1041:
Trademark Office. The examining attorney checks for compliance with the rules of the
Trademark Manual of Examination Procedure. This review includes procedural matters such as making sure the applicant's goods or services are identified properly. It also includes more substantive matters such as making sure the applicant's mark is not merely descriptive or likely to confuse with a pre-existing applied-for or registered mark. If the application runs afoul of any requirement, the examining attorney will issue an office action requiring the applicant to address certain issues or refusals before registration of the mark. If the examining attorney approves the application, it will be "published for opposition". During this 30-day period, third parties who may be affected by the registration of the trademark may step forward to file an
2126:, an amendment to the Lanham Act, which explicitly prohibited cybersquatting. It defines cybersquatting as "(occurring) when a person other than the trademark holder registers the domain name of a well-known trademark and then attempts to profit from this by either ransoming the domain name back to the trademark holder or using the domain name to divert business from the trademark holder to the domain name holder". The provision states that " person shall be liable in a civil action by the owner of the mark ... if, without regard to the goods or services of the person, that person (i) had a bad faith intent to profit from the mark ...; and registers, traffics in, or uses domain name ".
2095:, the court found initial interest confusion when users typed in Playboy's trademarks into a search engine, resulting in the display of search results alongside unlabeled banner ads, triggered by keywords that included Playboy's marks, that would take users to Playboy's competitors. Though users might ultimately realize upon clicking on the banner ads that they were not Playboy-affiliated, the court found that the competitor advertisers could have gained customers by appropriating Playboy's goodwill since users may be perfectly happy to browse the competitor's site instead of returning to the search results to find the Playboy sites.
1600:). The owner can always reserve the right to take legal action until a court decides that the third party had gained notoriety of which the owner "must" have been aware. It will be for the third party to prove their use of the mark is substantial as it is the onus of a company using a mark to check they are not infringing previously registered rights. In the US, owing to the overwhelming number of unregistered rights, trademark applicants are advised to perform searches not just of the trademark register but of local business directories and relevant trade press. Specialized search companies perform such tasks before application.
1430:
710:
1465:
139:
879:, the Commonwealth Trademarks Register was introduced on 2 July 1906 and the Trade Marks Office opened in Melbourne, on which date more than 750 applications were lodged. A product for treatment for coughs colds and bronchitis, PEPS, 'a wonderful breathing medicine in soluble tablet form', was the first of these federal trademarks, registered by Charles Edward Fulford; a rounded rectangle designed for the top of a tin. The shape contained the word 'PEPs' along with a descriptive blurb that read 'for coughs, colds & bronchitis.'
719:
1503:
very important. Marks consisting of a design are assigned "design search codes" by the USPTO for different elements of the design to enable the public and USPTO employees to search the database for similar design marks . In the United States obtaining a trademark search and subsequent registration will protect the mark owner from being required to potentially pay damages in a trademark infringement case, as it demonstrates the trademark administrative legal issuance staff along with the registrant performed thorough
1647:
following the 6th anniversary of the registration. During this period, a trademark owner may concurrently opt to file a
Section 15, Declaration of Incontestability. A mark declared incontestable is immune from future challenge, except in instances where the mark becomes generic, the mark is abandoned, or if the registration was acquired fraudulently. Note, if the Section 8 Affidavit is filed during the 6-month grace period additional fees to file the Affidavit with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office will apply.
2353:, countries are empowered to grant this status to marks that the relevant authority considers are "well known". In addition to the standard grounds for trademark infringement (same/similar mark applied same/similar goods or services, and a likelihood of confusion), if the mark is deemed well known it is an infringement to apply the same or a similar mark to dissimilar goods/services where there is confusion, including where it takes unfair advantage of the well-known mark or causing detriment to it.
823:
32:
2373:
but also SMEs may have a good chance of establishing enough goodwill with customers so that their marks may be recognized as well-known marks and acquire protection without registration. It is, nevertheless, advisable to seek registration, taking into account that many countries provide for extended protection of registered well-known marks against dilution (Art. 16.3 TRIPS), i.e., the reputation of the mark being weakened by the unauthorized use of that mark by others.
4317:
1226:
954:
1665:
113:
97:
1329:
1294:
1261:
1193:
1158:
1397:
1362:
1797:
2104:, however, the court clarified that a finding of initial interest confusion is contingent on financial profit from said confusion, such that, if a domain name confusingly similar to a registered trademark is used for a non-trademark related website, the site owner will not be found to have infringed where they do not seek to capitalize on the mark's goodwill for their own commercial enterprises.
1624:, but may instead be re-registered by any party which has re-established exclusive and active use, and must be associated or linked with the original mark owner. A mark is registered in conjunction with a description of a specific type of goods, and if the party uses the mark but in conjunction with a different type of goods, the mark may still be considered abandoned, as was the case in
1069:
or "colorfully similar" to existing registered products or services, and in certain cases, prevent the use of entirely dissimilar ones. The test is always whether a consumer of the goods or services will be confused as to the identity of the source or origin, not just the area of rights specified by the trademark. An example might be a very large multinational electronics brand such as
976:, brand, label, name, signature, word, letter, numerical, shape of goods, packaging, color or combination of colors, smell, sound, movement or any combination thereof which is capable of distinguishing goods and services of one business from those of others. It must be capable of graphical representation and must be applied to goods or services for which it is registered.
1947:' appearance of the bottle as a whole may be protectable. Titles and character names from books or movies may also be protectable as trademarks while the works from which they are drawn may qualify for copyright protection as a whole. Trademark protection does not apply to utilitarian features of a product such as the plastic interlocking studs on Lego bricks.
2274:, the Trademark Law Treaty "simplifies and harmonizes trademark application and registration procedures by member states. It facilitates renewals, the recordation of assignments, name and address changes, and powers of attorney". By the 2000s, it became apparent that the terms of the treaty were outdated in light of the intervening development of the
1958:
their rights without taking any particular action to maintain the patent or copyright. Additionally, patent holders and copyright owners may not necessarily need to actively police their rights. However, a failure to bring a timely infringement suit or action against a known infringer may give the defendant a defense of implied consent or
1571:
of increasing strength, as is the case in the United States. "Fanciful" refers to marks whose sole purpose is to function as trademarks. Marks that fall under the last three categories are deemed "inherently distinctive" and thus protectable ab initio. "Descriptive" marks must acquire distinctiveness through secondary meaning –
1954:, depending on the jurisdiction. Unlike patents and copyrights, which in theory are granted for one-off fixed terms, trademarks remain valid as long as the owner actively uses and defends them and maintains their registrations with the competent authorities. This often involves the payment of a periodic renewal fee.
1904:
rights in the trademark. It is still possible to make significant changes to the underlying goods or services during a sale without jeopardizing the trademark, but companies will often contract with the sellers to help transition the mark and goods or services to the new owners to ensure continuity of the trademark.
1057:. In short, once an application is reviewed by an examiner and found to be entitled to registration a registration certificate is issued subject to the mark being open to opposition. The overall length of the trademark registration process varies considerably between individual jurisdictions, from 2 to 24 months.
2270:. The treaty was established "with objectives to reduce the complexities in the multitude of registration procedures and to increase predictability of application outcomes" through "simplification and harmonization of certain features of these trademark registration procedures and formalities". According to the
1879:, by preventing the public from being misled as to the origin or quality of a product or service. By identifying the commercial source of products and services, trademarks facilitate the identification of products and services which meet the expectations of consumers as to the quality and other characteristics.
