237:
outweighed the risks, and almost all
Continental soldiers were inoculated against smallpox. Washington (a survivor of smallpox himself) understood the danger that smallpox posed to his men, saying "Necessity not only authorizes but seems to require the measure, for should the disorder infect the Army . . . we should have more to dread from it, than from the Sword of the Enemy." However, it was more complex than just Washington making this decision. Local officials were concerned that the inoculation of soldiers would lead to the accidental spread of smallpox among civilians. But Washington persisted in his quest and managed to get the majority of his soldiers inoculated. Along with the rise in popularity of the practice, Washington's decision to inoculate his troops was also extremely strategic; he was able to realize the deep impact an epidemic would have on his troops. Immunity was initially more widespread among the British men than the Americans. This was due to the more accepted practice of inoculation in Europe and the high rate of childhood cases, resulting in immunity. With this, an epidemic spread among Americans could prove disastrous to the American cause. With his men at
188:, who inoculated her own children against smallpox, despite widespread concern and controversy. Inoculation was the practice of introducing infected materials into the bodies of healthy individuals with the hope that they would contract a mild form of smallpox, recover, and be immune to further infections. The outcome of inoculations in surviving patients was successful. These individuals proved to be immune to smallpox. Understandably, there was much concern surrounding the practice of inoculation. The ordinary person was unable to comprehend the efficacy of intentionally infecting an otherwise healthy person with a potentially fatal disease. Thus, many were reluctant to have themselves or their family members inoculated. There were instances in which these fears were validated. Many of those who had been inoculated died as a result of the smallpox they had been exposed to. Additionally, there was the potential for an accidental outbreak of smallpox after contact between inoculation patients and the public. The choice of significant individuals such as
160:, was passed. This act made the heads of households mandatory reporters for smallpox; these individuals were required to report smallpox in their house to the selectmen of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Infected households would then be indicated with the placement of a red flag. In South Carolina, sentinels were to be posted outside infected households and infectious notices were required to be posted. In many colonies islands were set up to quarantine individuals coming in by ship. This decreased the chances of smallpox being introduced via trade or travel. By the late 1700s, almost all colonies had quarantine laws in effect in order to diminish the hugely damaging effects that smallpox could have on their communities.
228:. Washington, like others of the time period, was not intimately familiar with the exact mechanisms of the virus. However, he and others were able to realize that men who had previously contracted and subsequently recovered from smallpox were unlikely to become ill a second time. Thus, early on Washington recognized the strategic advantage of these individuals. During an outbreak in Boston, Washington sent troops made up only of men who had previously been infected with smallpox. With this, he was able to both protect his soldiers and take advantage of the vulnerability of Boston and its British inhabitants during the smallpox outbreak of March 1776.
56:
contact is required for an individual to contract smallpox as a result of an interaction with another human. Unlike some viruses, humans are the only carriers of variola major. This limits the chances of the virus being unknowingly spread through contact with insect or other animal populations. Persons infected with smallpox are infectious to others for about 24 days after their infection time. However, there is a period of time in which individuals are contagious but have only begun to experience minor symptoms such as fever, headaches, body aches, and sometimes vomiting.
164:
member of his troops showing symptoms according to previously discovered methods and guidelines, including through the use of a special hospital. Following an outbreak of smallpox in Boston, Washington took further precautions to protect his men; he quarantined his men from the dangerous Boston public. These measures included the refusal to allow contact between his soldiers and the viral refugees of Boston. Additionally, certain retreats of the
Continental Army can be linked to Washington's wish to avoid smallpox and his intense caution when it came to his troops.
20:
290:
inoculation patients unintentionally infecting others. However, Adams understood that the benefits of inoculation far outweighed the potential risks. Having a background in medicine, Adams strove to educate others on his findings and beliefs. John Adams was certainly a leading figure in the
American Revolution; he played many important roles and was known to many. Adams was able to spread his progressive beliefs about public health programs such as inoculation by taking advantage of his status during this time.
