Wilderness - Knowledge

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areas of the world. India is more densely populated and has been settled for a long time. There are complex relationships between agricultural communities and the wilderness. An example of this is the Project Tiger parks in India. By claiming areas as no longer used by humans, the land moves from the hands of poor people to rich people. Having designated tiger reserves is only possible by displacing poor people, who were not involved in the planning of the areas. This situation places the ideal of wilderness above the already existing relationships between people and the land they live on. By placing an imperialistic ideal of nature onto a different country, the desire to reestablish wilderness is being put above the lives of those who live by working the land.

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colonists came in and forced them off their lands in order to create the national parks. The concept glorifies the idea that before settlers came, the US was an uninhabited landscape. This erases the reality of Native Americans, and their relationship with the land and the role they had in shaping the landscape. Such erasure suggests there were areas of the US which were historically unoccupied, once again erasing the existence of Native Americans and their relationship to the land. In the case of Yellowstone, the Grand Canyon, and Yosemite, the 'preservation' of these lands by the US government was what caused the Native Americans who lived in the areas to be systematically removed.

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Islands, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, Czech Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Estonia, Finland, French Guiana, Greenland, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Japan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mexico, Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand, Norway, Northern Mariana Islands, Portugal, Seychelles, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Tanzania, United States of America, and Zimbabwe. At publication, there are 2,992 marine and terrestrial wilderness areas registered with the IUCN as solely Category 1b sites.

334:. The relationship between Native Americans and the land was something colonists did not understand and did not try to understand. This mutually beneficial relationship was different from how colonists viewed the land only in relation to how it could benefit themselves by waging a constant battle to beat the land and other living organisms into submission. The belief colonists had of the land being only something to be used was based in Christian ideas. If the earth and animals and plants were created by a Christian God for human use, then the cultivation by colonists was their God-given goal. 793:. They are intended both to preserve the wilderness character of the areas and further the traditional livelihood of the Sami people. This means e.g. that reindeer husbandry, hunting and taking wood for use in the household is permitted. As population is very sparse, this is generally no big threat to the nature. Large scale reindeer husbandry has influence on the ecosystem, but no change is introduced by the act on wilderness areas. The World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) classifies the areas as "VI Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources". 757:

national parks (IUCN Category II) as wilderness areas. The government counts the whole area of the 16 national parks as wilderness. This means, also the managed parts are included in the "existing" 0,6%. There is no doubt, that Germany will miss its own time-dependent quantitative goals, but there are also some critics, that point a bad designation practice: Findings of disturbance ecology, according to which process-based nature conservation and the 2% target could be further qualified by more targeted area designation, pre-treatment and introduction of

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relationship with the land in a more holistic view, they were eventually subjected to European property systems. Colonists from Europe saw the American landscape as wild, savage, dark, and thus needed to be tamed in order for it to be safe and habitable. Once cleared and settled, these areas were depicted as "Eden itself". Yet the native peoples of those lands saw "wilderness" as that when the connection between humans and nature is broken. For native communities, human intervention was a part of their ecological practices.

1383:, argues that the racist ideas of many early conservationists created a narrative of wilderness that has led to "fortress conservation" policies that have driven Native Americans off of their land. Kashwan has proposed conservation practices that would allow Indigenous people to continue using the land as a more just and more effective alternative to fortress conservation. The idea that the natural world is primarily made up of remote wilderness areas has also been criticized as classist, with environmental sociologist 776: 3753: 676: 1482: 856: 503: 55: 1090:(IUCN) plays a critical role in defining legal and management guidelines for wilderness at the international level and is also a clearing-house for information on wilderness issues. The IUCN Protected Areas Classification System defines wilderness as "A large area of unmodified or slightly modified land, and/or sea retaining its natural character and influence, without permanent or significant habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural condition ( 988: 5491: 4392: 1252: 70: 1037: 1103: 88: 1440: 1375:, another important figure in the early conservation movement, referred to African-Americans as "making a great deal of noise and doing little work", and compared Native Americans to unclean animals who did not belong in the wilderness. Environmental history professor Miles A. Powell of Nanyang Technological University has argued that much of the early conservation movement was deeply tied to and inspired by a desire to preserve the 1468: 518: 1496: 748:

countries contain protected areas with multiple management categories including Category 1b. They are: Argentina, Bhutan, Brazil, Chile, Honduras, Germany, Italy, Kenya, Malaysia, Namibia, Nepal, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Philippines, the Russian Federation, South Africa, Switzerland, Uganda, Ukraine, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Venezuela, and Zambia.

563:, which was signed into law by U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant on 1 March 1872. The Act of Dedication declared Yellowstone a land "hereby reserved and withdrawn from settlement, occupancy, or sale under the laws of the United States, and dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people." 1163:(5.4%). Such areas remain relatively untouched by humans. Of course, there are large tracts of lands in national parks and other protected areas that would also qualify as wilderness. However, many protected areas have some degree of human modification or activity, so a definitive estimate of true wilderness is difficult. 1063:

many international groups who still look to the World Wilderness Congress as the international venue for wilderness and to The WILD Foundation network for wilderness tools and action. The WILD Foundation also publishes the standard references for wilderness professionals and others involved in the issues:

1141:, 46% of the world's land mass is wilderness. For purposes of this report, "wilderness" was defined as an area that "has 70% or more of its original vegetation intact, covers at least 10,000 square kilometers (3,900 sq mi) and must have fewer than five people per square kilometer." However, an 1062:

and its network of sister and partner organizations around the globe. The pioneer World Wilderness Congress in 1977 introduced the wilderness concept as an issue of international importance, and began the process of defining the term in biological and social contexts. Today, this work is continued by

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of 1975 extended the protection of the NWPS to areas in the eastern states that were not initially considered for inclusion in the Wilderness Act. This act allowed lands that did not meet the constraints of size, roadlessness, or human impact to be designated as wilderness areas under the belief that

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of 1964. The Wilderness Act is an important part of wilderness designation because it created the legal definition of wilderness and established the National Wilderness Preservation System. The Wilderness Act defines wilderness as "an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammelled by

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Then in the 1950s, Integral Biological Reserves (Réserves Biologiques Intégrales, RBI) are dedicated to man free ecosystem evolution, on the contrary of Managed Biological reserves (Réserves Biologiques Dirigées, RBD) where a specific management is applied to conserve vulnerable species or threatened

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The German National Strategy on Biological Diversity aims to establish wilderness areas on 2% of its terrestrial territory by 2020 (7,140 km). However, protected wilderness areas in Germany currently only cover 0.6% of the total terrestrial area. In absence of pristine landscapes, Germany counts

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The United States philosophy around wilderness preservation through National Parks has been attempted in other countries. However, people living in those countries have different ideas surrounding wilderness than people in the United States, thus, the US concept of wilderness can be damaging in other

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using a number of indicators, the absence of which indicate wildness: human population density, human access via roads and rivers, human infrastructure for agriculture and settlements and the presence of industrial power (lights visible from space). The society estimates that 26% of the Earth's land