2111:, 235 F.3d 540 (10th Cor. 2000) (New Mexico), defendants had registered the domain name "Levitron.com" to sell goods bearing the trademark "Levitron" under an at-will license from the trademark owner. The 10th Circuit affirmed the rights of the trademark owner about the said domain name, despite arguments of
2008:
regarding who has made a product. Instead, dilution protection law aims to protect sufficiently strong trademarks from losing their singular association in the public mind with a particular product, perhaps imagined if the trademark were to be encountered independently of any product (e.g., just the word
2376:
Several trademark laws merely implement obligations under
Article 16.3 of the TRIPS Agreement and protect well-known registered trademarks only under the following conditions: 1- that the goods and services for which the other mark is used or is seeking protection are not identical with or similar to
2196:
Although there are systems that facilitate the filing, registration, or enforcement of trademark rights in more than one jurisdiction on a regional or global basis, it is currently not possible to file and obtain a single trademark registration that will automatically apply around the world. Like any
2025:
which subsists in the business associated with the mark. However, this is not the case in the United States, where the courts have held that this would "be a fraud upon the public". In the U.S., trademark registration can therefore only be sold and assigned if accompanied by the sale of an underlying
1903:
By the same token, trademark holders must be cautious in the sale of their mark for similar reasons as apply to licensing. When assigning an interest in a trademark, if the associated product or service is not transferred with it, then this may be an "assignment-in-gross" and could lead to a loss of
1717:
The extent to which a trademark owner may prevent unauthorized use of trademarks that are the same as or similar to its trademark depends on various factors such as whether its trademark is registered, the similarity of the trademarks involved, the similarity of the products or services involved, and
1570:
A trademark may be eligible for registration, or registerable, if it performs the essential trademark function and has a distinctive character. Registerability can be understood as a continuum, where marks are categorized as "generic", "descriptive", "suggestive", "arbitrary", or "fanciful", by order
1518:
The USPTO internally captures more information about trademarks than they publicly disclose on their official search website, such as the complete contents of every logo trademark filing. In addition intelligence service agencies likely collect owner/applicant office and computer systems information,
813:
set up the first registration system based on the "intent-to-use" principle. The Act also established an application publishing procedure and expanded the rights of the trademark holder to include the barring of trademark use even in cases where confusion remained unlikely. This Act served as a model
675:
The essential function of a trademark is to exclusively identify the source or origin of products or services, so a trademark, properly called, indicates the source or serves as a badge of origin. In other words, trademarks serve to identify a particular entity as the source of goods or services. The
2333:
should be filed on the standard opposition form in any official language of the
European Union, however, the substantive part of the opposition (e.g. the argumentations) can be submitted only in the language of the opposed application, that is one of the working languages of the EUIPO, e.g. English,
2243:
The primary advantage of the Madrid system is that it allows a trademark owner to obtain trademark protection in many jurisdictions by filing one application in one jurisdiction with one set of fees, and make any changes (e.g. changes of name or address), and renew registration across all applicable
2070:
This clash of the new technology with preexisting trademark rights resulted in several high-profile decisions as the courts of many countries tried to coherently address the issue (and not always successfully) within the framework of existing trademark law. As the website itself was not the product
2034:
Licensing means the trademark owner (the licensor) grants a permit to a third party (the licensee) to commercially use the trademark legally. It is a contract between the two, containing the scope of content and policy. The essential provisions to a trademark license identify the trademark owner and
1965:
Like patents and copyrights, trademarks can be bought, sold, and transferred from one company or another. Unlike patents and copyrights, trademarks may not remain intact through this process. Where trademarks have been acquired for marketing generic (non-distinctive) products, courts have refused to
1957:
As a trademark must be used to maintain rights about that mark, a trademark can be 'abandoned' or its registration can be canceled or revoked if the mark is not continuously used. By comparison, patents and copyrights cannot be 'abandoned' and a patent holder or copyright owner can generally enforce
1934:
law generally seeks to protect original literary, artistic, and other creative works. Continued active use and re-registration can make a trademark perpetual, whereas copyright usually lasts for the duration of the author's lifespan plus 70 years for works by individuals, and some limited time after
1637:
Unlike other forms of intellectual property (e.g., patents and copyrights) a registered trademark can, theoretically, last forever. So long as a trademark's use is continuous a trademark holder may keep the mark registered with the U.S. Patent and
Trademark Office by filing Section 8 Affidavit(s) of
1502:
maintains a database of registered trademarks. The database is open to the public and is searchable via the
Trademark Electronic Search System (TESS). As trademarks are governed by federal law, state law, and common law, a thorough search as to the availability of a mark and its image components is
1073:
where a non-electronic product such as a pair of sunglasses might be assumed by a consumer to have come from Sony
Corporation of Japan despite being outside a class of goods to which Sony has rights, yet still protected by Sony's trademark; a similarly named psychotherapy office or line of hamburger
2164:
Terms that are not protectable by themselves, such as a generic term or a merely descriptive term that has not acquired secondary meaning, may become registerable when a Top-Level Domain Name (e.g. dot-COM) is appended to it. An example of such a domain name ineligible for trademark or service mark
2118:
Most courts particularly frowned on cybersquatting and found that it was itself a sufficiently commercial use (i.e., "trafficking" in trademarks) to reach into the area of trademark infringement. Most jurisdictions have since amended their trademark laws to address domain names specifically and to
1068:
upon the registered owner, including the right to exclusive use of the mark about the products or services for which it is registered. The law in most jurisdictions also allows the owner of a registered trademark to prevent unauthorized use of the mark about products or services which are identical
1026:
or through registration of the mark with the relevant trademarks office (or "trademarks registry") of a particular jurisdiction. In some jurisdictions, trademark rights can be established through either or both means. Certain jurisdictions generally do not recognize trademarks rights arising merely
2372:
Many countries protect unregistered well-known marks following their international obligations under the Paris
Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (the TRIPS Agreement). Consequently, not only big companies
2075:
was a concept applied instead. Initial interest confusion refers to customer confusion that creates an initial interest in a competitor's "product" (in the online context, another party's website). Even though initial interest confusion is dispelled by the time any actual sales occur, it allows a
1926:
law generally seeks to protect new and useful inventions, and registered designs law generally seeks to protect the look or appearance of a manufactured article. Trademarks, patents, and designs collectively form a subset of intellectual property known as industrial property because they are often
1049:
to determine both the validity of the grounds for the opposition as well as the ability of the applicant to register the mark at issue. Finally, provided that no third-party opposes the registration of the mark during the opposition period or the opposition is ultimately decided in the applicant's
1040:
In the United States, the registration process includes several steps. First, the trademark owner applies with the United States Patent and Trade Mark Office to register the trademark. About three months after it is filed, the application is reviewed by an examining attorney at the U.S. Patent and
772:
evidence of ownership of a trademark and registration of marks began on 1 January 1876. The 1875 Act defined a registrable trade mark as a device or mark, or name of an individual or firm printed in some particular and distinctive manner; or a written signature or copy of a written signature of an
2038:
Most jurisdictions provide for the use of trademarks to be licensed to third parties. The licensor must monitor the quality of the goods being produced by the licensee to avoid the risk of the trademark being deemed abandoned by the courts. A trademark license should therefore include appropriate
1942:
Although intellectual property laws such as these are theoretically distinct, more than one type may afford protection to the same article. For example, the particular design of a bottle may qualify for copyright protection as a non-utilitarian , or trademark protection based on its shape, or the
1808:
Fair use may be asserted on two grounds, either that the alleged infringer is using the mark to describe accurately an aspect of its products, or that the alleged infringer is using the mark to identify the mark owner. One of the most visible proofs that trademarks provide a limited right in the
1768:
For trademarks that are considered to be well known, infringing use may occur where the use occurs about products or services which are not the same as or similar to the products or services about which the owner's mark is registered. A growing area of law relating to the enforcement of trademark
2363:
As per the
Trademark Rules 2017, India, an applicant needs to substantiate his claim that his trademark is having the "well-known" status. He needs to furnish the documents in support of evidence of his rights & claims, namely use of trademark, any application for trademark, and annual sales
2326:
One of the tasks of a EUTM owner is the monitoring of the later applications whether any of those is similar to his/her earlier trademark. Monitoring is not easy and usually requires professional expertise. To conduct a monitoring there is the so-called
Trademark Watching service where it can be
1587:
Trademarks rights must be maintained through actual lawful use of the trademark. These rights will cease if a mark is not actively used for a period of time, normally five years in most jurisdictions. In the case of trademark registration, failure to actively use the mark in the lawful course of
2051:
has led to attempts by trademark holders to enforce their rights over domain names that are similar or identical to their existing trademarks, particularly by seeking control over the domain names at issue. As with dilution protection, enforcing trademark rights over domain name owners involves
2007:
when the use of similar or identical trademarks in other non-competing markets means that the trademark in and of itself will lose its capacity to signify a single source. In other words, unlike ordinary trademark law, dilution protection extends to trademark uses that do not confuse consumers
1853:
Where one party makes a threat to sue another for trademark infringement, but does not have a genuine basis or intention to carry out that threat, or does not carry out the threat at all within a certain period, the threat may itself become a basis for legal action. In this situation, the party
1760:
If a trademark has been registered, then it is much easier for the trademark owner to demonstrate its trademark rights and to enforce these rights through an infringement action. Unauthorized use of a registered trademark need not be intentional for infringement to occur, although damages in an
1650:
In addition to the requirements above, U.S. trademark registrations are also required to be renewed on or about every 10th anniversary of the registration of the trademark. The procedure for 10-year renewals is somewhat different from that for the 5th–6th year renewal. In brief, registrants are
1646:
Specifically, once registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office the owner of a trademark is required to file a Section 8 Affidavit of Continuous Use to maintain the registration between the 5th and 6th year anniversaries of the registration of the mark or during the 6-month grace period
494:
changed the system, permitting registration based on "intent-to-use", creating an examination-based process, and creating an application publication system. The 1938 Act, which served as a model for similar legislation elsewhere, contained other novel concepts such as "associated trademarks", a
1077:
Once trademark rights are established in a particular jurisdiction, these rights are generally only enforceable in that jurisdiction, a quality which is sometimes known as "territoriality". However, there is a range of international trademark laws and systems which facilitate the protection of
2235:
The major international system for facilitating the registration of trademarks in multiple jurisdictions is commonly known as the "Madrid system ". Madrid provides a centrally administered system for securing trademark registrations in member jurisdictions by extending the protection of an
614:
The three symbols associated with trademarks represent the status of a mark and accordingly its level of protection. While ™ can be used with any common law usage of a mark, ® may only be used by the owner of a mark following registration with the relevant national authority, such as the
2312:(EUIPO, formerly Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market (Trade Marks and Designs)), leads to a registration which is effective throughout the EU as a whole. The EUTM system is therefore said to be unitary in character, in that a EUTM registration applies indivisibly across all
2156:
As with other trademarks, the domain name will not be subject to trademark registration unless the proposed mark is actually used to identify the registrant's goods or services to the public, rather than simply being the location on the Internet where the applicant's web site appears.
1591:
A trademark owner does not need to take enforcement action against all infringement if it can be shown that the owner perceived the infringement to be minor and inconsequential. This is designed to prevent owners from continually being tied up in litigation for fear of cancellation.