268:
The Adams both understood the toll that smallpox could take and therefore feared the disease and its potentially devastating lasting effects. In July 1764, John Adams set an example by choosing to be inoculated before it was a commonly accepted practice. Though techniques were rudimentary at this time, Adams survived the experience, emerging with protective immunity. Adams described the inoculation procedure in a letter to his wife:
250:
173:
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Prior to the steps made by these parties, public health policies in the colonies were not well established; they were limited to emergency situations. This is to say that policies and programs sprung up around epidemics and quarantines, wherever they were needed in the moment. However, the scourge of smallpox prompted changes to be made that would impact the public health of
America for years to come.
232:
Washington's policy. First, Washington recognized that quarantine and attempted cleanliness were not enough to keep his vital troops healthy and in fighting form. Additionally, many prominent members of colonial society were having themselves and their families inoculated. Eventually, even George
Washington's wife,
267:
were intimately familiar with disease and illness, having seen many family members and themselves infected. Thus, Abigail made certain to educate her children on the dangers of disease and how to best avoid it. These lessons included both practices of cleaning and the administration of home medicine.
301:
Many of the leading figures associated with the
American Revolution were also involved in the attempt to stop the disastrous spread of smallpox throughout the American Colonies and beyond. Such individuals included George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin, among others.
155:
Members of the
English colonies as well as English officials were proactive in establishing quarantine guidelines in order to protect the public. One of the earliest recorded examples of this was a quarantine established in 1647 by Puritans in order to prevent the spread of disease from ships coming
276:
and with their Points divided the skin about a
Quarter of an inch and just suffering the blood to appear, buried a thread (infected) about a Quarter of an inch long in the Channell. A little lint was then laid over the scratch and a Piece of Ragg pressed on, and then a Bandage bound over all, and I
163:
Upon taking charge of the
Continental Army, Washington recognized the severe danger that smallpox posed to his men and the outcome of the war. To this end, Washington became "particularly attentive to the least Symptoms of Smallpox" among his men. Further, Washington was prepared to quarantine any
55:
was a dangerous disease caused by the variola major virus. The most common type of smallpox, ordinary, historically has devastated populations with a 30% death rate. The smallpox virus is transmittable through bodily fluids and materials contaminated with infected materials. Generally, face-to-face
151:
or inoculation against the disease. Many feared inoculation, and instead chose isolation via quarantine. Individuals with recognized infections were sent to remote locations where they could let the disease run its course without the fear of infecting others. If needed, the scale of the quarantine
146:
Though there was not too much known about viruses and their transitions, English colonists in North
America recognized the effectiveness of isolating individuals infected with smallpox. The English colonies were more aware of the features of smallpox than of almost any other infectious disease. It
289:
With this act, John Adams set a precedent for many. At the time of his inoculation, the practice was still highly controversial and distrusted by most. This stemmed from the cases in which inoculation patients died as a result of the contracted disease. Additionally, there was always the risk of
236:
was herself inoculated. It was not long after this that Washington initiated the inoculation of the American troops. Washington recognized the dangers of inoculating these men; many patients died as result of the infection caused by inoculation. However, the importance of keeping his men healthy
231:
Initially, George Washington was reluctant to inoculate his troops. But as he watched many of his men fall victim to smallpox, Washington believed that he would be able to keep his troops healthy through sanitary and quarantine methods. There were several events that contributed to the change of
204:
George Washington contributed greatly to the progression of public health systems in America. During his time working with the Continental Army, Washington observed how smallpox and other diseases spread like wildfire through Army camps and gatherings. This was often due to the cramped and dirty
305:
At the time of its introduction, almost all colonists were extremely wary of this new medical procedure. It was difficult for them to understand how the infection of an otherwise healthy individual could have a positive outcome. However, inoculation saved many lives and may have protected the
74:
It is not known where the outbreak began, but the epidemic was not limited to the colonies on the Eastern seaboard, nor to the areas ravaged by hostilities. The outbreak spread throughout the North American continent. In 1775, it was already raging through British-occupied
221:. Washington also had experience with disease outside the realm of combat and war. Having himself suffered from many illnesses and observing those of his family, George Washington was an integral part of the establishment of American public health programs.
