycotted the afternoon session, meeting at night with the SR defendants
690:
The defense also objected to a prior ruling that four prominent
Mensheviks should not be allowed as defense attorneys. Every request of the defense was ultimately defeated. In addition, the defense was frequently prohibited from speaking when desired and was subjected to a steady avalanche of jeering
549:
The indictment in the so-called "Affair of the
Central Committee and of Certain Members of Other Organizations of the PSR" was a weighty document, running to 117 pages. Allegations included the conduct of armed struggle against the Soviet state, having organized murderous terrorist actions and raids,
537:
and member of the
Collegium of Prosecutors. Agranov and Krilenko worked to build up a circle of past and present party members who could provide damaging statements to implicate the PSR's top leadership in criminal activity; the top leaders themselves did not aid the preliminary investigation. It was
373:
on March 23, emphasizing that the trials be structured and publicized in such a way that the workers and peasants of the country should not only hear about them but understand their underlying political message. In short, historian Marc Jansen has observed, "the trial of the
Socialist Revolutionaries
538:
only on May 23, the day on which the preliminary investigation came to an end, that the isolated subjects of the inquiry were informed as to the charges against them. The trial was slated to begin barely more than one week later, on June 1, allowing precious little time for preparation of a defense.
444:
refused the demand for external supervisory authority, but agreed in principle with the suggestion that
Vandervelde serve as a counsel for the defense and further guaranteed that representatives of the Second and Vienna Internationals should have the right to attend the trial, study documents of the
69:
The Bolshevik Central Committee had confirmed the verdict for the SR defendants to be executed but only on the condition they refused to abandon armed struggles in relation to "conspiratorial, terrorist, and espionage activities". Owing in great measure to international pressure, the death sentences
798:
Testimony before the court was stacked, with some 58 witnesses were called for the prosecution. The defense sought to call 40 witnesses on its behalf, many of whom were PSR members sitting in jail. Of these, 20 potential witnesses were immediately rejected by the court and a total of only nine were
794:
Under threat of a complaint to the People's Commissariat of Justice, for two days an attempt was made to get the defense attorneys to reconsider their decision to withdraw. A requirement was made that each defense attorney and every defendant must resign their task or renounce the representation of
790:
This provoked another dramatic withdrawal from the case by the defense on June 23, accompanied by a declaration that it was impossible to carry out a proper legal defense given the structure of the proceedings crafted by the court. Prosecutor Krylenko objected strenuously to the mass resignation of
762:
Speaking from the platform to the assembled crowd, Piatakov promised the demonstrators that the court would defend "the interests and the peace of the working class" and deliver punishment to counterrevolutionaries which was "righteous and severe." Krylenko urged the crowd to support a judgement of
686:
Several days were spent fighting over procedure, with the PSR leaders and their Western defenders indicating that the court did not meet the criteria of impartiality agreed upon by the Comintern and the two Socialist internationals. In addition to the Communist Party membership of all three judges,
682:
The court met six times a week, with a first session running from noon until 5:00 pm and an evening session convening at 7:00 pm and continuing until about midnight. Two groups of defendants were subject to trial, a group of 22 rank-and-file members of the PSR to serve as de facto witnesses for the
557:
In addition to 12 members of the Central Committee and 10 active members of the PSR held in custody, the indictment also formally named others deemed culpable who would not appear as defendants at the bar; these included not only SRs in emigration such as Viktor Chernov, but also leading Mensheviks
424:
The March 9 appeal of the Foreign Delegation of the PSR was met with a wave of support from the various political organizations of the non-communist left. The Second International was virtually universal in its condemnation of a show trial as an opaque attempt to stifle socialist dissent in Russia,
392:
Certain that a repressive trial with preordained grim results was in the offing, the official representatives of the PSR abroad, organized as a body called the Foreign Delegation of the PSR, began an international publicity campaign in support of their imprisoned comrades. On March 7 members of the
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was extremely critical of the hyperpoliticization of the trial represented by the orchestrated June 20 demonstration and permission of the court to allow the avalanche of denunciation. He asserted on June 22 that such actions had "completely infringed upon the existing legal framework on which we
186:
Lenin and other Bolshevik leaders had no intention of surrendering power to this new body, however, and the Constituent Assembly was dispersed by force on January 5, 1918, having met only one day. No immediate armed response from the PSR followed, though the organization had previously, like its
280:
Bolsheviks in the near future. The shattered party was deemed to have insufficient forces to have a credible chance at overthrowing the Bolshevik regime and sought not to play into the hands of those seeking a right wing restoration and therefore ceased to fight, going so far as to denounce the
766:
Despite the grimness of the general slogans, marchers included a great number of women and children and the mood of the crowd was not violent; rather, a holiday spirit seems to have prevailed. One popular placard was a large cutout of Émile Vandervelde with string-operated arms and legs, which
592:
served as the principal spokesman for the jailed SRs, who challenged the authority of the Bolsheviks to try them and who sought to pursue an aggressive political indictment of their own of the Soviet regime in public trial. This marked a return to the common tactic of revolutionary defendants
279:
Facing the threat of Monarchist military dictatorship on the one hand and the Bolsheviks on the other, the PSR attenuated its campaign against the Bolsheviks in the second half of 1920, with party leaders passing a resolution on October 1, 1920, which ruled out further armed resistance to the
287:
The PSR, crushed to the point of near total disruption, played virtually no role in the requisitions-related peasant revolts of 1920 and 1921, contentions of the secret police notwithstanding. The battle of the PSR against the Bolsheviks was effectively over, but retribution had just begun.