943:
steel company registered three seamless train wheel tires, which are put on top of each other, as its label in 1875, under the German Trade Mark Protection Law of 1874. The seamless train wheel tire did not break, unlike iron tires with seams, and was patented by Krupp in Prussia in
2141:) which attempt to streamline the process of resolving who should own a domain name (without dealing with other infringement issues such as damages). This is particularly desirable to trademark owners when the domain name registrant may be in another country or even anonymous.
1849:
Various jurisdictions have laws that are designed to prevent trademark owners from making wrongful threats of a trademark infringement action against other parties. These laws are intended to prevent large or powerful companies from intimidating or harassing smaller companies.
701:(1 to 34 cover goods, and 35 to 45 cover services). The idea behind this system is to specify and limit the extension of the intellectual property right by determining which goods or services are covered by the mark, and to unify classification systems around the world.
1095:), protection can be obtained in member states and intergovernmental organizations. International registrations can then be modified, renewed or expanded, centrally through WIPO (rather than through each separate IP Office). The Madrid System can only be used by a
1595:
An owner can at any time commence an action for infringement against a third party as long as it had not previously notified the third party of its discontent following third party use and then failed to take action within a reasonable period of time (called
658:
is also used informally to refer to any distinguishing attribute by which an individual is readily identified, such as the well-known characteristics of celebrities. When a trademark is used about services rather than products, it may sometimes be called a
1036:
rights for unregistered marks, where to gain protection the goods or services must first occupy a highly significant position in the marketplace — where this could be 40% or more market share for sales in the particular class of goods or services.
2144:
Registrants of domain names also sometimes wish to register the domain names themselves (e.g., "XYZ.COM") as trademarks for perceived advantages, such as an extra bulwark against their domain being hijacked, and to avail themselves of such remedies as
2377:
the goods for which the well-known mark acquired its reputation 2- that the use of the other mark would indicate a connection between these goods and the owner of the well-known mark, and 3 – that their interests are likely to be damaged by such use.
2026:
asset. Examples of assets whose sale would ordinarily support the assignment of a mark include the sale of the machinery used to produce the goods that bear the mark or the sale of the corporation (or subsidiary) that produces the trademarked goods.
549:. Most countries require formal trademark registration as a precondition for pursuing this type of action. The United States, Canada, and other countries also recognize common law trademark rights, which means action can be taken to protect any
1074:
buns or summer camps, however, would not be infringing on Sony Corporation's trademark because the service or products being offered are so vastly different from Sony Corporation's trademark claim of rights and range of manufactured goods.
902:
A design mark with an eagle and a ribbon and the words "Economical, Beautiful, and Durable" was the first registered trademark, filed by the Averill Chemical Paint Company on 30 August 1870 under the Trademark Act of 1870. However, in the
1588:
trade, or to enforce the registration in the event of infringement, may also expose the registration itself to become liable for an application for the removal from the register after a certain period of time on the grounds of "non-use".
2012:
spoken, or on a billboard). Under U.S. trademark law, dilution occurs either when unauthorized use of a mark "blurs" the "distinctive" nature of the mark or "tarnishes" it. Likelihood of confusion is not required. 15 U.S.C §§ 1125(c).
1816:
owns the trademark "Whisper Quiet" for its dishwashers, makers of other products may describe their goods as being "whisper quiet" so long as these products do not fall under the same category of goods the trademark is protected under.
713:
An estimated 13.9 million trademark applications were filed worldwide in 2021. This is represents an increase of 4% compared to 2020. This was the twelfth consecutive year of growth following the end of the global financial crisis in
3739:– "In the United States where we hold the First Amendment above reproach by any laws, there are many legitimate and legal uses of a trademark, and the right to engage in comparative advertising is among one of those legitimate uses."
1634:" through common use (such that the mark no longer performs the essential trademark function and the average consumer no longer considers that exclusive rights attach to it), the corresponding registration may also be ruled invalid.
1882:
Trademarks may also serve as an incentive for manufacturers, providers, or suppliers to consistently provide quality products or services to maintain their business reputation. Furthermore, if a trademark owner does not maintain
1090:
is a protocol to protect trademarks worldwide, in over 120 countries. The Madrid System has a centralized trademark registration system through a single application, in one language and with one set of fees (in one currency, the
2475:"Trade marks identify the goods and services of particular traders. Signs that are suitable for distinguishing products or services of a particular enterprise from that of other companies are eligible for trade mark protection"
1899:
UKHL 21; wherein it has been held that the mere fact that a bare license (the equivalent of the United States concept of a naked license) has been granted did not automatically mean that a trademark was liable to mislead.
1031:
proceedings may be limited. In cases of dispute, this disparity of rights is often referred to as "first to file" (i.e., register) as opposed to "first to use". Some countries, such as Germany, offer a limited number of
757:
The first modern trademark laws emerged in the late 19th century. In France, the first comprehensive trademark system in the world was passed into law in 1857 with the "Manufacture and Goods Mark Act". In Britain, the
1887:
and adequate supervision about the manufacture and provision of products or services supplied by a licensee, such "naked licensing" will eventually adversely affect the owner's rights in the trademark. For US law
1773:, which allows for the imputation of liability to one who has not acted directly to infringe a trademark but whose legal responsibility may arise under the doctrines of either contributory or vicarious liability.
2289:
further establishes a system under which member jurisdictions agree to standardize procedural aspects of the trademark registration process. It is not necessarily respective of rules within individual countries.
556:
As the purpose of the trademark is to identify a particular source of the product, rather than the product itself, it is widespread legal advice that trademark owners should always use their trademarks as
2220:
of applicable laws. For example, Article 15(1) of TRIPS defines "sign" which is used as or forms part of the definition of "trademark" in the trademark legislation of many jurisdictions around the world.
2418:
is used in many other countries around the world, including the European Union and Commonwealth and ex-Commonwealth jurisdictions (although Canada officially uses "trade-mark" pursuant to the
2651:"In addition to recalling 38,000 pairs of the offensive shoes, Nike has diverted another 30,000 pairs from Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Malaysia, Indonesia and Turkey to "less-sensitive" markets"
2107:
Also, courts have upheld the rights of trademark owners about the commercial use of domain names, even in cases where goods sold there legitimately bear the mark. In the landmark decision
1053:
Outside of the United States, the registration process is substantially similar to that found in the U.S. save for one notable exception in many countries: registration occurs before the
690:
Trademark rights generally arise out of the use of, or to maintain exclusive rights over, that sign about certain products or services, assuming there are no other trademark objections.
1575:
have come to recognize the mark as a source indicator – to be protectable. "Generic" terms are used to refer to the product or service itself and cannot be used as trademarks. (See the
1087:
2188:(Intellectual Property Rights) Center for example has the message of "protection is our trademark" and is one example of an office that will enforce and protect the marks when needed.
1006:" is an informal term for a characteristic look for a performer or character of some sort. It is usually not legally trademark protected and the term is not used in the trademark law.
4346:
2316:. However, the CTM system did not replace the national trademark registration systems; the CTM system and the national systems continue to operate in parallel to each other (see also
2213:
2946:
Bently, Lionel, "The Making of Modern Trade Marks Law: The Construction of the Legal Concept of Trade Mark (1860-80)" in Lionel Bently, Jane C. Ginsburg & Jennifer Davis (eds),
2244:
jurisdictions through a single administrative process. Furthermore, the "coverage" of the international registration may be extended to additional member jurisdictions at any time.
2081:
840:: Most significant companies were already using trademarks in the mid-nineteenth century and while Australia based its patent law on the British law system, the then province of
991:. A trademark that is popularly used to describe a product or service (rather than to distinguish the product or services from those of third parties) is sometimes known as a
561:
modifying a generic product name, and set off with capitalization or a distinctive typeface, as a guard against the trademark becoming the generic name of the product. Thus "
2059:, however, does not involve competition. Instead, an unlicensed user registers a domain name identical to a trademark and offers to sell the domain to the trademark owner.
1981:
used ownership of the trademarks relating to the character (which unlike copyrights, do not have a limited length) to control the production of media using its imagery and
2138:
1540:
Classification systems exist to help in searching for marks. One example is the "International Classification of the Figurative Elements of Marks", better known as the
1519:
and apply motoring techniques to their systems for forensics and security purposes. Initial trademark submissions are a way to gather early intelligence informations.
1027:
through use. If trademark owners do not hold registrations for their marks in such jurisdictions, the extent to which they will be able to enforce their rights through
4331:
2773:
2350:
4451:
2185:
1607:, which is usually a period of either three or five years. The intention to use a trademark can be proven by a wide range of acts as shown in the "Woolly Bully" and
694:
4152:
3353:
1950:
Drawing these distinctions is necessary, but often challenging for the courts and lawyers, especially in jurisdictions where patents and copyrights pass into the
1541:
1218:
1556:
of a party, will not confuse consumers about the relationship between one party and another, and will not otherwise deceive consumers concerning the qualities.
3783:
2323:
Persons residing outside the EU must have a professional representative to the procedures before EUIPO, while representation is recommended for EU residents.
2039:
provisions dealing with quality control, whereby the licensee provides warranties as to the quality and the licensor has rights to inspection and monitoring.