277:
was bid go where and do what I pleased...Do not conclude from any Thing I have written that I think Inoculation a light matter -- A long and total abstinence from everything in Nature that has any Taste; two long heavy Vomits, one heavy
306:
Continental Army from destruction. The smallpox inoculation program paved the way for the global public health system that is responsible for the control and eradication of many deadly diseases, including but not limited to
63:. During this time, there was no medical technology widely available to protect soldiers from outbreaks in crowded and unhygienic troop camps. Thus, this virus posed a major threat to the success of the
95:, the disease broke out among both Continental and British camps. Many escaped slaves who had fled to the British lines in the South likewise contracted smallpox and died. In the South, it reached
1728:
134:
in 1782. It affected nearly every tribe on the continent, including the northwestern coast. It is estimated to have killed nearly 11,000 Native Americans in the Western area of present-day
1599:
1764:
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348:
184:, was not in use in Europe apart from Wales, where it was reportedly in use as early as 1600. The practice was widely publicized over a century later by
2001:
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1544:
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inoculated, Washington was able to proceed with more confidence, knowing that at least his men would not be struck down by the smallpox virus.
1562:
1454:
118:
The pandemic also took a massive toll on the indigenous population of the Americas. The disease was likely spread via the travels of the
1734:
1405:
44:. Estimates based on remnant settlements say at least 130,000 people were estimated to have died in the epidemic that started in 1775.
1758:
742:
Becker, Ann M. (2004). "Smallpox in Washington's Army: Strategic Implications of the Disease During the American Revolutionary War".
1698:
1606:
1526:
1358:
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1704:
1268:
1668:
1052:
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Carlos, Ann M.; Lewis, Frank D. (2012). "Smallpox and Native American mortality: The 1780s epidemic in the Hudson Bay region".
393:, London: Printed for T. Cadell, Jun. and W. Davies ..., Cobbett and Morgan ..., and W. Creech, at Edinburgh, by R. Noble ...,
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living conditions of these places. Washington understood the destructive nature of smallpox and other diseases such as
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could be increased. This meant cutting off entire towns from the rest of the colonies for the duration of the disease.
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In July 1776, Abigail and their four children, Charles, Nabby, Thomas, and John Quincy, were all inoculated.
608:"Smallpox in Washington's Army: Strategic Implications of the Disease during the American Revolutionary War"
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to be inoculated did some to make inoculations more accepted, but there was still much progress to be made.
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1370:
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Along with quarantine, another one of Washington's methods for keeping his men healthy was with the use of
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1934:
1928:
1722:
1692:
1502:
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285:, and, Three weeks of Close Confinement to an House, are, according to my Estimation, no small matters."
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1183:
1153:
60:
1238:
901:
418:
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84:
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217:. He was one of the first to introduce the idea of compulsory health initiatives such as widespread
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was widely recognized that there were only two options for protecting oneself against this disease,
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was especially hard hit due to its densely populated urban area. By 1779, the disease had spread to
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and would cause the deaths of tens of thousands. At its end, the epidemic had crossed the
8:
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Though it was practiced in many parts of the world, the technology of inoculation, or
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The Fever of 1721: The Epidemic that Revolutionized Medicine and American Politics
725:
Revolutionary Medicine: The Founding Fathers and Mothers in Sickness and in Health
557:
Revolutionary Medicine: The Founding Fathers and Mothers in Sickness and in Health
19:
1484:
1040:
995:
968:
541:
Revolutionary Medicine:The Founding Fathers and Mothers in Sickness and in Health
92:
272:"Dr. Perkins demanded my left arm and Dr. Warren my brother's . They took their
976:
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115:, and as far south as Mexico, infecting virtually every part of the continent.