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Approximately 107,500,000 acres (435,000 km) are designated as wilderness in the United States. This accounts for 4.82% of the country's total land area; however, 54% of that amount is found in Alaska (recreation and development in Alaskan wilderness is often less restrictive), while only 2.58%

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Put another way, conservation sought to regulate human use while preservation sought to eliminate human impact altogether. The management of US public lands during the years 1960s and 70s reflected these dual visions, with conservationists dominating the Forest Service, and preservationists the Park

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When national parks were established in an area, the Native Americans that had been living there were forcibly removed so visitors to the park could see nature without humans present. National parks are seen as areas untouched by humans, when in reality, humans existed in these spaces, until settler

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However, the idea that what European colonists saw upon arriving in North America was pristine and devoid of humans is untrue due to the existence of Native Americans. The land was shaped by Native Americans through practices such as fires. Burning happened frequently and in a controlled manner. The

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There is a historical belief that wilderness must not only be tamed to be protected but that humans also need to be outside of it. In order to clear certain areas for conservation, such as national parks, involved the removal of native communities from their land. Some authors have come to describe

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Another source of criticism is that the criteria for wilderness designation is vague and open to interpretation. For example, the Wilderness Act states that wilderness must be roadless. The definition given for roadless is "the absences of roads which have been improved and maintained by mechanical

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have continued to result in human modification of relatively untouched areas. Such human activity often negatively impacts native flora and fauna. As such, to better protect critical habitats and preserve low-impact recreational opportunities, legal concepts of "wilderness" were established in many

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However, in European cultures, throughout the Middle Ages, wilderness generally was not regarded worth protecting but rather judged strongly negative as a dangerous place and as a moral counter-world to the realm of culture and godly life. "While archaic nature religions oriented themselves towards

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and, in 1968, it was given wilderness status. Properties in the swamp had been acquired by a small group of residents of the area, who donated the assembled properties to the federal government as a park for perpetual protection. Today the refuge amounts to 7,600 acres (31 km) that are within

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In Western Australia, a wilderness area is an area that has a wilderness quality rating of 12 or greater and meets a minimum size threshold of 80 km in temperate areas or 200 km in arid and tropical areas. A wilderness area is gazetted under section 62(1)(a) of the Conservation and Land

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Forty-eight countries have wilderness areas established via legislative designation as IUCN protected area management Category 1b sites that do not overlap with any other IUCN designation. They are: Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Bermuda, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Canada, Cayman

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Historian Mark David Spence has shown that the case of Glacier National Park and the Blackfeet people who live there is a perfect example of such erasure. The Blackfeet people had specifically designated rights to the area, but the 1910 Glacier National Park act made void those rights. The act of

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Locke, H.; Ghosh, S.; Carver, S.; McDonald, T.; Sloan, S.S.; Merculieff, I.; Hendee, J.; Dawson, C.; Moore, S.; Newsome, D.; McCool, S.; Semler, R.; Martin, S.; Dvorak, R.; Armatas, C.; Swain, R.; Barr, B.; Krause, D.; Whittington-Evans, N.; Hamilton, L.S.; Holtrop, J.; Tricker, J.; Landres, P.;

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The most recent efforts to map wilderness show that less than one quarter (~23%) of the world's wilderness area now remains, and that there have been catastrophic declines in wilderness extent over the last two decades. Over 3 million square kilometers (10 percent) of wilderness was converted to

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was being built. The creation of this and other parks showed a growing appreciation of wild nature, but also an economic reality. The railways wanted to entice people to travel west. Parks such as Banff and Yellowstone gained favor as the railroads advertised travel to "the great wild spaces" of

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writes that what he calls a wilderness ethic or cult may "teach us to be dismissive or even contemptuous of such humble places and experiences", and that "wilderness tends to privilege some parts of nature at the expense of others", using as an example "the mighty canyon more inspiring than the

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Twenty-two other countries have wilderness areas. These wilderness areas are established via administrative designation or wilderness zones within protected areas. Whereas the above listing contains countries with wilderness exclusively designated as Category 1b sites, some of the below-listed

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Two different groups had emerged within the US environmental movement by the early 20th century: the conservationists and the preservationists. The initial consensus among conservationists was split into "utilitarian conservationists" later to be referred to as conservationists, and "aesthetic

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in many other countries. Unlike most other countries, in England and Wales, designation as a national park may include substantial settlements and human land uses which are often integral parts of the landscape, and land within a national park remains largely in private ownership. Each park is

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Early conservationists advocated the creation of a legal mechanism by which boundaries could be set on human activities in order to preserve natural and unique lands for the enjoyment and use of future generations. This profound shift in wilderness thought reached a pinnacle in the US with the

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movement argues against conflating "wilderness" with "wilderness reservations", viewing the latter term as an oxymoron that, by allowing the law as a human construct to define nature, unavoidably voids the very freedom and independence of human control that defines wilderness. True wilderness

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Another critique of wilderness is that it perpetuates the human-nature dichotomy. The idea that nature and humans are separate entities can be traced back to European colonial views. To European settlers, land was an inherited right and was to be used to profit. While native groups saw their

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wild animals in private hunting preserves rather than a desire to protect wilderness. Nevertheless, in order to have animals to hunt they would have to protect wildlife from subsistence hunting and the land from villagers gathering firewood. Similar measures were introduced in other European

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Allan, James R.; Kormos, Cyril; Jaeger, Tilman; Venter, Oscar; Bertzky, Bastian; Shi, Yichuan; Mackey, Brendan; van Merm, Remco; Osipova, Elena; Watson, James E.M. (February 2018). "Gaps and opportunities for the World Heritage Convention to contribute to global wilderness conservation".

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Since 1861, the French Waters and Forests Military Agency (Administration des Eaux et Forêts) put a strong protection on what was called the « artistic reserve » in Fontainebleau State Forest. With a total of 1,097 hectares, it is known to be the first World nature reserve.

761:, are widely neglected. Since 2019 the government supports bargains of land that will then be designated as wilderness by 10 Mio. Euro annually. The German minimum size for wilderness candidate sites is normally 10 km. In some cases (i.e. swamps) the minimum size is 5 km. 947:. It is typically at least 5,000 acres (about 8 mi or 20 km) in size. Human activities in wilderness areas are restricted to scientific study and non-mechanized recreation; horses are permitted but mechanized vehicles and equipment, such as cars and bicycles, are not. 1405:

this type of conservation as conservation-far, where humans and nature are kept separate. The other end of the conservation spectrum then, would be conservation-near, which would mimic native ecological practices of humans integrated into the care of nature.

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Burnet, Thomas 1719: The Sacred Theory of the Earth. Containing an Account of the Original of the Earth and of all the General Changes which it hath Already Undergone, or is to Undergo, till the Consumation of all Things. The Forth Edition. London, Hooke.