4407:
1651:
required to file both a Section 8 Affidavit of Continuous Use as well as a Section 9 Application for Renewal every ten years to maintain their registration.
910:
4048:
203:
4644:
2454:"A trade mark is a sign which can distinguish your goods and services from those of your competitors (you may refer to your trade mark as your "brand")"
482:
of England requiring all bakers to use a distinctive mark for the bread they sold. The first modern trademark laws emerged in the late 19th century. In
1507:
searches for conflicting marks, and therefore the mark owner had good foresight by having a priority registration, and thus is likely using their mark
4573:
1790:
4032:
2240:. This international registration is in turn based upon an application or registration obtained by a trademark applicant in its home jurisdiction.
3661:
2500:
2433:"A trademark is a word, phrase, symbol, and/or design that identifies and distinguishes the source of the goods of one party from those of others"
2266:
established procedures for member countries to recognizing trademarks registered in other member countries. It operates under the auspices of the
1828:
model since they are only using "BMW" to identify the competitor. In a related sense, an auto mechanic can truthfully advertise that he services
565:
bricks" rather than "some Lego" or "Legos". The name of the producer itself is a "trade name" rather than a trademark and can be used as a noun.
398:
2526:
2052:
protecting a trademark outside the obvious context of its consumer market, because domain names are global and not limited by goods or service.
2552:
42:
4520:
4361:
4138:
3561:
2796:
2356:
A well-known trademark does not have to be registered in the jurisdiction to bring a trademark infringement action (equivalent to bringing a
2197:
national law, trademark laws apply only in their applicable country or jurisdiction, a quality which is sometimes known as "territoriality".
2130:
2063:—those registering common misspellings of trademarks as domain names—have also been targeted successfully in trademark infringement suits. "
999:
with that product or service to the extent that the trademark owner can no longer enforce its proprietary rights, the mark becomes generic.
3588:
4634:
2309:
188:
2932:
762:
made it a criminal offense to imitate another's trade mark 'with intent to defraud or to enable another to defraud'. The passing of the
2720:
2391:
2123:
2161:
is a prime example of a protected trademark for a domain name central to the public's identification of the company and its products.
4639:
4351:
2286:
2279:
2271:
2257:
1499:
2474:
1895:
639 F.3d 788 (7th Cor. 2011). This proposition has, however, been watered down by the judgment of the House of Lords in the case of
927:
wrestling a lion, registered in the United States on 27 May 1884 by the J.P. Tolman Company (now Samson Rope Technologies, Inc.), a
4624:
2267:
2237:
4193:
2067:", on the other hand, tend to be protected as free speech, and are therefore more difficult to attack as trademark infringement.
553:
if it is in use. Still, common law trademarks offer to the holder, in general, less legal protection than registered trademarks.
306:
3328:
3142:
1537:
Within the European Union, searches have to be conducted taking into account both EU trademarks as well as national trademarks.
3912:
2089:
metatags of a website, resulting in that site appearing in the search results when a user searches on the trademarked term. In
1757:
has been trading under an unregistered trademark for many years, and a rival business starts using the same or a similar mark.
1626:
766:
allowed formal registration of trademarks at the UK Patent Office for the first time. Registration was considered to comprise
4716:
4654:
3042:
2615:
264:
738:
are thought of as being the first users of trademarks. Other notable trademarks that have been used for a long time include
4780:
4701:
4392:
4166:
3720:
3455:
2342:
Well-known trademark status is commonly granted to famous international trade marks in less-developed legal jurisdictions.
2317:
321:
223:
3527:
2055:
This conflict is easily resolved when the domain name owner actually uses the domain to compete with the trademark owner.
4629:
4147:
4088:
3302:
3061:
391:
4060:
3227:
647:
comprising marks which do not fall into these standard categories, such as those based on colour, smell, or sound (like
4816:
3877:
3845:
2874:"STELLA ARTOIS ANNO 1366 Trademark of ANHEUSER-BUSCH INBEV S.A. Serial Number: 77003422 :: Trademarkia Trademarks"
2304:
The EU Trade Mark (EUTM) system (formerly the Community Trademark system) is the trademark system which applies in the
784:
first attempted to establish a federal trademark regime in 1870. This statute purported to be an exercise of Congress'
506:) can be used to indicate trademarks; the latter is only for use by the owner of a trademark that has been registered.
3214:
3796:
3624:
3391:
3110:"A Historical Perspective: The International Trademark Association and the United States Patent and Trademark Office"
2857:
1704:
1638:
Continuous Use as well as Section 9 Applications for renewal, as required, and paying the fees associated with them.
763:
76:
4114:
1985:
the character for use in other works (such as adaptations). This practice is a precursor to the modern concept of a
518:
owner of a particular product or service. Trademarks can be used by others under licensing agreements; for example,
4266:
4246:
4017:
1603:
All jurisdictions with a mature trademark registration system provide a mechanism for removal in the event of such
1046:
616:
353:
178:
683:
Trademarks are used not only by businesses but also by noncommercial organizations and religions to protect their
4649:
4535:
4156:
923:
The oldest U.S. registered trademark still in use is trademark reg. no 11210, a depiction of the Biblical figure
440:
301:
3087:
1686:
384:
2085:
the court found initial interest confusion could occur when a competitor's trademarked terms were used in the
4706:
4427:
4271:
2414:
as a single word is predominantly used in the United States and Philippines only, while the two-word styling
1786:
3975:
4515:
3011:
2313:
2263:
2253:
1045:
to stop the registration of the mark. If an opposition proceeding is filed it institutes a case before the
802:
of 1946 updated the law and has served, with several amendments, as the primary federal law on trademarks.
3736:
3717:
Secondary Trademark Infringement: A Short Treatise on Contributory and Vicarious Infringement in Trademark
2873:
623:(IPO). The proper manner to display either symbol is immediately following the mark in superscript style.
4821:
4711:
4696:
4670:
4432:
4236:
4186:
4029:
3818:
3772:
2205:
The inherent limitations of the territorial application of trademark laws have been mitigated by various
1935:
creation for works by bodies corporate. This can lead to confusion in cases where a work passes into the
664:
503:
102:
3202:
2165:
protection as a generic term, but which currently has a registered U.S. service mark, is "HEARSAY.COM".
1103:, which is a national, is domiciled or has a company in the territory of a member of the Madrid System.
4826:
4775:
4545:
4261:
4143:
3658:
2504:
2072:
1978:
1782:
1682:
759:
644:
531:
20:
3913:"The STIckler: inside the latest trademark protection gTLD discussion – Blog – World Trademark Review"
651:). Trademarks that are considered offensive are often rejected according to a nation's trademark law.
4806:
4377:
4216:
3801:
2299:
2168:
Among trademark practitioners there remains a great deal of debate around trademark protection under
1565:
1553:
208:
3420:
4442:
4422:
2278:
as a means of conveying information about products and businesses, leading to the enactment of the
2150:
1922:
While trademark law seeks to protect indications of the commercial source of products or services,
1917:
1750:
1527:
447:
from a particular source and distinguishes it from others. A trademark owner can be an individual,
58:
2979:
Monetary Damages under the Lanham Act: Eighth Circuit Holds Actual Confusion is Not a Prerequisite
746:, which claims use of its lion mark since 1383. The first trademark legislation was passed by the
4530:
4397:
3805:
3109:
1675:
876:
875:
and firms such as Tasmanian Jam and Preserved Fruit Co. had a trademark in 1878, when, after the
865:
794:
later on in the decade. In 1881, Congress passed a new trademark act, this time according to its
213:
183:
173:
2153:
against other domain holders with confusingly similar or intentionally misspelled domain names.
4770:
4757:
4742:
4474:
4412:
4387:
4382:
4256:
4179:
2778:
2247:
2173:
1913:
1028:
972:" are sometimes used interchangeably with "trademark". "Trademark", however, also includes any
781:
587:
550:
546:
456:
448:
284:
3614:
3501:
3434:
4417:
4291:
2774:"Governments "should do more" to protect religious signs through trademark law, expert urges"
2601:
2330:
2216:(TRIPS). TRIPS establishes legal compatibility between member jurisdictions by requiring the
2206:
2100:
1824:
can run advertisements saying that a trade publication has rated an Audi model higher than a
1620:
of the mark, whereby any party may use the mark. An abandoned mark is not irrevocably in the
1508:
1054:
1042:
992:
914:
747:
709:
436:
424:
130:
3992:
2650:
2176:
has been reporting on the at times fiery discussion between trademark owners and domainers.
1789:
defense protects many of the interests in free expression related to those protected by the
4505:
4459:
4402:
4356:
4251:
3947:
3373:
2922:
2217:
1970:
1855:
1801:
1253:
984:
857:
806:
751:
620:
487:
479:
8:
4801:
4675:
4510:
4276:
3819:"Law of the Jungle: Burroughs Descendants' Suit Says Adult Movie, Game Violate Trademark"
2689:
2478:
2432:
2327:
checked if someone tries to get registered marks that are similar to the existing marks.
2112:
2091:
2035:
the licensee, in addition to the policy and the goods or services agreed to be licensed.