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138:, reducing the population from 37,000 to 26,000 in just seven years.
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Blinderman, A. (1977). "John Adams. Fears, depressions, ailments".
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595:"George Washington and the First Mass Military Inoculation". 2009.
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111:, reaching as far west as the Pacific coast, as far north as
96:
834:"George Washington and the First Mass Military Inoculation"
130:. It also showed up in the interior trading posts of the
158:"An Act to Prevent Persons From Concealing the Smallpox"
377:
880:
Savas, Theodore P.; Dameron, J. David (January 2010).
328:
List of notable disease outbreaks in the United States
815:
Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775β82
440:
Principles and Practice of Public Health Surveillance
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122:Indian tribes. Beginning in 1780, it reached the
1948:
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59:This epidemic occurred during the years of the
838:Library of Congress Science Reference Services
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156:from the Caribbean. In 1731, an act, entitled
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832:Filsinger, Amy Lynn; Dwek, Raymond (2009).
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420:History Today (The Great Smallpox Epidemic)
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42:1775β1782 North American smallpox epidemic
1105:"Cocoliztli" epidemics in colonial Mexico
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845:McIntyre, John W.R.; H (December 1999).
492:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
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248:
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126:of the territory comprising present day
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2002:Disease outbreaks in the United States
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694:M.D., John R. Bumgarner (2004-10-26).
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347:Yardley, Jonathan (October 25, 2001).
1172:Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty
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851:Canadian Medical Association Journal
847:"Smallpox and its control in Canada"
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661:New York State Journal of Medicine
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2013:
16:Disease outbreak in North America
1877:encephalitis lethargica epidemic
882:New American Revolution Handbook
774:Explorations in Economic History
413:
281:, four and twenty Mercurial and
1655:Gorakhpur Japanese encephalitis
952:List of epidemics and pandemics
744:The Journal of Military History
687:
652:
612:The Journal of Military History
884:. New York, NY: Savas Beatie.
486:Boylston, Arthur (July 2012).
479:
407:
340:
297:Implications for public health
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1:
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727:. New York University Press.
333:
47:
698:. McFarland. pp. 9β10.
696:The Health of the Presidents
488:"The origins of inoculation"
7:
813:Fenn, Elizabeth A. (2001).
321:
10:
2018:
1997:1780s in the United States
1992:1770s in the United States
1977:American Revolutionary War
1765:2024 Latin American dengue
1545:Western African meningitis
1359:Pacific Northwest smallpox
723:Abrams, Jeanne E. (2013).
554:Abrams, Jeanne E. (2013).
373:"Smallpox Overview". 2016.
61:American Revolutionary War
1789:
1465:
1386:
1371:Buenos Aires yellow fever
1291:
1282:
1269:Philadelphia yellow fever
1239:Great Plague of Marseille
1233:Great Northern War plague
1227:Iceland smallpox epidemic
1219:
1140:
1085:
1074:
1011:
967:
960:
947:
787:10.1016/j.eeh.2012.04.003
186:Lady Mary Wortley Montagu
99:, and from 1778 to 1779,
1935:Mpox (clade Ib) epidemic
1929:Mpox (clade II) outbreak
1889:Seventh cholera pandemic
798:. Simon & Schuster.
504:10.1258/jrsm.2012.12k044
349:"The forgotten epidemic"
1962:1780s disease outbreaks
1957:1770s disease outbreaks
1847:Fourth cholera pandemic
1829:Second cholera pandemic
1675:Γquateur province Ebola
1263:North American smallpox
1178:Great Plague of Seville
606:Becker, Ann M. (2004).