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arguing that this leads to experiencing wilderness becoming a privilege, as working-class people are often unable to afford transportation to wilderness areas. She further argues that, due to poverty and lack of access to transportation caused by

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nature, in medieval Christendom this orientation was replaced by one towards divine law. The divine was no longer to be found in nature; instead, uncultivated nature became a site of the sinister and the demonic. It was considered corrupted by

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based on the German approach were applied in other parts of the world, but with varying degrees of success. Over the course of the 19th century wilderness became viewed not as a place to fear but a place to enjoy and protect; hence came the

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means to insure relatively regular and continuous use". However, there have been added sub-definitions that have, in essence, made this standard unclear and open to interpretation, and some are drawn to narrowly exclude existing roads.

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human land-uses. The Amazon and Congo rain forests suffered the most loss. Human pressure is extending into almost every corner of the planet. The loss of wilderness could have serious implications for biodiversity conservation.

1308:. "On walks in the unpeopled parts of the suburbs," Winkler writes, "I’ve witnessed the same wild creatures, struggles for survival, and natural beauty that we associate with true wilderness." Attempts have been made, as in the 482:

The 21st century has seen another slight shift in wilderness thought and theory. It is now understood that simply drawing lines around a piece of land and declaring it a wilderness does not necessarily make it a wilderness. All

695:, calling for a "land ethic" and urging wilderness protection. It had become increasingly clear that wild spaces were disappearing rapidly and that decisive action was needed to save them. Wilderness preservation is central to 1312:

Act, to distinguish "wild" from various levels of human influence: in the Act, "wild rivers" are "not impounded", "usually not accessible except by trail", and their watersheds and shorelines are "essentially primitive".

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that fall well within the IUCN definition. Wilderness areas cannot have any human intervention and can only have indigenous species re-introduced into the area if it is compatible with conservation management strategies.

571:'preserving' the land was specifically linked to the exclusion of the Blackfeet people. The continued resistance of the Blackfeet people has provided documentation of the importance of the area to many different tribes. 1333:

and scholar on wilderness Layla Abdel-Rahim argues that it is necessary to understand the principles that govern the economies of mutual aid and diversification in wilderness from a non-anthropocentric perspective.

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represent a further 7% of the world's land base. Estimates of the Earth's remaining wilderness underscore the rate at which these lands are being developed, with dramatic declines in biodiversity as a consequence.

254:, the greater part of Earth's terrain was wilderness, and human attention was concentrated on settled areas. The first known laws to protect parts of nature date back to the Babylonian Empire and Chinese Empire. 499:. The national park has miles of "wilderness" but the air is filled with pollution from the valley. This gives rise to the paradox of what a wilderness really is; a key issue in 21st century wilderness thought. 3020:

Venter, Oscar; Sanderson, Eric W.; Magrach, Ainhoa; Allan, James R.; Beher, Jutta; Jones, Kendall R.; Possingham, Hugh P.; Laurance, William F.; Wood, Peter; Fekete, Balázs M.; Levy, Marc A. (23 August 2016).

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Jones, Kendall R.; Klein, Carissa J.; Halpern, Benjamin S.; Venter, Oscar; Grantham, Hedley; Kuempel, Caitlin D.; Shumway, Nicole; Friedlander, Alan M.; Possingham, Hugh P.; Watson, James E. M. (August 2018).

813:. In such reserves, all harvests coupe are forbidden excepted exotic species elimination or track safety works to avoid fallen tree risk to visitors (already existing tracks in or on the edge of the reserve). 965:, then a ranking member of the U.S. Forest Service, proposed a new management strategy for the Gila National Forest. His proposal was adopted in 1924, and 750,000 acres of the Gila National Forest became the 2002:

Kirchhoff, Thomas/ Vicenzotti, Vera 2014: A historical and systematic survey of European perceptions of wilderness. Environmental Values 23 (4): pp.443–464, here p. 446, doi:(10.3197/096327114X13947900181590

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While wilderness designations were originally granted by an Act of Congress for Federal land that retained a "primeval character", meaning that it had not suffered from human habitation or development, the

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humble marsh." This is most clearly visible with the fact that nearly all U.S. National Parks preserve spectacular canyons and mountains, and it was not until the 1940s that a swamp became a national park—

162:, but also to promote and advance a natural expression and development. These can be set up in preserves, conservation preserves, national forests, national parks and even in urban areas along rivers, 1341:, ignoring Native American perspectives on the natural environment and excluding people of color from narratives about human interactions with the environment. Many early conservationists, such as 2522:

Brackhane, Sebastian; Schoof, Nicolas; Reif, Albert; Schmitt, Christine B. (2019). "A new wilderness for Central Europe? – the potential for large strictly protected forest reserves in Germany".

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By the 1920s, travel across North America by train to experience the "wilderness" (often viewing it only through windows) had become very popular. This led to the commercialization of some of

319:' society. Wilderness was considered to be the root of the colonists' problems, so to make the problems go away, wilderness needed to be destroyed. One of the first steps in doing this, is to 459:. The Framework calls for conservation of 50 percent of the 6,000,000 square kilometres of boreal forest in Canada's north. In addition to the World Wildlife Fund, organizations such as the 914:

prevents any access by vehicles and livestock, the construction of tracks and buildings, and all indigenous natural resources are protected. They are generally over 400 km in size.

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North America. When outdoorsman Teddy Roosevelt became president of the United States, he began to enlarge the U.S. National Parks system, and established the National Forest system.

147:. Recent maps of wilderness suggest it covers roughly one-quarter of Earth's terrestrial surface, but is being rapidly degraded by human activity. Even less wilderness remains in the 740:

There have been recent calls for the World Heritage Convention to better protect wilderness and to include the word wilderness in their selection criteria for Natural Heritage Sites

369:'s poetry described the wonder of the natural world, which had formerly been viewed as a threatening place. Increasingly the valuing of nature became an aspect of Western culture. 295:), becoming a vale of tears in which humans were doomed to live out their existence. Thus, for example, mountains were interpreted as ruins of a once flat earth destroyed by the 816:

At the end of 2014, there were 60 Integral Biological Reserves in French State Forests for a total area of 111,082 hectares and 10 in City Forests for a total of 2,835 hectares.

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Wilderness designation helps preserve the natural state of the land and protects flora and fauna by prohibiting development and providing for non-mechanized recreation only.

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could be used to maintain food, cords, and baskets. One of the main roles of frequent fires was to prevent the out of control fires which are becoming more and more common.

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By the late 19th century, it had become clear that in many countries wild areas had either disappeared or were in danger of disappearing. This realization gave rise to the

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turned their attention to capturing the beauty of the natural world in their paintings. Prior to that, paintings had been primarily of religious scenes or of human beings.

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Watson, James E. M.; Shanahan, Danielle F.; Di Marco, Moreno; Allan, James; Laurance, William F.; Sanderson, Eric W.; Mackey, Brendan; Venter, Oscar (7 November 2016).