2022:
1876:
1770:
1742:
988:
594:
486:, the first comprehensive trademark system in the world was passed into law in 1857. The
444:
274:
2978:
2578:
1022:
rights about a trademark may be established through actual use of that trademark in the
957:
Approximate drawing of Burberry check pattern. The pattern is a registered trademark of
4737:
4732:
4558:
4495:
4221:
3933:
3408:
2048:
1998:
1723:
1389:
980:
684:
358:
168:
148:
3715:
2741:"Protection of Religious Signs under Trademark Law: A Perspective of China's Practice"
2453:
917:
754:
in 1266, which required all bakers to use a distinctive mark for the bread they sold.
467:, or on the product itself. Trademarks used to identify services are sometimes called
4553:
4226:
3823:
3646:
3620:
3387:
3038:
2853:
2740:
2611:
2076:
trademark infringer to capitalize on the goodwill associated with the original mark.
1631:
861:
698:
495:
consent to use the system, a defensive mark system, and a non-claiming right system.
138:
4161:
893:
was the first trademark to be registered under the Trade Mark Registration Act 1875.
4680:
4563:
4336:
3677:
3379:
2903:
2826:
2752:
2607:
2527:"A Guide to Proper Trademark Use For Media, Internet, and Publishing Professionals"
2158:
1838:
1512:
1061:
905:
864:(in 1885) had enacted laws to protect trademarks well before Britain did. Thus the
790:
785:
718:
583:
578:
499:
428:
269:
118:
50:
3881:
3849:
1019:
829:'s logo became the first image to be registered as a trademark in the UK, in 1876.
4811:
4752:
4747:
4578:
4568:
4341:
4301:
4036:
3665:
3566:
3030:
2992:
2847:
2021:
In various jurisdictions, a trademark may be sold with or without the underlying
1986:
1982:
1884:
1065:
853:
841:
795:
677:
452:
279:
1809:
U.S. comes from the comparative advertising that is seen throughout U.S. media.
4500:
4296:
4281:
4241:
3690:
3378:. World IP Indicators (WIPI). World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
3155:
2960:
2603:
Patent It Yourself: Your Step-by-Step Guide to Filing at the U.S. Patent Office
2305:
2079:
Several cases have wrestled with the concept of initial interest confusion. In
2056:
1616:
In the U.S., failure to use a trademark for this period of time will result in
1609:
1096:
1003:
882:
810:
743:
527:
519:
491:
326:
289:
218:
163:
54:
3177:
973:
4795:
4286:
3724:
3252:
2936:. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 128–135.
2927:
2230:
2060:
1951:
1936:
1872:
1621:
1504:
1470:
1321:
920: (1879), the U.S. Supreme Court held the 1870 Act to be unconstitutional.
896:
822:
777:
739:
348:
243:
3894:
3277:
2664:
2360:
claim without having to show goodwill and having a lesser burden of proof).
2248:
Trademark Law Treaty of 1994, and the Singapore Trademark Law Treaty of 2006
1150:
4464:
3303:"International trademarks: Is the Madrid System right for you? | Novagraaf"
2386:
1597:
1100:
886:
826:
735:
660:
599:
535:
468:
374:
343:
338:
311:
233:
193:
4134:
3476:
1977:
as a trademark; even after the copyright to the Tarzan story expired, his
833:
The oldest registered trademark has various claimants, enumerated below:
4469:
4231:
2357:
1944:
1092:
1023:
768:
727:
475:
333:
259:
228:
3691:"Everything You Need to Know About Trademark Law | The Polaris Law Firm"
3383:
3371:
2990:
4525:
2757:
2134:
2064:
1829:
1738:
1734:
1733:
If a trademark has not been registered, some jurisdictions (especially
1689: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1523:
1457:
1033:
845:
799:
788:
powers. However, the Supreme Court struck down the 1870 statute in the
2129:
This international legal change has also led to the creation of ICANN
643:, image, or a combination of these elements. There is also a range of
2501:"U.S. Customs Today - February 2002 - an Untimely Christmas Delivery"
1931:
1572:
1531:
837:
558:
523:
294:
158:
2715:
1664:
722:
Offices in Asia accounted for 69.7% of all trademark filing in 2021.
4479:
4047:
Hong Kong Trade Marks Ordinance section dealing with infringement:
2831:
2818:
2716:"Trademarks and Keep the Faith: Trademarks, Religion, and Identity"
2553:"Branding 101: Proper Use of a Trademark – It's All In the Grammar"
2275:
1959:
1754:
1354:
1286:
1231:
1015:
958:
953:
849:
610:(the letter "R" surrounded by a circle, for a registered trademark)
370:
316:
153:
3562:"KitKat goes unprotected as European court rejects trademark case"
2921:
2214:
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
2133:(UDRP) and other dispute policies for specific countries (such as
676:
use of a trademark in this way is known as trademark use. Certain
2082:
Brookfield Communications, Inc. v. West Coast Entertainment Corp.
1907:
1844:
1834:
1762:
1522:
Trademarks may also be searched on third-party databases such as
1334:
1299:
1266:
1198:
996:
936:
542:
464:
4171:
2071:
being purchased, there was no actual consumer confusion, and so
1776:
1765:
will generally be greater if there was an intention to deceive.
530:. The unauthorized usage of trademarks by producing and trading
478:
act concerning trademarks was passed in 1266 under the reign of
4599:
2209:
1974:
1923:
1813:
1781:
Trademark is subject to various defenses, such as abandonment,
1422:
1163:
924:
648:
640:
636:
598:(which is the letters "SM" in superscript, for an unregistered
483:
432:
198:
112:
96:
3145:, filed 7 April 1884, reg. 27 May 1884. Accessed 11 June 2013.
2184:
Trademark owners and applications enjoy many protections. The
1939:
but the character in question remains a registered trademark.
1796:
4594:
4153:
Trade Marks: The information brochure on trademark protection
3178:"Some Well-Known U.S. Trademarks Celebrate One Hundred Years"
2169:
2009:
1435:
1402:
1367:
965:
940:
731:
515:
460:
41:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
4604:
2172:'s proposed generic top-level domain name space expansion.
2086:
1821:
1746:
1070:
969:
928:
632:
562:
3616:
Trademark: Legal Care for Your Business & Product Name
2994:
Introduction to Intellectual Property: Theory and Practice
606:
2212:, foremost amongst which is the World Trade Organization
1927:
created and used in an industrial or commercial context.
1897:
Scandecor Development AB v. Scandecor Marketing AB et al.
1825:
1753:. Passing off may provide a remedy in a scenario where a
1552:
In most systems, a trademark can be registered if it can
1185:
1088:
Madrid System for the International Registration of Marks
890:
695:
International (Nice) Classification of Goods and Services
693:
Different goods and services have been classified by the
4103:
4101:
798:
powers. Congress revised the Trademark Act in 1905. The
573:
A trademark may be designated by the following symbols:
3652:
2422:, "trade mark" and "trademark" are also commonly used).
773:
individual or firm; or a distinctive label or ticket'.
3784:
Directive harmonizing the term of copyright protection
3671:
3526:
Greene, Timothy Denny; Wilkerson, Jeff (Spring 2013).
1745:
which attaches to unregistered trademarks through the
4098:
3862:
Bosley Medical Institute, Inc v. Bosley Medical Group
2948:
Trade Marks and Brands: An Interdisciplinary Critique
586:", which is the letters "TM" in superscript, for an
3278:"WIPO | Madrid – The International Trademark System"
2640:
Restatement (Third) of Unfair Competition § 9 (1995)
2122:
In the US, the legal situation was clarified by the
3029:
2636:
2634:
1800:A product bearing "Linux" name, but not infringing
726:In trademark treatises it is usually reported that
3948:"Summary of the Trademark Law Treaty (TLT) (1994)"
2236:"international registration" obtained through the
2119:provide explicit remedies against cybersquatters.
1854:receiving such a threat may seek from the Court a
1081:
1050:favor, the mark will be registered in due course.
3640:
3372:World Intellectual Property Organization (2020).
2991:World Intellectual Property Organization (1997).
2367:
4793:
3976:The Internationalisation of Trademark Protection
3228:"How long does it take to register a trademark?"
3184:. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. 15 June 2000
3006:
3004:
2631:
3978:" in Irene Calboli and Jane C. Ginsburg, eds.,
3525:
3088:"The oldest registered trademarks in the world"
2308:, whereby registration of a trademark with the
2016:
1893:Eva's Bridal Ltd. v. Halanick Enterprises, Inc.
1630:If a court rules that a trademark has become "
1014:Some law considers a trademark to be a form of
817:
742:, which claims use of its mark since 1366, and
631:A trademark is typically a name, word, phrase,
3619:(11th ed.). Berkeley: Nolo. p. 238.
3037:(20th anniversary ed.), Mimmo Cozzolino,
3015:, United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office.
2819:"Brand Names Before the Industrial Revolution"
1908:Comparison with patents, designs and copyright
1845:Wrongful or groundless threats of infringement
1812:An example of the first type is that although
4362:Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy
4187:
4139:Intellectual Property Office (United Kingdom)
3980:International Aspects of Trademark Protection
3435:"World Intellectual Property Indicators 2019"
3001:
2797:"World Intellectual Property Indicators 2022"
2131:Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy
1841:can identify herself as such on her website.
1777:Limits and defenses to claims of infringement
1737:countries) offer protection for the business
889:'s label incorporating its triangle logo for
392:
39:The examples and perspective in this article
3864:, 403 F.3d 672, 680 (9th Cir. 2005)(quoting
3361:. ARISE+ ASEAN Intellectual Property Rights.