1972:18th-century epidemics
1865:Sixth cholera pandemic
1853:Fifth cholera pandemic
1835:Third cholera pandemic
1823:First cholera pandemic
1805:Second plague pandemic
1365:Barcelona yellow fever
1210:Great Plague of Vienna
1196:Great Plague of London
1166:Massachusetts smallpox
794:Coss, Stephen (2016).
256:
245:John and Abigail Adams
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40:was devastated by the
33:
1841:Third plague pandemic
1799:First plague pandemic
1593:Western African Ebola
1503:Chikungunya outbreaks
1455:Malaysian Nipah virus
1323:Great Plains smallpox
756:10.1353/jmh.2004.0012
624:10.1353/jmh.2004.0012
390:Voyages from Montreal
252:
175:
36:The New World of the
30:Charles Willson Peale
22:
1901:Russian flu pandemic
1643:Angolan yellow fever
1394:San Francisco plague
1347:Broad Street cholera
1245:Great Plague of 1738
385:Mackenzie, Alexander
132:Hudson's Bay Company
1807:(1348β19th century)
1735:New Zealand measles
1563:Darfur yellow fever
1406:LA pneumonic plague
1023:Plague of Justinian
1967:Smallpox epidemics
1817:Influenza pandemic
1811:Influenza pandemic
1759:Bangsamoro measles
1741:Singaporean dengue
1705:Pacific NW measles
1699:Philippine measles
1687:Madagascar measles
1669:Kerala Nipah virus
1662:Saudi Arabian MERS
1575:Singaporean dengue
1521:Zimbabwean cholera
1491:Singaporean dengue
1335:Copenhagen cholera
1317:Groningen epidemic
1111:Influenza pandemic
1093:Influenza pandemic
415:Fenn, Elizabeth A.
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142:Quarantine methods
85:invasion of Canada
38:Western Hemisphere
34:
1944:
1943:
1785:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1717:Kuala Koh measles
1631:South Korean MERS
1619:Polio declaration
1607:Madagascar plague
1539:Gujarat hepatitis
1527:Madagascar plague
1479:Midwest monkeypox
1430:Yugoslav smallpox
1400:Manchurian plague
1341:Stockholm cholera
1278:
1277:
1065:Sweating sickness
1053:Japanese smallpox
1002:Plague of Cyprian
941:disease outbreaks
891:978-1-932714-93-7
817:. Hill and Wang.
805:978-1-4767-8308-6
734:978-0-8147-8919-3
567:978-0-8147-8919-3
234:Martha Washington
200:George Washington
69:George Washington
25:George Washington
2009:
1924:
1711:New York measles
1665:
1625:Indian swine flu
1613:Odisha hepatitis
1603:
1557:Pakistani dengue
1509:Pakistani dengue
1458:
1424:WrocΕaw smallpox
1377:Hong Kong plague
1311:Caragea's plague
1289:
1288:
1206:
1099:Mexican smallpox
1083:
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1035:Plague of Sheroe
990:Plague of Athens
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81:Continental Army
65:Continental Army
2017:
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1987:1780s in Canada
1982:1770s in Canada
1947:
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1940:
1777:
1660:
1598:
1581:Swansea measles
1533:Bolivian dengue
1461:
1453:
1442:Indian smallpox
1412:Croydon typhoid
1382:
1274:
1215:
1201:
1136:
1077:
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1041:Plague of Amwas
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1761:(2023βpresent)
1756:
1753:Jamaica dengue
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1714:
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1649:Yemeni cholera
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1305:Maltese plague
1302:
1299:Ottoman plague
1295:
1293:
1286:
1280:
1279:
1276:
1275:
1273:
1272:
1266:
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1257:Persian Plague
1254:
1251:Russian plague
1248:
1242:
1236:
1230:
1223:
1221:
1217:
1216:
1214:
1213:
1207:
1203:Maltese plague
1199:
1193:
1187:
1184:Maltese plague
1181:
1175:
1169:
1163:
1160:Italian plague
1157:
1154:Maltese plague
1151:
1144:
1142:
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1126:
1123:Maltese plague
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977:Hittite plague
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948:
945:
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929:
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877:
857:(12): 1543β7.