679:, sat on a slightly elevated platform at one end of the great hall beneath a large red banner of a worker wielding an anvil before a red, rising sun, with the words "Workers of the World, Unite!" The hall, which could seat about 1,500 spectators was heavily guarded by armed soldiers.
219:
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trials (which will stand model as regards the explanation of their significance to the masses of the people by the court and in the press) in Moscow, Petrograd, Kharkov, and other major centers;... — all this must be taken in hand systematically, resolutely, and with
448:
In an effort to calm waters with the Western socialists, Comintern delegates made additional broad guarantees, which included the right of all counsels chosen by the defendants to be admitted, a promise that the trial would be held in public, and a guarantee that no
655:
654:
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The afternoon session of June 20 was brought to an early close due to the demonstration, and members of the court and the prosecution — including President of the Tribunal Piatakov, Prosecutor Krylenko and Zetkin, ostensible defenders of the SR rank-and-filers
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774:" to appear before the court, where for two and a half hours they delivered a series of denunciations of the defendants, calling them killers and enemies of the working class and urging administration of the death penalty as righteous retribution.
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On June 20, 1922, in commemoration of the fourth anniversary of the assassination of Volodarsky by an SR assassin, a mass demonstration was organized in Moscow. A massive throng estimated variously at from 150,000 to 300,000 people marched through
705:
The defendants proclaimed their innocence based upon a general amnesty which had been granted to the PSR by the Soviet government in February 1919 and a claim that charges under the new legal code of 1922 were a clear and obvious case of use of an
759:, and an array of prominent international Communists participated in the march and speeches. Banners were wielded by marchers demanding "Death to the traitors of the revolution!" "Death to the Social Democrats!" and other inflammatory slogans.
653:
587:
After arriving in Moscow on May 25 — greeted at the train station by a hostile demonstration of thousands — the four foreign counsels were allowed to meet the 22 potential defendants in prison almost daily to prepare a defense.
393:
PSR gathered in Berlin to form an international committee against the trial, leading to an official appeal of the Foreign Delegation of the PSR to all socialist parties in the world two days later. This came at a time when the
259:
went into hiding and stayed ahead of the authorities but was finally forced into emigration in 1920, where he would serve as the PSR's official foreign representative. Other ranking party figures were not so fortunate, with
717:
The Western defenders attempted to leave Russia forthwith to continue their efforts on behalf of the SR defendants in the court of public opinion. Soviet authorities attempted to block this effort by denying the socialists
229:
The Left SRs broke with the Bolsheviks while other regional governments sprang up in opposition to the Soviet regime, contributing to a worsening military situation for the Bolsheviks. Then on August 30, 1918, PSR member
573:
The defendants were charge with having violated a new Penal Code which went into effect only on June 1, 1922 — that is, after the alleged counterrevolutionary crimes had been committed. Rather than a devious use of
570:, as well as leading members of other political organizations. The indictment was as much a political pamphlet as it was a legal document, with some 4,000 copies printed for internal and international distribution.
432:, held in Berlin from April 2–5, 1922. The forthcoming trial of the PSR leadership was inserted as a substantial issue in these negotiations, with representatives of the Second International, a delegation headed by
457:
and V.I. Lenin were sharply critical of these allowances made to the socialist critics abroad, with Lenin giving voice to his objections with an article entitled "We Have Paid Too High a Price," published in both
522:, a top leader of the secret police establishment, who hand-selected potential witnesses from the scores of PSR members that had been arrested and detained over the course of 1921 and the first months of 1922.