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in the latter half of the 19th century. Rivers were rafted and mountains were climbed solely for the sake of recreation, not to determine their geographical context.

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Watson, James E.M.; Shanahan, Danielle F.; Di Marco, Moreno; Allan, James; Laurance, William F.; Sanderson, Eric W.; Mackey, Brendan; Venter, Oscar (November 2016).

5527: 247:… as if seen through the eyes of a bird". In the 13th century, Shih Erh Chi recommended avoiding painting "scenes lacking any places made inaccessible by nature". 939:

The Great Swamp of New Jersey, donated for federal protection by concerned residents, was designated as the first wilderness refuge in the United States in 1960

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In Greece there are some parks called "ethniki drimoi" (εθνικοί δρυμοί, national forests) that are under protection of the Greek government. Such parks include

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Stewart, O. C., Lewis, H. T., & Anderson, K. (2002). Forgotten fires: Native Americans and the transient wilderness. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

428:. Nevertheless, this led to growing recognition in the 1950s and the early 1960s of the need to protect large spaces for wildlife conservation worldwide. The 315:

view of wilderness meant that in order for colonists to be able to live in North America, they had to destroy the wilderness in order to make way for their '

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in order to clear the land. Military metaphors describing the wilderness as the "enemy" were used, and settler expansion was phrased as " the wilderness".

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Martti Pärssinen; Denise Schaan & Alceu Ranzi (2009). "Pre-Columbian geometric earthworks in the upper Purús: a complex society in western Amazonia".

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was the first formally designated wilderness refuge in the United States. It was declared a wildlife refuge on 3 November 1960. In 1966 it was declared a

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Kirchhoff, Thomas/ Vicenzotti, Vera 2014: A historical and systematic survey of European perceptions of wilderness. Environmental Values 23 (4): 443–464.

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claimed that the Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristine wilderness, has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such as

6044: 1294:... to the extent that we live in an urban-industrial civilization but at the same time pretend to ourselves that our real home is in the wilderness". 2614:

Opitz, Stefaie; Reppin, Nicole; Schoof, Nicolas; Drobnik, Juliane; Riecken, Uwe; Mengel, Andreas; Reif, Albert; Rosenthal, Gert; Finck, Peter (2015).

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Nash, Roderick Frazier 2014: Wilderness and the American Mind. Fifth Edition. New Haven & London, Yale University Press / Yale Nota Bene, p. 9

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1995 & 1998 National Forests Office internal instructions in application of the last paragraph of article L. 212-2 of the French Forest Act

1238:. Of the last natural wilderness areas, the taiga—which is mostly wilderness—represents 11% of the total land mass in the Northern Hemisphere. 1087: 3841:

Nash, Roderick Frazier 2014: Wilderness and the American Mind. Fifth Edition. New Haven & London, Yale University Press / Yale Nota Bene.

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From a visual arts perspective, nature and wildness have been important subjects in various epochs of world history. An early tradition of

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In 1861, following an intense lobbying by artists (painters), the French Waters and Forests Military Agency set an "artistic reserve" in

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Most scientists and conservationists agree that no place on earth is completely untouched by humanity, either due to past occupation by

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Oelschlaeger, Max 1991: The Idea of Wilderness. From Prehistory to the Age of Ecology. New Haven & London, Yale University Press.

2843: 6029: 5844: 3965: 3113: 2646: 2797: 5513: 3761: 2270:"Crown of the Continent, Backbone of the World: The American Wilderness Ideal and Blackfeet Exclusion from Glacier National Park" 1755: 1625: 1016: 930: 699:; a philosophy that believes in an inherent worth of all living beings, regardless of their instrumental utility to human needs. 2155:

Kantor, I. (2007). Ethnic Cleansing and America's Creation of National Parks. Public Land & Resources Law Review, 28, 41-64.

1725: 1379:. Prakash Kashwan, a political science professor at the University of Connecticut who specializes in environmental policies and 6333: 6039: 4462: 2403: 2171: 476: 6014: 5889: 3806: 3726: 3688: 3535: 3488: 3438: 3410: 3382: 3354: 3326: 3295: 3274: 1964: 895: 327: 278:

initiated one of the world's first conscious efforts to protect natural areas. They were motivated by a desire to be able to

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By the mid-19th century, in Germany, "Scientific Conservation", as it was called, advocated "the efficient utilization of

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Schoof, Nicolas; Luick, Rainer; Nickel, Herbert; Reif, Albert; Förschler, Marc; Westrich, Paul; Reisinger, Edgar (2018).

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The idea of protecting nature for nature's sake began to gain more recognition in the 1930s with American writers like

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are intricately connected and what happens outside a wilderness certainly affects what happens inside it. For example,

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through conservation initiatives. There are also large-scale projects to conserve wilderness regions, such as Canada's

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Nevertheless, initiatives for wilderness conservation continue to increase. There are a growing number of projects to

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Guha, Ramachandra. ""Radical American Environmentalism and Wilderness Preservation: A Third World Critique" (1997)."

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has argued that the wilderness ethic leads people to dismiss areas whose wildness is less than absolute. In his book

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Management Act 1984 by the Minister on any land that is vested in the Conservation Commission of Western Australia.

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The first administratively protected wilderness area in the United States was the Gila National Forest. In 1922,

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Kammer, Sean. "Coming to terms with wilderness: The Wilderness Act and the problem of wildlife restoration."

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Integral Biological Reserves occurs in French State Forests or City Forests and are therefore managed by the

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The United States was one of the first countries to officially designate land as "wilderness" through the

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or otherwise undeveloped areas. Often these areas are considered important for the survival of certain

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Children's Literature, Domestication, and Social Foundation: Narratives of Civilization and Wilderness

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Struggle over Utah's San Rafael Swell: Wilderness, National Conservation Areas, and National Monuments

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landscapes seen in the US today are very different from the way things looked before colonists came.

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at 5 acres (20,000 m) to Alaska's Wrangell-Saint Elias at 9,078,675 acres (36,740.09 km).