2962:The History and Development of Trademark Law
2919:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2599:
1804:, because it falls into a different category
3749:Volkswagenwerk Aktiengesellschaft v. Church
3444:. World Intellectual Property Organization.
3375:World Intellectual Property Indicators 2020
2940:
2310:European Union Intellectual Property Office
602:, a mark used to promote or brand services)
189:Integrated circuit layout design protection
4194:
4180:
4157:German Patent and Trade Mark Office (GPTO)
3589:"CCH Pinpoint | Australian Legal Research"
3108:Chasser, Anne H. (January–February 2003).
3103:
3101:
2816:
2721:IDEA: The Intellectual Property Law Review
2392:List of generic and genericized trademarks
2200:
2124:Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act
1785:, and fair use. In the United States, the
1078:trademarks in more than one jurisdiction.
568:
399:
385:
3326:
3059:
3012:Case details for trade mark UK00000000001
2915:
2913:
2891:
2830:
2756:
2550:
2287:Singapore Treaty on the Law of Trademarks
2280:Singapore Treaty on the Law of Trademarks
2272:United States Patent and Trademark Office
2258:Singapore Treaty on the Law of Trademarks
1871:Trademark law is designed to fulfill the
1705:Learn how and when to remove this message
687:and goodwill associated with their name.
77:Learn how and when to remove this message
3970:
3968:
2600:Pressman, David; Blau, David E. (2020).
2268:World Intellectual Property Organization
2238:World Intellectual Property Organization
1795:
1559:
1107:Top Madrid trademark applicants in 2023
952:
821:
717:
708:
590:, a mark used to promote or brand goods)
16:Trade identifier of products or services
3612:
3606:
3559:
3107:
3098:
2997:. Kluwer Law International. p. 23.
2845:
1641:
1254:Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH
979:Specialized types of trademark include
670:
307:Limitations and exceptions to copyright
4794:
4306:
2910:
2293:
1858:; also known as a declaratory ruling.
1820:An example of the second type is that
1627:Lens.com, Inc. v. 1-800 Contacts, Inc.
1547:
4175:
3965:
3329:"Getting an international trade mark"
3055:
3053:
3025:
3023:
3021:
2920:Renton, A. W.; Craies, W. F. (1911).
2791:
2789:
2771:
2713:
2532:. International Trademark Association
1802:the trademark owned by Linus Torvalds
1582:
265:Artificial intelligence and copyright
3751:, 411 F.2d 350, 352 (9th Cor. 1969).
3085:
2852:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 162.
2337:
2191:
1973:registered his fictitious character
1687:adding citations to reliable sources
1658:
541:The owner of a trademark may pursue
224:Supplementary protection certificate
25:
4630:International Trademark Association
4148:International Trademark Association
3982:(Cambridge University Press, 2020).
3761:Playboy Enterprises, Inc. v. Welles
3737:Comparative Advertising: Mac vs. PC
3560:Farrell, Sean (16 September 2015).
3257:International Trademark Association
2738:
1654:
868:had registered its coat of arms in
814:for similar legislation elsewhere.
13:
3868:388 F.3d 201, 204 (6th Cir. 2004))
3528:"Understanding Trademark Strength"
3477:"USPTO: Search trademark database"
3427:
3327:Australia, I. P. (18 March 2016).
3060:Australia, I. P. (10 March 2016).
3050:
3033:; Rutherford, Graeme Fysh (2000),
3018:
2950:(Cambridge University Press, 2008)
2786:
1962:when the suit is finally brought.
455:. A trademark may be located on a
14:
4838:
4201:
4128:
3797:Kirkbi AG v. Ritvik Holdings Inc.
3086:Lech, Mikołaj (20 January 2018).
2669:LII / Legal Information Institute
2581:. Owen, Wickersham & Erickson
1718:whether the owner's trademark is
1554:distinguish the goods or services
1060:A registered trademark confers a
899:: there are at least two claims:
764:Trade Marks Registration Act 1875
4315:
3773:Section 21, Trade Marks Act 1994
3182:U.S. PTO Press Release no. 00-38
2551:Rheintgen, Kathy (24 May 2013).
2224:
1866:
1861:
1663:
1463:
1428:
1395:
1360:
1327:
1292:
1259:
1224:
1191:
1156:
1047:Trademark Trial and Appeal Board
617:U.S. Patent and Trademark Office
354:Outline of intellectual property
179:Indigenous intellectual property
137:
111:
95:
30:
4650:Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt
4536:Protected designation of origin
4107:
4081:
4053:
4041:
4030:Article 6 bis, Paris Convention
4022:
4010:
3985:
3940:
3926:
3905:
3887:
3871:
3866:DaimlerChrysler v. The Net Inc.
3855:
3839:
3811:
3788:
3777:
3766:
3754:
3742:
3730:
3708:
3683:
3581:
3553:
3519:
3494:
3469:
3448:
3365:
3346:
3320:
3295:
3270:
3245:
3220:
3208:
3196:
3170:
3148:
3135:
3079:
2984:
2971:
2953:
2866:
2839:
2817:Richardson, Gary (April 2008).
2810:
2765:
2732:
2707:
2682:
2657:
2643:
2042:
1783:limitations on geographic scope
1722:or, under U.S. law relating to
1674:needs additional citations for
1082:Top Madrid trademark applicants
1009:
4162:Trademark info on WIPO website
3763:, 279 F.3d 796 (9th Cor. 2002)
3535:Stanford Technology Law Review
3481:US Patent and Trademark Office
2593:
2571:
2544:
2519:
2493:
2467:
2446:
2425:
2404:
2368:Protection of well-known marks
948:
1:
4681:Unregistered trademark symbol
4516:Electronic registration marks
3934:"How the Madrid System Works"
3217:Reichsmarkenschutzgesetz 1874
2397:
2318:European Union trade mark law
869:
680:attach to a registered mark.
427:consisting of a recognizable
2823:NBER Working Paper No. 13930
2314:European Union member states
2264:Trademark Law Treaty of 1994
2254:Trademark Law Treaty of 1994
2029:
2017:Sale, transfer and licensing
818:Oldest registered trademarks
7:
4671:Registered trademark symbol
3993:"International IP treaties"
3456:"Madrid Yearly Review 2024"
2380:
2179:
2109:Creative Gifts, Inc. v. UFO
1992:
1186:Bayerische Motoren Werke AG
645:non-conventional trademarks
514:A trademark identifies the
504:registered trademark symbol
302:Idea–expression distinction
103:Registered trademark symbol
53:, discuss the issue on the
10:
4843:
4262:Initial interest confusion
2297:
2251:
2228:
2073:initial interest confusion
1996:
1911:
1563:
1498:In the United States, the
760:Merchandise Marks Act 1862
704:
532:counterfeit consumer goods
21:Trademark (disambiguation)
18:
4817:Intellectual property law
4766:
4725:
4689:
4663:
4617:
4587:
4544:
4488:
4450:
4441:
4370:
4324:
4313:
4209:
4167:Madrid Yearly Review 2024
3613:Fishman, Stephen (2016).
2878:trademark.trademarkia.com
2300:European Union trade mark
1566:Trademark distinctiveness
1493:
995:. If such a mark becomes
626:
522:purchased a license from
4061:"Indian Trademark Rules"
4035:10 February 2014 at the
3215:Gesetz ĂĽber Markenschutz
2846:Packard, Ashley (2010).
2714:Simon, David A. (2009).
2579:"Proper Trademark Usage"
1918:Threshold of originality
750:under the reign of King
526:to be allowed to launch
509:
4531:Geographical indication
3141:U.S. Trademark Reg no.
2981:, 77 Mo. L. Rev. (2012)
2933:Encyclopædia Britannica
2904:"History of Trademarks"
2557:Healthcare Law Insights
2201:Territorial application
964:Terms such as "mark", "
877:Federation of Australia
866:Bank of New South Wales
569:Designation and symbols
214:Plant genetic resources
184:Industrial design right
174:Geographical indication
4771:Category:Trademark law
4758:World Trademark Review
4743:Trademark infringement
4475:Unregistered trademark
4257:Functionality doctrine
3974:Susanna H. S. Leong, "
3727:(Revised, Sept. 2010).
3678:TMEP Sec. 1606 et seq.
3333:www.ipaustralia.gov.au
3205:. ThyssenKrupp-Website
3117:The Trademark Reporter
2779:World Trademark Review
2690:"What is a trademark?"
2174:World Trademark Review
1914:Functionality doctrine
1805:
1029:trademark infringement
961:
830:
723:
715:
663:, particularly in the
588:unregistered trademark
551:unregistered trademark
547:trademark infringement
285:Criticism of copyright
209:Plant breeders' rights
4506:Collective trademarks
4292:Reputation parasitism
4247:Coexistence agreement
4144:Trademark Fact Sheets
4018:Trademark Law Treaty.
3723:13 September 2012 at
3502:"Design Search Codes"
2364:turnover, and so on.