833:"The Bolsheviki were first to use violence against other socialists. They dissolved the Constituent Assembly not by way of resistance against any violence on the part of the Socialists-Revolutionists and the
202:
that same month gave the PSR an opportunity to launch its plan of action and on June 8 a shadow government called the Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly (Komuch) was launched in the city of
198:
In the spring of 1918, the idea of armed struggle against the Bolshevik regime began to spread in party ranks, with a May 1918 conference in Moscow passing a resolution in support of the strategy. The
683:
prosecution in addition to the 12 members of the organization's Central Committee. The 22 rank-and-filers were removed from the courtroom to prison custody when they were not actively testifying.
440:, demanding the guarantee of the defendants to a competent independent defense and the right of the Internationals to directly supervise the trial. On behalf of the Bolsheviks, chief negotiator
747:, led by members of the Soviet court. A crowd gathered outside the House of the Trade Unions and were addressed by a number of government officials and representatives of workers' committees.
580:
law, a scholar specializing in Soviet show trials contends that the 1922 PSR trial's adherence to the new legal code was intended to demonstrate to the world instead the abandonment of ad hoc
619:. Of this team, Krylenko fulfilled the role of true public prosecutor. The Comintern also designated several international Communist leaders as members of the prosecution. These included
687:
the defense objected to the packing of the audience with Bolshevik partisans — very few admission tickets having been made available for distribution to friends of the defendants.
335:
appointed to determine the timing of the public announcement of this controversial decision. There would be an interval of two months before this official announcement was made.
652:
17:
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and L.V. Konopleva, testified that the Central Committee of the PSR had coordinated an armed struggle against the Soviet state and directed the assassination of Lenin and
714:
to draft a public statement, which argued that the Berlin Agreement between the three Internationals had been pointedly violated to the point of having been invalidated.
265:
807:
The trial concluded with death sentences for the 12, and acquittal for those who gave evidence. Upon further review by the tribunal, the death sentences were commuted.
475:(ECCI) — an action which had binding authority upon the Russian Communist Party. A list of ten counsels was prepared by the Western socialists, including Vandervelde,
168:
and the new Soviet regime, going so far as to attempt to form a counter-government and backing a new uprising in the first days after the revolution, without success.
141:— a position regarded as anathema by radical political organizations, which sought an immediate end to hostilities and institution of a new redistributive government.
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476:
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law, thus representing a violation of a basic tenet of legality. Both of these fundamental arguments of the defense were speedily rejected by the court.
770:
Following the demonstration the court held an evening session. Chief judge Piatakov allowed two delegations representing "the proletariat of Moscow and
472:
2020:
269:
261:
702:, the latter of whom was actually murdered on June 20, 1918. Semenov had joined the Bolsheviks in 1919, and thereafter became an agent provocateur.
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767:
gesticulated wildly in time to the martial music being played by a marching band. The placard bore the slogan, "Vandervelde, dancer for the king."
492:
406:
338:
Lenin himself defined the Communist Party's objective in the trial of their opponents with a Feb. 20, 1922 letter to People's Commissar of Justice
255:(Soviet political police) had begun an active campaign to hunt down members of the governing Central Committee of the PSR late in 1919. Top leader
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the Mensheviks and the Socialist Revolutionaries); the use of such repression by Revolutionary Tribunals and People's Courts in the quickest and,
596:
In addition to the high-profile Western defenders, a set of Russian defenders were provided the defendants. These both political leaders such as
763:
the death penalty for the defendants. Orators gathered at various points on Red Square delivered similar messages to the congregating marchers.
1889:
43:
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secretly voted to organize a public trial of the Central Committee of the PSR, with a three-member commission consisting of party leaders
906:
164:. This put the majority of the PSR, retrospectively known as the "Right Socialist Revolutionaries," in direct political conflict with
96:
534:
207:, with the declared goal of winning control of the nation in the name of the dispersed Constituent Assembly. With the aid of the
2015:
2010:
429:
829:— a bitter opponent of the Bolsheviks from the earliest days of the October Revolution — minced no words in his denunciation:
941:
507:
Prior to April 1, 1922, investigation of the PSR leadership was conducted by the Cheka and its institutional successor, the
234:
fired three shots at Lenin, gravely wounding him, while elsewhere an assassin met with greater success, killing head of the
377:
During the night of February 24/25, 1922, the members of the Central Committee of the PSR were moved from their cells in
320:
1916:Судебный процесс над социалистами-революционерами (июнь-август 1922). Подготовка. Проведение. Итоги. Сборник документов
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based in Vienna. The Soviet regime was thus in a position in which it was particularly sensitive to radical criticism.