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report published in 2003, found that only 10.9% of the world's land mass is currently a Category 1

825: 730: 606: 598: 346: 331: 6398: 3974: 1363:, a book on eugenics that was later praised by Adolf Hitler. Grant is also known to have featured 6496: 6373: 6318: 6288: 6220: 6134: 6124: 6099: 6094: 5627: 5577: 5562: 5069: 4958: 4280: 1580: 1555: 1175:

mass falls into the category of "Last of the wild." The wildest regions of the world include the

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The percentage of land area designated wilderness does not necessarily reflect a measure of its

6313: 5572: 5472: 5315: 5187: 1987: 1667: 1647: 1003: 944: 468: 432:(WWF), founded in 1961, grew to be one of the largest conservation organizations in the world. 6338: 3528:

The Rise of the American Conservation Movement: Power, Privilege, and Environmental Protection

2840: 2368: 6433: 6413: 6403: 6328: 6303: 6273: 6119: 6114: 5959: 5939: 5879: 5849: 5834: 5745: 5607: 5269: 5264: 5059: 5000: 2775: 2589:"Deutschland wird wilder: Neues Förderinstrument Wildnisfonds startet – BMU-Pressemitteilung" 1540: 1459: 1380: 1155: 1091: 991: 911: 899: 734: 646: 544: 496: 390: 1270:

The American concept of wilderness has been criticized by some nature writers. For example,

6560: 6539: 6243: 6192: 6089: 5816: 5750: 5702: 5667: 5657: 5463: 5435: 5400: 5327: 5127: 5064: 4882: 4703: 3996: 3553:

The nation-state and global order : a historical introduction to contemporary politics

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Cronon also believes the passion to save wilderness "poses a serious threat to responsible

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Vanishing America : Species Extinction, Racial Peril, and the Origins of Conservation

3307:

Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers Act (P.L. 1277, Act No. 283 as amended by Act 110, May 7, 1982)

2862:

Policy Statement No 62, Identification and management of Wilderness and surrounding areas.

2208: 2087:

Dunbar-Ortiz, R. (2014). An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States. Beacon Press

1213:

have been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, leading to claims about

1079:

are the backbone of information and management tools for international wilderness issues.

921:: Adams Wilderness Area, Hooker/Landsborough Wilderness Area and Paparoa Wilderness Area. 8: 6627: 6278: 5687: 5672: 5662: 5557: 5458: 5366: 5354: 5244: 5197: 5005: 4928: 4654: 4445: 4207: 4142: 3505:"American environmentalism's racist roots have shaped global thinking about conservation" 3117: 1011:

of the lower continental United States is designated as wilderness. As of 2023 there are

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Wilderness was viewed by colonists as being evil in its resistance to their control. The

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Defending the Master Race : Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant

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Wilderness protected areas: Management guidelines for IUCN category 1b protected areas

2420:

Mejicano, E.; Gilbert, T.; MacKey, B.; Aykroyd, T.; Zimmerman, B.; Thomas, J. (2016).

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there. As before, this interest in conservation had an economic motive: in this case,

6358: 5722: 5440: 4904: 4810: 4783: 4630: 4580: 4516: 4470: 3819: 3802: 3789: 3773: 3736: 3722: 3684: 3651: 3641: 3617: 3605: 3566: 3556: 3531: 3484: 3434: 3406: 3378: 3350: 3322: 3291: 3270: 3068: 3050: 3002: 2994: 2945: 2927: 2900:"Temporally inter-comparable maps of terrestrial wilderness and the Last of the Wild" 2615: 2566: 2551: 2479: 2433: 2399: 2374: 2301: 2269: 2113: 2055: 2013: 1929: 1877: 1826: 1787:"Temporally inter-comparable maps of terrestrial wilderness and the Last of the Wild" 1733: 1657: 1652: 1642: 1525: 1409: 1346: 1214: 1190: 1111: 918: 621: 385: 373: 139:

cultivation. The term has traditionally referred to terrestrial environments, though

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was early man's greatest good, wilderness, as its antipode, was his greatest evil."

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Hogan, L. (1994). Department of the Interior. In P. Foster (Ed.), Minding the Body.

1919: 1867: 1816: 1808: 1595: 1515: 1287: 1224: 1107: 943:

In the United States, a Wilderness Area is an area of federal land set aside by an

790: 552: 275: 267: 232: 224: 144: 62: 2754:

United States National Park Service – Wilderness – Fort Pulaski National Monument

2709: 1961: 775: 703:

conservationists" or preservationists. The main representative for the former was

6591: 6514: 5505: 5407: 5373: 5259: 5239: 5149: 4798: 4764: 4698: 4495: 4480: 4395: 4270: 4225: 4119: 4114: 4104: 3989: 3918: 3901: 3253: 3231: 2847: 2543: 2323: 2195: 2175: 1968: 1902: 1850: 1759: 1389: 1338: 1194: 1055: 1040: 966: 910:

wilderness areas are remote blocks of land that have high natural character. The

874: 835: 704: 464: 425: 421: 362: 350: 263: 191: 3752: 3224: 2965:"Catastrophic Declines in Wilderness Areas Undermine Global Environment Targets" 1846:"Catastrophic Declines in Wilderness Areas Undermine Global Environment Targets" 6596: 6570: 6524: 6504: 5448: 5395: 5305: 5224: 5209: 5204: 5156: 5044: 4840: 4788: 4771: 4605: 1687: 1677: 1672: 1600: 1570: 1473: 1445: 1425: 1413: 1384: 1330: 1297: 1276: 1271: 1150: 951: 675: 666: 654: 437: 413: 401: 358: 187: 159: 114: 3798: 3175: 2989: 2964: 1924: 1897: 1872: 1845: 640: 6621: 6509: 6210: 5412: 5249: 5139: 5096: 4877: 4754: 4640: 4590: 4454: 4079: 3969: 3859: 3609: 3570: 3054: 2998: 2931: 2188: 2059: 1898:"The Location and Protection Status of Earth's Diminishing Marine Wilderness" 1703: 1662: 1545: 1501: 1481: 1342: 1263: 1119: 1048: 831: 650: 625: 536: 488: 251: 220: 95: 77: 3655: 3197: 3131:

State of the Wild 2006: A Global Portrait of Wildlife, Wildlands and Oceans.

2827: 2660: 2109: 502: 6586: 6298: 5811: 5632: 5214: 5172: 4948: 4899: 4835: 4691: 4595: 4303: 4289: 3670: 3211: 3072: 3006: 2949: 2923: 2483: 1933: 1881: 1830: 1812: 1682: 1510: 1321: 1280: 1235: 1094:)." The WILD Foundation founded the WTF/WCPA in 2002 and remains co-chair. 962: 707:, first Chief of the United States Forest Service, and they focused on the 696: 692: 658: 444:

to be designated as "wilderness preserves". Similar acts, such as the 1975

320: 171: 129: 3708: 3680: 2850:". Western North Carolina's Mountain Treasures. Retrieved on 16 June 2010. 2097: 412:

Global conservation became an issue at the time of the dissolution of the

235:

and was a significant influence in Asian art. Artists in the tradition of

5310: 5254: 5076: 5054: 5049: 4916: 4793: 4759: 4747: 4635: 4558: 4262: 4137: 3811: 3781: 3718: 3098:

Chape, S., S. Blyth, L. Fish, P. Fox and M. Spalding (compilers) (2003).

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Wilderness Management: Stewardship and Protection of Resources and Values

907: 560: 529: 492: 288: 271: 136: 3833: 3161: 3046: 2898:

Allan, James R.; Venter, Oscar; Watson, James E. M. (12 December 2017).

1785:

Allan, James R.; Venter, Oscar; Watson, James E. M. (12 December 2017).