2207:intellectual property
2101:Lamparello v. Falwell
1799:
1560:Distinctive character
1542:Vienna Classification
1219:Euro Games Technology
1055:opposition proceeding
1043:opposition proceeding
993:genericized trademark
985:collective trademarks
956:
844:(1863), and colonies
825:
748:Parliament of England
721:
712:
449:business organization
425:intellectual property
131:Intellectual property
4511:Defensive trademarks
4460:Registered trademark
4357:Community Trade Mark
4307:Well-known trademark
4252:Confusing similarity
3695:The Polaris Law Firm
3035:Symbols of Australia
1971:Edgar Rice Burroughs
1969:In 1923, the author
1856:declaratory judgment
1839:Playmate of the Year
1683:improve this article
1642:Incontestable status
1142:Madrid applications
1136:Madrid applications
1130:Madrid applications
1124:Madrid applications
1118:Madrid applications
989:defensive trademarks
807:Trade Marks Act 1938
671:Fundamental concepts
621:Indian Patent Office
488:Trade Marks Act 1938
59:create a new article
51:improve this article
19:For other uses, see
4717:Washington Redskins
4676:Service mark symbol
4559:Hologram trademarks
4496:Certification marks
4277:Secondary liability
4267:Good faith doctrine
4115:"Famous trademarks"
3664:13 May 2010 at the
3593:pinpoint.cch.com.au
3384:10.34667/tind.42184
3355:The Madrid Protocol
3062:"Trade mark basics"
2977:Roger W. Dyer Jr.,
2923:"Trade Marks"
2772:Lince, Tim (2018).
2739:Liu, Wenqi (2017).
2294:EU Trademark system
2113:promissory estoppel
2092:Playboy v. Netscape
1877:consumer protection
1771:secondary liability
1548:Ability to register
1108:
981:certification marks
498:The symbols ™ (the
275:Copyright abolition
4822:Product management
4738:Trademark examiner
4733:Trademark attorney
4028:Paris Convention:
3901:. 26 October 2019.
3794:See, for example,
3714:See Jane Coleman,
3680:, additional text.
3668:, additional text.
3659:USPTO Fee Schedule
3649:, additional text.
3066:ipaustralia.gov.au
2758:10.3390/rel8110246
2507:on 23 October 2011
2481:on 15 January 2013
2049:domain name system
2047:The advent of the
1999:Trademark dilution
1806:
1724:trademark dilution
1583:Maintaining rights
1390:Mizuno Corporation
1106:
962:
939:: 1875 – The
885:: 1876 – The
831:
724:
716:
619:(USPTO or PTO) or
439:that identifies a
367:Higher categories:
359:Outline of patents
4827:Intangible assets
4789:
4788:
4781:WP:MOS/Trademarks
4613:
4612:
4564:Motion trademarks
4554:Colour trademarks
4227:Generic trademark
4016:Full text of the
3824:Los Angeles Times
3647:TMEP Sec. 1604.04
3307:www.novagraaf.com
3044:978-0-646-40309-0
2849:Digital Media Law
2617:978-1-4133-2780-9
2606:(20th ed.).
2559:. Husch Blackwell
2338:Well-known status
2334:Spanish, German.
2192:International law
1715:
1714:
1707:
1577:KitKat v. Cadbury
1491:
1490:
862:Western Australia
699:Trademark Classes
409:
408:
87:
86:
79:
61:, as appropriate.
4834:
4807:Brand management
4579:Sound trademarks
4574:Shape trademarks
4569:Scent trademarks
4546:Non-conventional
4448:
4447:
4352:Singapore Treaty
4337:Madrid Agreement
4332:Paris Convention
4319:
4318:
4196:
4189:
4182:
4173:
4172:
4122:
4121:
4119:
4111:
4105:
4096:
4095:
4093:
4085:
4079:
4078:
4076:
4074:
4065:
4057:
4051:
4045:
4039:
4026:
4020:
4014:
4008:
4007:
4005:
4003:
3989:
3983:
3972:
3963:
3962:
3960:
3958:
3944:
3938:
3937:
3930:
3924:
3923:
3921:
3919:
3909:
3903:
3902:
3891:
3885:
3875:
3869:
3859:
3853:
3843:
3837:
3836:
3834:
3832:
3815:
3809:
3792:
3786:
3781:
3775:
3770:
3764:
3758:
3752:
3746:
3740:
3734:
3728:
3712:
3706:
3705:
3703:
3701:
3687:
3681:
3675:
3669:
3656:
3650:
3644:
3638:
3637:
3635:
3633:
3610:
3604:
3603:
3601:
3599:
3585:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3574:
3557:
3551:
3550:
3548:
3546:
3532:
3523:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3512:
3498:
3492:
3491:
3489:
3487:
3473:
3467:
3466:
3460:
3452:
3446:
3445:
3439:
3431:
3425:
3424:
3418:
3414:
3412:
3404:
3402:
3400:
3369:
3363:
3362:
3360:
3350:
3344:
3343:
3341:
3339:
3324:
3318:
3317:
3315:
3313:
3299:
3293:
3292:
3290:
3288:
3274:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3249:
3243:
3242:
3240:
3238:
3224:
3218:
3212:
3206:
3203:First Krupp-Logo
3200:
3194:
3193:
3191:
3189:
3174:
3168:
3167:
3165:
3163:
3158:. Samson Rope Co
3152:
3146:
3139:
3133:
3132:
3130:
3128:
3114:
3105:
3096:
3095:
3083:
3077:
3076:
3074:
3072:
3057:
3048:
3047:
3031:Cozzolino, Mimmo
3027:
3016:
3014:
3008:
2999:
2998:
2988:
2982:
2975:
2969:
2968:
2967:
2957:
2951:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2925:
2917:
2908:
2907:
2900:
2889:
2888:
2886:
2884:
2870:
2864:
2863:
2843:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2801:
2793:
2784:
2783:
2769:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2736:
2730:
2729:
2711:
2705:
2704:
2702:
2700:
2686:
2680:
2679:
2677:
2675:
2661:
2655:
2654:
2647:
2641:
2638:
2629:
2628:
2626:
2624:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2586:
2575:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2548:
2542:
2541:
2539:
2537:
2531:
2523:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2503:. Archived from
2497:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2486:
2477:. Archived from
2471:
2465:
2464:
2462:
2460:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2439:
2429:
2423:
2408:
2351:Paris Convention
2345:Under Article 6
1710:
1703:
1699:
1696:
1690:
1667:
1659:
1655:Enforcing rights
1469:
1467:
1466:
1434:
1432:
1431:
1401:
1399:
1398:
1366:
1364:
1363:
1333:
1331:
1330:
1322:Berlin-Chemie AG
1298:
1296:
1295:
1265:
1263:
1262:
1230:
1228:
1227:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1162:
1160:
1159:
1109:
1105:
1071:Sony Corporation
1066:exclusive rights
931:-making company.
906:Trade-Mark Cases
874:
871:
791:Trade-Mark Cases
786:Copyright Clause
678:exclusive rights
584:trademark symbol
500:trademark symbol
401:
394:
387:
270:Brand protection
204:Peasants' rights
141:
127:
126:
119:Trademark symbol
115:
99:
82:
75:
71:
68:
62:
34:
33:
26:
4842:
4841:
4837:
4836:
4835:
4833:
4832:
4831:
4792:
4791:
4790:
4785:
4762:
4753:Trademark troll
4748:Trademark share
4721:
4685:
4659:
4609:
4583:
4540:
4501:Chartered marks
4484:
4437:
4366:
4342:Madrid Protocol
4320:
4316:
4311:
4302:Parallel import
4217:Distinctiveness
4205:
4200:
4131:
4126:
4125:
4117:
4113:
4112:
4108:
4099:
4091:
4089:"Public Notice"
4087:
4086:
4082:
4072:
4070:
4063:
4059:
4058:
4054:
4046:
4042:
4037:Wayback Machine
4027:
4023:
4015:
4011:
4001:
3999:
3991:
3990:
3986:
3973:
3966:
3956:
3954:
3946:
3945:
3941:
3932:
3931:
3927:
3917:
3915:
3911:
3910:
3906:
3893:
3892:
3888:
3876:
3872:
3860:
3856:
3844:
3840:
3830:
3828:
3827:. 9 August 1996
3817:
3816:
3812:
3793:
3789:
3782:
3778:
3771:
3767:
3759:
3755:
3747:
3743:
3735:
3731:
3713:
3709:
3699:
3697:
3689:
3688:
3684:
3676:
3672:
3666:Wayback Machine
3657:
3653:
3645:
3641:
3631:
3629:
3627:
3611:
3607:
3597:
3595:
3587:
3586:
3582:
3572:
3570:
3567:TheGuardian.com
3558:
3554:
3544:
3542:
3530:
3524:
3520:
3510:
3508:
3500:
3499:
3495:
3485:
3483:
3475:
3474:
3470:
3458:
3454:
3453:
3449:
3437:
3433:
3432:
3428:
3416:
3415:
3406:
3405:
3398:
3396:
3394:
3370:
3366:
3358:
3352:
3351:
3347:
3337:
3335:
3325:
3321:
3311:
3309:
3301:
3300:
3296:
3286:
3284:
3276:
3275:
3271:
3261:
3259:
3253:"Madrid System"
3251:
3250:
3246:
3236:
3234:
3226:
3225:
3221:
3213:
3209:
3201:
3197:
3187:
3185:
3176:
3175:
3171:
3161:
3159:
3154:
3153:
3149:
3140:
3136:
3126:
3124:
3112:
3106:
3099:
3084:
3080:
3070:
3068:
3058:
3051:
3045:
3028:
3019:
3010:
3009:
3002:
2989:
2985:
2976:
2972:
2965:
2959:
2958:
2954:
2945:
2941:
2918:
2911:
2902:
2901:
2892:
2882:
2880:
2872:
2871:
2867:
2860:
2844:
2840:
2815:
2811:
2799:
2795:
2794:
2787:
2770:
2766:
2737:
2733:
2712:
2708:
2698:
2696:
2688:
2687:
2683:
2673:
2671:
2663:
2662:
2658:
2653:. 25 June 1997.