126:
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embroiled in the courts of the tsar, who sought to undermine the ruling order in court before the eyes of the world.
199:
420:
leader Émile Vandervelde was admitted to the trial as a defense attorney for the Socialist Revolutionary defendants.
374:
was intended not to bring the truth to light but to arouse public opinion against the Socialist Revolutionaries."
248:
of their enemies. The bloody civil war, marked by atrocities on both sides, would continue unabated through 1920.
1925:
Cудебный процесс социалистов-революционеров и тюремное противостояние (1922—1926): этика и тактика противоборства
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308:
In 1921, in an effort to restore the shattered economy, Lenin and the Soviet government embarked on a program of
367:
This internal document was rewritten by lawyer Iakov Brandenburgskii for public dissemination and published in
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153:
130:
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rendered in the trial were subsequently commuted, although none of the defendants would ultimately survive the
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The Second and Two-and-a-Half internationals would reunite as the Labour and Socialist International in 1923.
47:
401:
negotiations with the two international federations of non-communist socialist parties — the remnant of the
176:
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Soviet newsreel depicting leading figures and the reading of the indictment in the 1922 Trial of the SRs.
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1990:
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These concessions made to the Western socialist parties were ratified on April 19 by a resolution of the
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on April 11. Nevertheless, Lenin concluded, the agreement, having been made, should not now be broken.
346:"intensification of the repression of the political enemies of the Soviet regime and the agents of the
1936:
The Sickle Under the Hammer: The Russian Socialist Revolutionaries in the Early Months of Soviet Rule,
2005:
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The sensational Trial of the Socialist Revolutionaries began June 8, 1922 in the Pillar Hall of the
726:, that the Western socialists were granted departure documents and allowed to leave Soviet Russia.
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were additionally named by ECCI as prosecution "political experts" and potential trial witnesses.
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2000:
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Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, 1918-1923.
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Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, 1918-1923.
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In an effort to explore the possibility of unity of action, the three Internationals met at the
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Anti-PSR marchers on Red Square bearing a dancing placard of Émile Vandervelde, June 20, 1922.
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The Socialist Alternative to Bolshevik Russia: The Socialist Revolutionary Party, 1921-39.
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8:
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All of the defendants and participants in the trial would eventually become victims in
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The Supreme Tribunal also approved a set of three public prosecutors. These included
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304:, head of the Soviet legal administration during the 1922 trial of the PSR leaders.
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The Bolshevik government, together with their Left SR allies and a small number of
100:
1901:
A Show Trial Under Lenin: The Trial of the Socialist Revolutionaries, Moscow 1922.
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The Left SRs would break with the Bolsheviks in March 1918 over acceptance of the
963:
A Show Trial Under Lenin: The Trial of the Socialist Revolutionaries, Moscow 1922.
211:, the Komuch declared war on the Soviet government as well as on Germany, and the
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676:
488:
386:
1875:
The Twelve Who Are to Die: The Trial of the Socialists-Revolutionists in Moscow.
244:. The Bolsheviks responded with a "Red Terror," taking hostages and engaging in
225:, top leader of the PSR, escaped the Soviet secret police by emigrating in 1920.
1974:
The Twelve Who Are to Die: The Trial of the Socialists-Revolutionists in Moscow
1972:
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The Twelve Who Are to Die: The Trial of the Socialists-Revolutionists in Moscow
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496:
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1984:
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Berlin: Delegation of the Party of Socialists-Revolutionists, 1922; pp. 9-10.
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was begun in earnest. The newspapers of the PSR were immediately suppressed.
175:, rapidly consolidated power. The PSR placed its hopes upon elections to the
104:
63:
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During the trial two ex-members of the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries,
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342:, sent one week before public announcement of the trial. Lenin called for:
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as well Bolshevik jurists. A total of ten state defenders were provided.
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59:
1949:
1910:]. Berlin: Delegation of the Party of Socialists-Revolutionists, 1922.
1977:. Berlin: Delegation of the Party of Socialists-Revolutionists, 1922.