987: 5234: 5192: 5134: 5103: 4742: 4674: 4612: 4585: 4548: 4354: 3765: 3585: 3145:"Once Hidden by Forest, Carvings in Land Attest to Amazon's Lost World" 2475: 2293: 1530: 1337:

Others have criticized the American concept of wilderness as rooted in

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At the forefront of the international wilderness movement has been The

995: 548: 381: 203: 179: 69: 54: 3911: 3601: 6323: 5300: 5182: 4990: 4985: 4963: 4852: 4845: 4664: 4659: 4566: 4543: 4313: 4275: 4230: 4220: 4160: 3981: 3769: 2049: 1417: 1372: 1364: 1354: 981: 758: 662: 583: 517: 484: 316: 236: 199: 4406: 3635: 2616:"Wildnis in Deutschland: Nationale Ziele, Status Quo und Potenziale" 2285: 1102: 1036: 400:. With a total of 1,097 hectares, it is known to be the first World 87: 5427: 4995: 4921: 4862: 4857: 4805: 4715: 4686: 4679: 4669: 4600: 4574: 4570: 4562: 4364: 4308: 4240: 4175: 4061: 4049: 4021: 1590: 1439: 1421: 1210: 1007:

they could be returned to a "primeval" state through preservation.

839: 540: 339: 300: 183: 46: 42: 2733: 1420:. Activities on the margins of specific wilderness areas, such as 894:

There are seven Wilderness Areas in New Zealand as defined by the

5295: 5091: 5086: 5032: 4938: 4867: 4710: 4511: 4359: 4347: 4285: 4215: 4190: 4150: 4129: 4099: 3975:

The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature

3962:– Definition and discussion of wilderness as a human construction 3932: 3906: 1565: 1535: 1520: 1198: 1183: 684: 377: 312: 279: 259: 167: 1371:

man from Central Africa, in the Bronx Zoo monkey house exhibit.

5144: 5109: 4933: 4889: 4737: 4535: 4342: 4335: 4044: 4039: 4013: 3087:

Global Analysis Finds Nearly Half The Earth Is Still Wilderness

2508: 1575: 1560: 1202: 1179: 1176: 1123: 590: 579: 417: 255: 99: 3923: 653:, partly through the efforts of writers and activists such as 5177: 5017: 4943: 4730: 4372: 4330: 4323: 4318: 4155: 4109: 4071: 4029: 3894: 1495: 1368: 1186: 296: 163: 148: 118: 3889: 3884: 3288:

Going Wild: Adventures with Birds in the Suburban Wilderness

3256:

University of Wisconsin-Madison. Retrieved: 28 January 2007.

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Going Wild: Adventures with Birds in the Suburban Wilderness

1279:. In the mid-20th century national parks started to protect 917:

Three Wilderness Areas are currently recognised, all on the

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Uncommon ground : rethinking the human place in nature

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Coming from a different direction, some criticism from the

1259: 1206: 1146: 1142: 1044: 641:

Conservation and preservation in 20th century United States

132: 2521: 955:

man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain."

495:

and the California Central Valley affects Kern Canyon and

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countries, beginning with the United States (see below).

479:

and many others are active in such conservation efforts.

195: 2613: 2418: 3912:

Wilderness Task Force/World Commission on Protect Areas

3895:

Wilderness Articles, Survival Techniques, Edible Plants

3210:

University of Manitoba Taiga Biological Station. 2004.

2452: 2314:

New South Wales National Parks & Wildlife Service,

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with as little interference from humanity as possible.

3955:

Detailed maps of United States wilderness designations

3928: 2684: 2564: 2214:

Mapping the National Parks. Retrieved on: 2010-08-12.

1073:

A Handbook on International Wilderness Law and Policy

589:

The U.S. concept of national parks soon caught on in

262:

King, defined the first laws in the world to protect

3455:"Shades of Darkness: Race and Environmental History" 2756:

https://www.nps.gov/fopu/learn/nature/wilderness.htm

2370:

International Encyclopedia of Environmental Politics

2198:. www.borealcanada.ca Retrieved on: 1 December 2007. 1699:

Wilderness Area (Protected Area Management Category)

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in the United States ranging in size from Florida's

151:, with only 13.2% free from intense human activity. 30:

This article is about wildland. For other uses, see

299:, with the seas as the remains of that Flood." "If 5535: 2014:https://archive.org/details/sacredtheoryofea01burn 1998: 1996: 597:in 1885, at the same time as the transcontinental 3525: 2897: 1784: 1706: – International law term for unclaimed land 719: 420:in the late 1940s. The British established great 6619: 3397: 733:(IUCN) classifies wilderness at two levels, 1a ( 227:(618–907). The tradition of representing nature 214: 3586:"Money, Mortgages, and the Conquest of America" 3475: 3433:. Burlington: University Press of New England. 3369: 1993: 3816:On Nature: Great Writers on the Great Outdoors 3425: 3133:Washington, D.C. Island Press. pp. 16 &17. 2860:Department of Conservation and Land Management 2509:"The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA)" 1088:International Union for Conservation of Nature 620:Despite their similar name, national parks in 609:with the building of great hotels such as the 5779:Pukaha / Mount Bruce National Wildlife Centre 5521: 4422: 3997: 3551:Opello, Walter C.; Rosow, Stephen J. (2004). 2163: 2161: 1990:BC Spaces for Nature. Retrieved: 20 May 2006. 124:that have not been significantly modified by 3377:. Boston: Shambhala. pp. 323, 323–330. 3349:. Boston: Shambhala. pp. 345, 339–355. 3341: 3142: 3100:2003 United Nations List of Protected Areas. 2726: 2229:Congressional Acts Pertaining to Yellowstone 1428:, also affect the interior of wildernesses. 1392:, this perception is also rooted in racism. 3776:(Madagascar ocotillo) and other vegetation. 3550: 3321:. University of Arizona Press. p. 43. 3105:, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK and 2317:"Parks & Reserves: Royal National Park" 1082:The Wilderness Specialist Group within the 5528: 5514: 4429: 4415: 4004: 3990: 3907:Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute 2687:"Conservation Act 1987 Part 4, Section 20" 2178:A Better Earth.org. Retrieved: 1 June 2006 2158: 578:, located just 32 km to the south of 154:Some governments establish protection for 3242: 3240: 3062: 2988: 2939: 2398:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 20–21. 2169:"The Wilderness Idea: A Critical Review." 1983: 1981: 1979: 1977: 1923: 1871: 1820: 1395: 1031: 785:There are twelve wilderness areas in the 3751: 3668: 3633: 2715:Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand 2357:. New Haven: Yale UP, 2017. 409-32. Web. 2047: 1349:. Grant, who worked alongside President 1325:requires the ability of life to undergo 1250: 1101: 1035: 986: 934: 855: 774: 711:whereas the preservationists sought the 674: 516: 501: 86: 68: 53: 3872:IUCN Category 1a: Strict Nature Reserve 3483:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 3316: 2802:Prominent Figures in Wilderness History 2748: 2701: 1971:Asia-art.net Retrieved on: 20 May 2006. 1626:National Wilderness Preservation System 931:National Wilderness Preservation System 306: 14: 6620: 4011: 3237: 2367:John Barry; E. Gene Frankland (2002). 2267: 1974: 1412:, or through global processes such as 1077:Protecting Wild Nature on Native Lands 574:The world's second national park, the 477:The Wilderness Society (United States) 407: 5509: 4436: 4410: 3985: 3706: 3702: 3700: 3629: 3627: 3267:Second Nature: A Gardener's Education 3129:Wildlife Conservation Society. 2005. 2503: 2501: 2393: 2387: 2360: 2349: 2347: 2345: 2343: 2341: 2339: 2337: 2335: 2333: 2263: 2261: 2259: 2257: 2255: 2253: 2251: 2249: 2247: 2245: 2151: 2149: 2147: 2137: 2135: 2133: 2131: 2129: 2083: 2081: 2071: 2069: 2043: 2041: 2039: 2037: 2035: 2033: 2031: 1135:Wilderness: Earth's Last Wild Places, 679:Cook Lake in the Bridger Wilderness, 194:that may be difficult to recreate in 3583: 2828:Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge 2209:Yellowstone, the First National Park 2189:Boreal Forest Conservation Framework 1586:John Muir Lifetime Achievement Award 1424:suppression and the interruption of 1345:, were also heavily involved in the 1209:. However, from the 1970s, numerous 1022: 849: 457:Boreal Forest Conservation Framework 440:of 1964, which allowed for parts of 186:traits and provide habitat for wild 3938:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 1084:World Commission on Protected Areas 1069:International Journal of Wilderness 270:around the 3rd century B.C. In the 24: 3877:IUCN Category 1b: Wilderness Areas 3747: 3707:Claus, C. Anne (3 November 2020). 3697: 3675:. University of California Press. 3624: 3085:Conservation International (2002) 2707: 2498: 2330: 2242: 2144: 2126: 2078: 2066: 2028: 1946: 1621:National Outdoor Leadership School 182:. They may also preserve historic 25: 6654: 6566:Wainuiomata Water Collection Area 6005:Te Paepae o Aotea (Volkner Rocks) 5920:Moutere Ihupuku / Campbell Island 3924:Campaign for America's Wilderness 3865: 3713:. University of Minnesota Press. 3669:Anderson, M. Kat (14 June 2005). 3530:. Durham: Duke University Press. 3375:Deep Ecology for the 21st Century 3347:Deep Ecology for the 21st Century 2720:Ministry for Culture and Heritage 1283:, not simply attractive scenery. 512: 6193:Te Kuri a Paoa/Young Nick's Head 6183:Puhi Kai Iti / Cook Landing Site 6045:Whanganui-A-Hei (Cathedral Cove) 5970:Taumoana (Five Finger Peninsula) 5925:Moutere Mahue / Antipodes Island 5915:Moutere Hauriri / Bounty Islands 5817:Te Kuri a Paoa/Young Nick's Head 5807:Puhi Kai Iti / Cook Landing Site 5741:Sanctuary Mountain Maungatautari 5490: 5489: 4391: 4390: 3966:Wilderness and the American Mind 3933:"American Wilderness Philosophy" 3848: 3223:Rainforest Foundation US. 2006. 3143:Simon Romero (14 January 2012). 2826:U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2268:Spence, Mark David (July 1996). 2051:Wilderness and the American mind 1494: 1480: 1466: 1452: 1438: 924: 854: 724: 5623:Korowai / Torlesse Tussocklands 3662: 3577: 3544: 3519: 3497: 3469: 3447: 3419: 3391: 3363: 3345:(1995). George Sessions (ed.). 3335: 3310: 3301: 3280: 3259: 3217: 3204: 3190: 3155: 3136: 3123: 3092: 3079: 3013: 2956: 2891: 2865: 2853: 2833: 2820: 2790: 2760: 2685:New Zealand Government (1987). 2678: 2653: 2639: 2630: 2607: 2581: 2558: 2515: 2446: 2412: 2308: 2217: 2201: 2181: 2090: 2019: 2005: 1133:According to a previous study, 1116:Togiak National Wildlife Refuge 1013:806 designated wilderness areas 507:A view of wilderness in Estonia 326:In relation to the wilderness, 27:Undisturbed natural environment 5955:Taipari Roa (Elizabeth Island) 5537:Protected areas of New Zealand 3947: 3890:Wilderness Information Network 3212:Frequently answered questions. 3198:"Unnatural Histories – Amazon" 2430:10.2305/IUCN.CH.2016.PAG.25.en 2396:Introduction to Forest Science 1955: 1940: 1888: 1837: 1778: 1748: 1718: 845: 720:Formal wilderness designations 713:protection of nature from use. 345:The idea of wilderness having 13: 1: 6221:Truby King Recreation Reserve 6010:Te Tapuwae o Hua (Long Sound) 1711: 1606:List of U.S. Wilderness Areas 1360:The Passing of the Great Race 1168:Wildlife Conservation Society 973:The Great Swamp in New Jersey 780:Tsarmitunturi Wilderness Area 737:) and 1b (Wilderness areas). 