2649:
2648:
2644:
2639:
2632:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2598:
2594:
2584:
2582:
2577:
2576:
2572:
2562:
2560:
2549:
2545:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2524:
2520:
2510:
2508:
2499:
2498:
2494:
2484:
2482:
2473:
2472:
2468:
2458:
2456:
2452:
2451:
2447:
2437:
2435:
2431:
2430:
2426:
2410:The styling of
2409:
2405:
2400:
2383:
2370:
2340:
2302:
2296:
2260:
2252:Main articles:
2250:
2233:
2227:
2203:
2194:
2182:
2045:
2032:
2019:
2003:A trademark is
2001:
1995:
1987:media franchise
1930:By comparison,
1920:
1910:
1885:quality control
1869:
1864:
1847:
1832:, and a former
1791:First Amendment
1779:
1711:
1700:
1694:
1691:
1680:
1668:
1657:
1644:
1585:
1568:
1562:
1550:
1496:
1464:
1462:
1429:
1427:
1396:
1394:
1361:
1359:
1328:
1326:
1293:
1291:
1260:
1258:
1225:
1223:
1192:
1190:
1157:
1155:
1084:
1012:
951:
872:
854:New South Wales
842:South Australia
820:
796:Commerce Clause
707:
673:
629:
571:
512:
423:) is a type of
405:
369:
365:
280:Copyright troll
169:Farmers' rights
149:Authors' rights
125:
124:
123:
122:
121:
116:
107:
106:
105:
100:
83:
72:
66:
63:
48:
35:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4840:
4830:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4804:
4787:
4786:
4784:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4767:
4764:
4763:
4761:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4729:
4727:
4723:
4722:
4720:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4702:Debian–Mozilla
4699:
4693:
4691:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4667:
4665:
4661:
4660:
4658:
4657:
4652:
4647:
4642:
4637:
4632:
4627:
4621:
4619:
4615:
4614:
4611:
4610:
4608:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4591:
4589:
4585:
4584:
4582:
4581:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4550:
4548:
4542:
4541:
4539:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4521:Font trademark
4518:
4513:
4508:
4503:
4498:
4492:
4490:
4486:
4485:
4483:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4456:
4454:
4445:
4439:
4438:
4436:
4435:
4430:
4428:United Kingdom
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4393:European Union
4390:
4385:
4380:
4374:
4372:
4368:
4367:
4365:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4328:
4326:
4322:
4321:
4314:
4312:
4310:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4297:Cybersquatting
4294:
4289:
4284:
4282:Nominative use
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4242:Priority right
4239:
4237:Concurrent use
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4213:
4211:
4207:
4206:
4199:
4198:
4191:
4184:
4176:
4170:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4150:
4141:
4130:
4129:External links
4127:
4124:
4123:
4106:
4097:
4080:
4068:ipindia.nic.in
4052:
4040:
4021:
4009:
3984:
3964:
3939:
3925:
3904:
3886:
3878:15 U.S.C.
3870:
3854:
3846:15 U.S.C.
3838:
3810:
3787:
3776:
3765:
3753:
3741:
3729:
3707:
3682:
3670:
3651:
3639:
3625:
3605:
3580:
3552:
3518:
3493:
3468:
3447:
3426:
3417:|website=
3392:
3364:
3345:
3319:
3294:
3269:
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3092:Trademark Blog
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2928:Chisholm, Hugh
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2057:Cybersquatting
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2018:
2015:
1997:Main article:
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1991:
1966:enforce them.
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520:the Lego Group
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415:(also written
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45:of the subject
43:worldwide view
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4135:"Quick Facts"
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4102:
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4049:Cap 559, s.18
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2231:Madrid system
2225:Madrid system
2222:
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2218:harmonization
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2061:Typosquatters
2058:
2053:
2050:
2040:
2036:
2027:
2024:
2014:
2011:
2006:
2000:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
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1963:
1961:
1955:
1953:
1952:public domain
1948:
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1937:public domain
1933:
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1925:
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1875:objective of
1874:
1873:public policy
1867:Public policy
1862:Other aspects
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1695:February 2008
1688:
1684:
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1672:This section
1670:
1666:
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1622:public domain
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1516:
1514:
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1506:
1505:due diligence
1501:
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1471:United States
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959:Burberry Ltd.
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778:United States
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740:Stella Artois
737:
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665:United States
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502:) and ® (the
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469:service marks
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349:Public domain
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4489:Non-standard
4465:Service mark
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4083:
4071:. Retrieved
4067:
4055:
4043:
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4012:
4000:. Retrieved
3996:
3987:
3979:
3955:. Retrieved
3952:www.wipo.int
3951:
3942:
3928:
3916:. Retrieved
3907:
3898:
3895:"Trademarks"
3889:
3873:
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3861:
3857:
3841:
3829:. Retrieved
3822:
3813:
3795:
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3768:
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3716:
3710:
3698:. Retrieved
3694:
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3630:. Retrieved
3615:
3608:
3596:. Retrieved
3592:
3583:
3571:. Retrieved
3565:
3555:
3543:. Retrieved
3541:(3): 548–552
3538:
3534:
3521:
3509:. Retrieved
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3496:
3484:. Retrieved
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3450:
3441:
3429:
3397:. Retrieved
3374:
3367:
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3348:
3338:15 September
3336:. Retrieved
3332:
3322:
3312:15 September
3310:. Retrieved
3306:
3297:
3287:15 September
3285:. Retrieved
3282:www.wipo.int
3281:
3272:
3262:15 September
3260:. Retrieved
3256:
3247:
3235:. Retrieved
3231:
3222:
3210:
3198:
3186:. Retrieved
3181:
3172:
3160:. Retrieved
3150:
3137:
3125:. Retrieved
3120:
3116:
3091:
3081:
3069:. Retrieved
3065:
3034:
2993:
2986:
2973:
2961:
2955:
2947:
2942:
2931:
2881:. Retrieved
2877:
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2841:
2822:
2812:
2803:
2777:
2767:
2748:
2744:
2734:
2725:
2719:
2709:
2697:. Retrieved
2693:
2684:
2672:. Retrieved
2668:
2659:
2645:
2621:. Retrieved
2602:
2595:
2583:. Retrieved
2573:
2561:. Retrieved
2556:
2546:
2534:. Retrieved
2521:
2509:. Retrieved
2505:the original
2495:
2483:. Retrieved
2479:the original
2469:
2457:. Retrieved
2448:
2436:. Retrieved
2427:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2406:
2387:Article 6ter
2375:
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534:is known as
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312:Fair dealing
238:
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194:Moral rights
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67:January 2024
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4526:Ghost marks
4470:Trade dress
4423:Philippines
4232:Passing off
4073:31 December
3882:§ 1125
3850:§ 1125
3831:26 December
3802:2005 SCC 65
3232:tramatm.com
3123:(1): 31, 34
2883:15 December
2751:(11): 246.
2665:"trademark"
2511:27 December
2485:22 December
2459:22 December
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2151:passing off
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1024:marketplace
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860:(1876) and
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4802:Trademarks
4796:Categories
3598:25 October
3237:1 November
3071:14 January
2585:5 February
2563:5 February
2536:5 February
2416:trade mark
2398:References
2135:Nominet UK
1912:See also:
1769:rights is
1739:reputation
1735:Common Law
1720:well known
1524:LexisNexis
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1112:Applicant
1034:common law
997:synonymous
846:Queensland
800:Lanham Act
559:adjectives
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437:expression
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417:trade mark
4776:Case laws
4712:Ugg boots
4697:Budweiser
4398:Hong Kong
4378:Australia
3884:(d)(1)(A)
3632:2 October
3419:ignored (
3409:cite book
3399:26 August
3156:"History"
2745:Religions
2728:(2): 233.
2412:trademark
2147:confusion
2030:Licensing
1932:copyright
1573:consumers
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744:Löwenbräu
730:who made
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654:The term
524:Lucasfilm
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451:, or any
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295:Biopiracy
239:Trademark
159:Copyright
55:talk page
4690:Disputes
4480:Wordmark
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4325:Treaties
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4033:Archived
3808:(Canada)
3721:Archived
3662:Archived
3463:wipo.int
2699:24 April
2674:24 April
2381:See also
2276:internet
2210:treaties
2180:Security
2023:goodwill
1993:Dilution
1960:estoppel
1890:see, ex.
1787:fair use
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1232:Bulgaria
1144:in 2023
1138:in 2022
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1126:in 2020
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852:(1864),
850:Tasmania
782:Congress
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685:identity
545:against
371:Property
317:Fair use
154:Copyleft
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4002:18 June
3957:18 June
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2930:(ed.).
2806:. 2022.
2349:of the
2005:diluted
1983:license
1979:company
1835:Playboy
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1605:non-use
1579:case.)
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1300:Germany
1267:Germany
1199:Germany
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1115:Origin
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734:in the
705:History
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490:of the
465:voucher
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3634:2020
3621:ISBN
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