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675:. The three judges of the court, headed by future Great Purge victim
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in Moscow, a former ballroom created for use of the prerevolutionary
545:
Abram Gots was the best-known of the 12 defendants in the 1922 trial.
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192:
91:
PSR election poster from the 1917 elections for Constituent Assembly.
87:
188:
820:
405:
and their more radical counterparts in the short-lived so-called
183:, by way of contrast, received a total of just 10 million votes.
118:
1906:
Karl Kautsky, "The Moscow Trial and the Bolsheviki," preface to
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Karl Kautsky, "The Moscow Trial and the Bolsheviki," preface to
369:
204:
82:
51:
46:, which brought twelve prominent members of the anti-Bolshevik
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vol. 65, no. 2986 (Sept. 27, 1922), p. 232. Cited in Cassidy,
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of the Second International and Liebknecht and German radical
137:. This government remained supportive of the Allied effort in
1114:
Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011; p. 227.
252:
238:
1477:
DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2000; p. 43.
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The Enemy on Trial: Early Soviet Courts on Stage and Screen.
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p. 27. The letter is not included in the English edition of
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Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism
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The trial of the Socialist Revolutionaries quickly became a
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in Moscow, where they were confined in strict isolation.
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in favor of the norms of traditional codified legality.
722:, however. It was only on June 19, following a 24-hour
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and attempts at intimidation by the public spectators.
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case, and take stenographic report of the proceedings.
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The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1982; p. viii.
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Forces were thus arrayed for a great political trial.
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Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011.
50:(PSR) before the bar. The trial, which took place in
42:
was an internationally publicized political trial in
34:
View of the 1922 trial of Socialist Revolutionaries.
525:After April 1, the investigation was taken over by
358:manner; the compulsory organization of a number of
319:On December 28, 1921, the Central Committee of the
1171:Lenin to Kurskii, Feb. 20, 1922, cited in Jansen,
473:Executive Committee of the Communist International
181:Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (bolsheviks)
152:, supported by a militant faction of the PSR, the
150:Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (bolsheviks)
27:1922 Soviet show trial of anti-Bolshevik leftists
1982:
729:
1948:vol. 23, no. 4 (Oct. 1964), pp. 362–369.
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1816:
54:from June 8 to August 7, 1922, was ordered by
18:1922 Moscow Trial of Socialist Revolutionaries
1903:The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1982.
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83:Background: The PSR in the Russian Civil War
58:and is regarded as a precursor to the later
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397:(Comintern) was closely pursuing sensitive
381:to the so-called "Inner Prison" located at
1938:New York: Columbia University Press, 1963.
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936:. Columbia University Press. p. 647.
907:Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks
819:among non-Bolshevik radicals in the West.
487:(older brother of German Communist martyr
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1583:Paxton Hibben, "Moscow's Treason Trial,"
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518:, GPU). This investigation was headed by
2021:Political repression in the Soviet Union
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217:
97:Assassination attempts on Vladimir Lenin
86:
29:
1060:
535:All-Russian Central Executive Committee
516:Государственное политическое управление
284:of 1921 as a "semi-banditry movement."
14:
1983:
1018:
994:
430:Conference of the Three Internationals
40:Trial of the Socialist Revolutionaries
930:Medvedev, Roy Aleksandrovich (1989).
841:
321:Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks)
74:under Stalin during the late 1930s.
883:Elena Aleksandrovna Ivanova-Iranova
24:
1883:
356:for the revolution, most effective
127:Party of Socialist Revolutionaries
48:Party of Socialist Revolutionaries
25:
2037:
200:Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion
129:(PSR) entered as partners in the
1913:S.A. Krasilnikov et al. (eds.),
892:Evgeniia Moiseevna Ratner-Elkind
144:On November 7, 1917 (October 25
1867:
1784:
1755:
1742:
1729:
1716:
1577:
1542:
1529:
1480:
1447:
1434:
1421:
1408:
1355:
1342:
1329:
1316:
1303:
1274:
1261:
1248:
1235:
1226:
1213:
1165:
1104:
1091:
1078:
912:Moscow Show Trials of the 1930s
1047:
1034:
981:
968:
923:
886:Mikhail Aleksandrovich Likhach
502:
300:People's Commissar of Justice
154:Left Socialist Revolutionaries
13:
1:
2016:Socialist Revolutionary Party
2011:Political and cultural purges
895:Evgenii Mikhailovich Timofeev
869:Mikhail Iakovlevich Gendelman
860:Vladimir Vladimirovich Agapov
853:
730:Mass demonstration of June 20
917:
889:Sergei Vladimirovich Morozov
407:Two-and-a-Half International
195:against the tsarist regime.