842:
829:
823:
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791:
781:(3): 277β290.
768:
750:(2): 381β430.
739:
733:
718:
715:
712:
711:
704:
686:
667:(2): 268β276.
651:
618:(2): 381β430.
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498:(7): 309β313.
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79:and among the
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1921:(2019βpresent
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1911:
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1895:Hong Kong flu
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1723:Tonga measles
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1693:Samoa measles
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1551:Haiti cholera
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1515:Iraqi cholera
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1497:Indian dengue
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1353:Guam smallpox
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1190:Naples Plague
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1148:London plague
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1129:London plague
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1117:London plague
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1047:Plague of 664
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835:
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826:
824:0-8090-7821-X
820:
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705:0-7864-2067-7
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560:. NYU Press.
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454:Pox Americana
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265:Abigail Adams
262:
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254:Abigail Adams
251:
242:
240:
235:
229:
227:
222:
220:
216:
215:scarlet fever
212:
208:
197:
195:
194:Abigail Adams
191:
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39:
31:
27:
26:
21:
1747:Uganda Ebola
1466:21st century
1448:Surat plague
1418:NYC smallpox
1387:20th century
1292:19th century
1262:
1220:18th century
1141:17th century
1107:(1545, 1576)
1086:16th century
1029:Roman Plague
998:(165β180 AD)
992:(429β426 BC)
939:and notable
898:
881:
854:
850:
837:
814:
795:
778:
772:
747:
743:
724:
695:
689:
664:
660:
654:
643:. Retrieved
615:
611:
601:
590:
579:. Retrieved
556:
549:
540:
495:
491:
481:
453:
448:
439:
434:
424:, retrieved
419:
409:
403:, 066533950X
389:
379:
368:
356:. Retrieved
352:
342:
304:
300:
292:
288:
258:
239:Valley Forge
230:
223:
203:
179:
176:The cow pock
162:
154:
145:
117:
109:Great Plains
73:
58:
51:
41:
35:
23:
1937:(2023β2024)
1931:(2022β2023)
1915:(2009β2010)
1903:(1977β1979)
1897:(1968β1970)
1891:(1961β1975)
1885:(1957β1958)
1879:(1919β1930)
1873:(1918β1920)
1871:Spanish flu
1867:(1899β1923)
1861:(1889β1890)
1859:Russian flu
1855:(1881β1896)
1849:(1863β1879)
1843:(1855β1860)
1837:(1852β1860)
1831:(1829β1851)
1825:(1816β1826)
1819:(1557β1559)
1749:(2022β2023)
1737:(2019β2020)
1731:(2019β2020)
1729:DRC measles
1683:(2018β2020)
1651:(2016β2022)
1639:(2015β2016)
1595:(2013β2016)
1589:(2013β2014)
1587:Chikungunya
1553:(2010β2019)
1547:(2009β2010)
1529:(2008β2017)
1523:(2008β2009)
1487:(2003β2005)
1475:(2002β2004)
1457:(1998β1999)
1438:(1972β1973)
1402:(1910β1911)
1396:(1900β1904)
1361:(1862β1863)
1331:(1847β1848)
1325:(1837β1838)
1307:(1813β1814)
1301:(1812β1819)
1271:(1793β1798)
1265:(1780β1782)
1253:(1770β1772)
1241:(1720β1722)
1235:(1710β1712)
1229:(1707β1708)
1205:(1675β1676)
1198:(1665β1666)
1180:(1647β1652)
1174:(1633β1644)
1162:(1629β1631)
1131:(1592β1593)
1125:(1592β1593)
1119:(1563β1564)
1113:(1557β1559)
1067:(1485β1551)
1061:(1346β1353)
1059:Black Death
984: 1330
576:j.ctt9qg62f
226:inoculation
219:inoculation
182:variolation
168:Inoculation
101:New Orleans
1951:Categories
1681:Kivu Ebola
1436:London flu
645:2024-06-26
581:2024-06-26
473:"Smallpox"
426:2014-08-02
400:066533950X
334:References
316:diphtheria
279:Cathartick
211:diphtheria
190:John Adams
149:quarantine
136:Washington
128:New Mexico
89:Washington
48:Background
1913:Swine flu
1883:Asian flu
1801:(541β767)
1770:Argentina
1055:(735β737)
1049:(664β689)
1043:(638β639)
1037:(627β628)
1025:(541β542)
1015:classical
1004:(250β266)
937:epidemics
933:Pandemics
764:159630679
673:0028-7628
632:0899-3718
274:Launcetts
87:. During
67:, led by
1919:COVID-19
1907:HIV/AIDS
1485:Bird flu
873:10624414
522:22843649
387:(1801),
322:See also
120:Shoshone
53:Smallpox
969:Ancient
864:1230874
640:3397473
543:. 2013.