125:of 1917, the pro-democratic
7:
1944:, "The Trial of the SRs,"
900:
866:Dmitrii Dmitrievich Donskoi
863:Arkadii Ivanovich Altovskii
509:State Political Directorate
173:Menshevik-Internationalists
117:Following the overthrow of
10:
2042:
880:Nikolai Nikolaevich Ivanov
802:
383:secret police headquarters
292:Preparations for the trial
94:
77:
1862:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1844:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1824:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1808:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1792:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1779:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1763:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1750:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1737:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1724:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1711:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1691:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1657:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1639:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1623:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1607:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1572:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1550:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1537:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1524:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1504:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1488:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1455:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1442:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1429:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1416:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1403:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1383:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1363:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1350:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1337:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1324:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1311:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1298:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1282:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1269:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1256:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1243:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1221:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1208:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1192:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1173:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1160:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1144:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1128:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1099:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1086:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1073:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1055:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1042:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1029:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
1013:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
989:A Show Trial Under Lenin,
877:Lev Iakovlevich Gershtein
778:Second phase of the trial
1965:London: Routledge, 2014.
1928:. Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2005.
1919:. Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2002.
646:First phase of the trial
191:forefathers, engaged in
162:seizing government power
976:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
782:Chief defense attorney
627:of Czechoslovakia, and
499:of the Two-and-a-Half.
481:Italian Socialist Party
395:Communist International
310:economic liberalization
156:(Left SRs), launched a
1177:Lenin Collected Works.
873:Abram Rafailovich Gots
839:
811:International reaction
739:
664:
633:Ludovic-Oscar Frossard
582:revolutionary legality
546:
531:Revolutionary Tribunal
421:
365:
305:
272:arrested in 1919, and
226:
131:Provisional Government
92:
35:
831:
737:
659:
544:
415:
344:
299:
221:
90:
62:during the regime of
33:
403:Second International
177:Constituent Assembly
1932:Oliver Henry Radkey
1675:The Enemy on Trial,
1589:The Enemy on Trial,
1473:Julie A. Cassiday,
669:House of the Unions
613:Anatoly Lunacharsky
568:Raphael Abramovitch
552:Kronstadt rebellion
477:Giuseppe Modigliani
314:New Economic Policy
209:Czechoslovak Legion
123:February Revolution
1996:Soviet show trials
1991:Moscow Art Theatre
1777:Quoted in Jansen,
1761:Quoted in Jansen,
842:Results and legacy
740:
665:
547:
485:Theodor Liebknecht
453:would be imposed.
422:
306:
246:summary executions
227:
135:Alexander Kerensky
113:October Revolution
109:26 Baku Commissars
93:
36:
1961:Elizabeth White,
943:978-0-231-06351-7
657:
617:Mikhail Pokrovsky
517:
434:Émile Vandervelde
418:social democratic
333:Felix Dzerzhinsky
213:Russian Civil War
147:
16:(Redirected from
2033:
2006:Events in Moscow
1954:Scott B. Smith,
1898:
1878:
1871:
1865:
1858:
1847:
1840:
1827:
1820:
1811:
1804:
1795:
1788:
1782:
1775:
1766:
1759:
1753:
1746:
1740:
1733:
1727:
1720:
1714:
1707:
1694:
1687:
1678:
1671:
1660:
1653:
1642:
1635:
1626:
1619:
1610:
1603:
1592:
1581:
1575:
1568:
1553:
1546:
1540:
1533:
1527:
1520:
1507:
1500:
1491:
1484:
1478:
1471:
1458:
1451:
1445:
1438:
1432:
1425:
1419:
1412:
1406:
1399:
1386:
1379:
1366:
1359:
1353:
1346:
1340:
1333:
1327:
1320:
1314:
1307:
1301:
1294:
1285:
1278:
1272:
1265:
1259:
1252:
1246:
1239:
1233:
1230:
1224:
1217:
1211:
1204:
1195:
1188:
1179:
1169:
1163:
1156:
1147:
1140:
1131:
1124:
1115:
1110:Scott B. Smith,
1108:
1102:
1095:
1089:
1082:
1076:
1069:
1058:
1051:
1045:
1038:
1032:
1025:
1016:
1009:
992:
985:
979:
972:
966:
959:
948:
947:
927:
753:Nikolai Bukharin
658:
615:, and historian
609:Nikolai Krylenko
598:Nikolai Bukharin
527:Nikolai Krylenko
512:
455:Nikolai Bukharin
438:Ramsay MacDonald
282:Tambov Rebellion
145:
101:Left SR uprising
21:
2041:
2040:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2032:
2031:
2030:
1981:
1980:
1946:Russian Review,
1892:
1886:
1884:Further reading
1881:
1872:
1868:
1859:
1850:
1841:
1830:
1821:
1814:
1805:
1798:
1789:
1785:
1776:
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1760:
1756:
1747:
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1734:
1730:
1721:
1717:
1708:
1697:
1688:
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1663:
1654:
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1604:
1595:
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1578:
1569:
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1472:
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1413:
1409:
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1369:
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1317:
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1198:
1189:
1182:
1170:
1166:
1157:
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1134:
1125:
1118:
1109:
1105:
1096:
1092:
1083:
1079:
1070:
1061:
1052:
1048:
1039:
1035:
1026:
1019:
1010:
995:
986:
982:
973:
969:
960:
951:
944:
928:
924:
920:
903:
898:
856:
848:Stalin's purges
844:
813:
805:
780:
732:
650:
648:
529:, chair of the
505:
489:Karl Liebknecht
451:death penalties
387:Lubyanka Square
340:Dmitrii Kurskii
331:and Cheka head
294:
270:Evgeniia Ratner
262:Dmitrii Donskoi
115:
95:Main articles:
85:
80:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2039:
2029:
2028:
2026:Vladimir Lenin
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
2001:1922 in Russia
1998:
1993:
1979:
1978:
1966:
1959:
1952:
1939:
1929:
1922:K.N. Morozov,
1920:
1911:
1904:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1879:
1866:
1848:
1828:
1812:
1796:
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809:
804:
801:
779:
776:
757:Jacques Sadoul
731:
728:
677:Iurii Piatakov
647:
644:
637:Bohumír Šmeral
635:of France and
611:, the erudite
602:Mikhail Tomsky
504:
501:
497:Kurt Rosenfeld
493:Arthur Wauters
379:Butyrka prison
363:determination.
293:
290:
266:Sergei Morozov
257:Viktor Chernov
242:Moisei Uritsky
223:Viktor Chernov
84:
81:
79:
76:
56:Vladimir Lenin
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2038:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
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961:Marc Jansen,
958:
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822:
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817:cause célèbre
808:
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796:
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788:
785:
784:N.K. Muraviev
775:
773:
768:
764:
760:
758:
754:
748:
746:
736:
727:
725:
724:hunger strike
721:
715:
711:
709:
708:ex post facto
703:
701:
700:V. Volodarsky
697:
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688:
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638:
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630:
629:Dezső Bokányi
626:
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605:
603:
599:
594:
591:
585:
583:
579:
578:
577:ex post facto
571:
569:
565:
561:
560:Julius Martov
555:
553:
543:
539:
536:
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528:
523:
521:
520:Iakov Agranov
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375:
372:
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364:
361:
357:
353:
352:in particular
349:
343:
341:
336:
334:
330:
329:Joseph Stalin
326:
322:
317:
315:
312:known as the
311:
303:
302:Dmitry Kursky
298:
289:
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283:
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114:
110:
106:
105:Boris Donskoy
102:
98:
89:
75:
73:
67:
65:
64:Joseph Stalin
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
44:Soviet Russia
41:
32:
19:
1973:
1969:W. Woitinsky
1962:
1955:
1945:
1935:
1924:
1915:
1907:
1900:
1874:
1869:
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1823:
1807:
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1757:
1749:
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1638:
1622:
1606:
1588:
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1549:
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1531:
1523:
1503:
1487:
1482:
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1441:
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1382:
1362:
1357:
1349:
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1305:
1297:
1281:
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1228:
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1191:
1176:
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1167:
1159:
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1098:
1093:
1085:
1080:
1072:
1054:
1049:
1041:
1036:
1028:
1012:
988:
983:
970:
962:
932:
925:
845:
832:
827:Karl Kautsky
824:theoretician
814:
806:
797:
793:
789:
781:
769:
765:
761:
749:
741:
716:
712:
707:
704:
696:G.I. Semenov
693:
689:
685:
681:
666:
661:
641:
631:of Hungary.