513:3407399
456:. 2001.
442:. 2010.
358:14 July
312:measles
207:malaria
124:Pueblos
32:, 1776.
1813:(1510)
1791:Global
1772:(2024)
1755:(2023)
1743:(2020)
1725:(2019)
1719:(2019)
1713:(2019)
1707:(2019)
1701:(2019)
1695:(2019)
1689:(2018)
1677:(2018)
1671:(2018)
1664:(2018)
1657:(2017)
1645:(2016)
1633:(2015)
1627:(2015)
1621:(2014)
1615:(2014)
1609:(2014)
1602:(2014)
1583:(2013)
1577:(2013)
1571:(2012)
1565:(2012)
1559:(2011)
1541:(2009)
1535:(2009)
1517:(2007)
1511:(2006)
1505:(2006)
1499:(2006)
1493:(2005)
1481:(2003)
1450:(1994)
1444:(1974)
1432:(1972)
1426:(1963)
1420:(1947)
1414:(1937)
1408:(1924)
1379:(1894)
1373:(1871)
1367:(1870)
1355:(1856)
1349:(1854)
1343:(1853)
1337:(1853)
1329:Typhus
1319:(1829)
1313:(1813)
1284:Modern
1259:(1772)
1247:(1738)
1212:(1679)
1192:(1656)
1186:(1655)
1168:(1633)
1156:(1623)
1150:(1603)
1101:(1520)
1095:(1510)
1078:modern
888:
871:
861:
821:
802:
762:
731:
702:
681:320523
679:
671:
638:
630:
574:
564:
520:
510:
397:
314:, and
213:, and
113:Alaska
105:Mexico
77:Boston
1076:Early
1031:(590)
1013:Post-
961:Local
760:S2CID
636:JSTOR
572:JSTOR
308:polio
259:Both
97:Texas
1637:Zika
1569:MERS
1473:SARS
886:ISBN
869:PMID
819:ISBN
800:ISBN
729:ISBN
700:ISBN
677:PMID
669:ISSN
628:ISSN
562:ISBN
518:PMID
395:ISBN
360:2022
263:and
261:John
192:and
986:BC)
859:PMC
855:161
783:doi
752:doi
620:doi
508:PMC
500:doi
496:105
91:'s
83:'s
28:by
1953::
981:c.
935:,
867:.
853:.
849:.
836:.
779:49
777:.
758:.
748:68
746:.
675:.
665:77
663:.
634:.
626:.
616:68
614:.
610:.
570:.
530:^
516:.
506:.
494:.
490:.
462:^
417:,
351:.
318:.
310:,
209:,
71:.
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1923:*
979:(
925:e
918:t
911:v
894:.
875:.
840:.
827:.
808:.
789:.
785::
766:.
754::
737:.
708:.
683:.
648:.
622::
584:.
524:.
502::
475:.
362:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