623:of Germany,
621:Clara Zetkin
606:
595:
586:
575:
572:
556:
548:
524:
513:
506:
470:
463:
459:
447:
427:
423:
399:united front
391:
376:
368:
366:
359:
355:
351:
345:
337:
318:
307:
286:
278:
250:
232:Fanny Kaplan
228:
197:
185:
170:
143:
116:
72:Great Terror
68:
39:
37:
1893: [
1890:Marc Jansen
1585:The Nation,
1431:pp. 51, 53.
503:The charges
348:bourgeoisie
325:Lev Kamenev
166:V. I. Lenin
158:coup d'état
139:World War I
60:show trials
1985:Categories
1942:David Shub
1826:pp. 74-75.
1752:pp. 69-70.
1591:pp. 44-45.
1539:pp. 60-61.
1490:pp. 56-57.
1418:pp. 50-51.
1352:pp. 55-56.
1313:pp. 39-40.
1271:pp. 37-38.
1258:pp. 32-33.
1088:pp. 14-15.
1057:pp. 13-14.
854:Defendants
835:Mensheviki
745:Red Square
720:exit visas
625:Alois Muna
590:Abram Gots
564:Fyodor Dan
442:Karl Radek
274:Abram Gots
133:headed by
1739:pp. 67-68
1673:Cassidy,
918:Footnotes
772:Petrograd
465:Izvestiia
236:Petrograd
193:terrorism
146:Old Style
1950:In JSTOR
1860:Jansen,
1842:Jansen,
1822:Jansen,
1806:Jansen,
1790:Jansen,
1748:Jansen,
1735:Jansen,
1722:Jansen,
1709:Jansen,
1689:Jansen,
1655:Jansen,
1637:Jansen,
1621:Jansen,
1605:Jansen,
1570:Jansen,
1548:Jansen,
1535:Jansen,
1522:Jansen,
1502:Jansen,
1486:Jansen,
1453:Jansen,
1440:Jansen,
1427:Jansen,
1414:Jansen,
1401:Jansen,
1381:Jansen,
1361:Jansen,
1348:Jansen,
1335:Jansen,
1322:Jansen,
1309:Jansen,
1296:Jansen,
1280:Jansen,
1267:Jansen,
1254:Jansen,
1241:Jansen,
1219:Jansen,
1206:Jansen,
1190:Jansen,
1158:Jansen,
1142:Jansen,
1126:Jansen,
1097:Jansen,
1084:Jansen,
1071:Jansen,
1053:Jansen,
1040:Jansen,
1027:Jansen,
1011:Jansen,
987:Jansen,
901:See also
673:nobility
558:such as
514:Russian:
416:Belgian
189:Narodnik
821:Marxist
803:Verdict
662:(Video)
533:of the
479:of the
148:), the
121:in the
119:Tsarism
78:History
1864:p. 76.
1846:p. 75.
1810:p. 74.
1794:p. 73.
1781:p. 72.
1765:p. 71.
1726:p. 69.
1713:p. 68.
1693:p. 67.
1677:p. 47.
1659:p. 66.
1641:p. 65.
1625:p. 64.
1609:p. 63.
1574:p. 62.
1552:p. 61.
1526:p. 60.
1506:p. 57.
1457:p. 54.
1444:p. 52.
1405:p. 50.
1385:p. 47.
1365:p. 56.
1339:p. 43.
1326:p. 40.
1300:p. 39.
1284:p. 38.
1245:p. 32.
1223:p. 31.
1210:p. 30.
1194:p. 28.
1162:p. 27.
1146:p. 23.
1130:p. 22.
1101:p. 15.
1075:p. 14.
1044:p. 13.
940:
566:, and
460:Pravda
370:Pravda
268:, and
205:Samara
111:, and
52:Moscow
1897:]
1031:p. 3.
1015:p. 2.
991:p. 1.
360:model
253:Cheka
239:Cheka
938:ISBN
755:and
600:and
462:and
436:and
327:and
251:The
38:The
385:on
1987::
1971:,
1934:,
1899:,
1895:nl
1851:^
1831:^
1815:^
1799:^
1770:^
1698:^
1682:^
1664:^
1646:^
1630:^
1614:^
1596:^
1557:^
1511:^
1495:^
1462:^
1390:^
1370:^
1289:^
1199:^
1183:^
1151:^
1135:^
1119:^
1062:^
1020:^
996:^
952:^
850:.
562:,
554:.
483:,
264:,
160:,
107:,
103:,
99:,
66:.
978:.
946:.
511:(
350:(
20:)
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