681:Bridger-Teton National Forest 461:Wildlife Conservation Society 215:Ancient times and Middle Ages 6530:Pāuatahanui Wildlife Reserve 5774:Pāuatahanui Wildlife Reserve 4455:Pollution / quality 3317:Durrant, Jeffrey O. (2007). 2830:. Retrieved on: 7 June 2008. 2742:Land Information New Zealand 2544:10.1016/j.biocon.2019.06.026 865:appears to contradict itself 559:The first National Park was 453:protect tropical rainforests 446:Eastern Wilderness Areas Act 160:preserve what already exists 7: 5995:Te Hapua (Sutherland Sound) 5990:Te Awaatu Channel (The Gut) 5766:Government purpose reserves 5583:Eyre Mountains/Taka Ra Haka 3247:The Trouble with Wilderness 2710:"Specially protected areas" 2511:. IUCN and UNEP-WCMC. 2016. 2327:. Accessed 6 December 2011. 2187:Canadian Boreal Initiative 1756:"What is a Wilderness Area" 1638:Native American use of fire 1431: 1246: 771:Wilderness areas of Finland 586:, was established in 1879. 551:combined with increases in 376:through the application of 36:Wilderness (disambiguation) 10: 6659: 6633:Global natural environment 6556:Hutt Water Collection Area 5935:Piopiotahi (Milford Sound) 5905:Moana Uta (Wet Jacket Arm) 3526:Dorceta E. Taylor (2016). 3089:. Retrieved on 6 Nov 2017. 2841:The Wilderness Act of 1964 2394:Young, Raymond A. (1982). 2373:. Routledge. p. 161. 2225:"The Magic of Yellowstone" 2104:. 2017. pp. 145–174. 1632:National Wildlife Magazine 1310:Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers 1139:Conservation International 928: 823: 768: 764: 751: 665:, and politicians such as 473:Conservation International 398:Fontainebleau State Forest 231:became one of the aims of 209: 59:White Goat Wilderness Area 40: 29: 6579: 6548: 6495: 6457: 6424:Wainuiomata Regional Park 6229: 6201: 6163: 6143: 6067: 6058: 6030:Ulva Island-Te Wharawhara 5910:Motu Manawa-Pollen Island 5845:Cape Rodney-Okakari Point 5825: 5787: 5764: 5751:Tawharanui Open Sanctuary 5731:Brook Waimārama Sanctuary 5721: 5543: 5485: 5426: 5291: 5284: 5165: 5026:Types / location 5025: 5016: 4826: 4621: 4534: 4504: 4453: 4444: 4386: 4299: 4258: 4249: 4206: 4128: 4070: 4020: 3799:Casson, S. et al. (Ed.s). 3634:William., Cronon (1996). 3286:Winkler, Robert. (2003). 3252:27 September 2011 at the 3225:Commonly asked questions. 3176:10.1017/S0003598X00099373 2990:10.1016/j.cub.2016.08.049 2846:23 September 2010 at the 2054:. Yale University Press. 1925:10.1016/j.cub.2018.06.010 1873:10.1016/j.cub.2016.08.049 1256:Cedar Mountain Wilderness 1217:civilizations. The BBC's 1097: 977:National Natural Landmark 819: 796: 624:are quite different from 526:El Yunque National Forest 74:Stephen Mather Wilderness 6607:Wildlife management area 6334:Mutukaroa / Hamlins Hill 6259:Auckland Botanic Gardens 6216:Otago Central Rail Trail 3640:. W.W. Norton & Co. 3590:Law & Social Inquiry 3265:Pollan, Michael (2003). 2768:"Wilderness Act of 1964" 2689:. New Zealand Government 2595:(in German). 9 July 2019 1730:National Weather Service 1611:List of conservationists 1201:and deserts such as the 826:National parks of Greece 731:World Conservation Union 599:Canadian Pacific Railway 41:Not to be confused with 6324:Motukorea Browns Island 6040:Westhaven (Te Tai Tapu) 5802:Maungauika / North Head 5713:Whirinaki Te Pua-a-Tāne 5618:Ka Whata Tu O Rakihouia 3900:23 October 2020 at the 3405:. New York: Routledge. 2734:"New Zealand Gazetteer" 2524:Biological Conservation 2194:8 December 2007 at the 2110:10.5749/j.ctt1pwt77c.12 2048:Roderick, Nash (1973). 1988:History of Conservation 1581:Intact forest landscape 1556:Environmental education 896:National Parks Act 1980 811:National Forests Office 631:national park authority 607:Canada's National Parks 6015:Te Tapuwae o Rongokako 5890:Kutu Parera (Gaer Arm) 3885:The Wilderness Society 3777: 3234:Retrieved: 2006-07-04. 3230:1 October 2006 at the 3214:Retrieved: 2006-07-04. 2924:10.1038/sdata.2017.187 2322:20 August 2006 at the 2174:30 August 2016 at the 2102:As We Have Always Done 1962:Chinese brush painting 1813:10.1038/sdata.2017.187 1668:Planetary habitability 1648:Nature-based solutions 1396:Human–nature dichotomy 1267: 1126: 1051: 1032:International movement 1004:Eastern Wilderness Act 998: 940: 869:on the number of areas 782: 735:strict nature reserves 688: 532: 509: 469:The Nature Conservancy 241:mountain-water-picture 174:, ecological studies, 103: 84: 66: 5900:Long Island-Kokomohua 5746:Orokonui Ecosanctuary 3755: 3681:10.1525/9780520933101 3269:p. 188. Grove Press. 3027:Nature Communications 2274:Environmental History 1541:Conservation movement 1460:Earth sciences portal 1381:environmental justice 1254: 1156:strict nature reserve 1105: 1039: 992:Latir Peak Wilderness 990: 938: 912:Conservation Act 1987 900:Conservation Act 1987 877:for more information. 778: 709:proper use of nature, 678: 647:conservation movement 520: 505: 497:Sequoia National Park 442:U.S. National Forests 391:conservation movement 353:in the 19th century. 90: 72: 57: 6561:Northern Pegasus Bay 6188:Subantarctic Islands 6130:Westland Tai Poutini 6025:Tuhua (Mayor Island) 5945:Poor Knights Islands 5401:remnant natural area 5038:storage and recovery 4704:habitat conservation 4522:Deforestation (REDD) 4271:Evolutionary history 3719:10.5749/j.ctv1bkc3t6 3710:Drawing the Sea Near 3584:Park, K-Sue (2016). 3290:National Geographic 2620:Natur und Landschaft 2571:Natur und Landschaft 2456:Conservation Biology 2355:The Future of Nature 2212:Library of Congress, 1910:(15): 2506–2512.e3. 1551:Ecological footprint 1161:protected wilderness 1153:, that is, either a 629:operated by its own 307:15th to 19th century 135:not under extensive 122:natural environments 6467:Alice Eaves Reserve 6203:Recreation reserves 6173:Hāpūpū / J M Barker 6080:Aoraki / Mount Cook 6035:Waiau Glacier Coast 5870:Kahukura (Gold Arm) 5797:Hāpūpū / J M Barker 5355:Earth Overshoot Day 4929:Marine conservation 4910:non-timber products 4208:Natural environment 3960:What is Wilderness? 3929:The WILD Foundation 3917:15 May 2008 at the 3786:A Walk in the Woods 3118:Library of Congress 3116:1 July 2004 at the 3047:10.1038/ncomms12558 3039:2016NatCo...712558V 2981:2016CBio...26.2929W 2916:2017NatSD...470187A 2808:on 29 December 2011 2778:on 11 December 2011 2665:New Zealand Tramper 2536:2019BCons.237..373B 2468:2018ConBi..32..116A 1967:26 May 2006 at the 1951:. pp. 155–157. 1916:2018CBio...28E2506J 1864:2016CBio...26.2929W 1805:2017NatSD...470187A 1240:Tropical rainforest 1220:Unnatural Histories 615:Chateau Lake Louise 611:Banff Springs Hotel 595:Banff National Park 576:Royal National Park 430:World Wildlife Fund 408:Modern conservation 158:by law to not only 143:is being placed on 6520:Kopuatai Peat Dome 6294:Glenfern Sanctuary 5855:Hawea (Clio Rocks) 5723:Ecological islands 5545:Conservation parks 5340:Ecosystem services 4463:Ambient standards 3977:by William Cronon. 3778: 3772:(baobab) species, 3507:. 2 September 2020 3170:(322): 1084–1095. 3149:The New York Times 2661:"Wilderness Areas" 2649:. 30 October 2018. 2476:10.1111/cobi.12976 2405:978-0-471-06438--1 2167:Akamani, K. (nd). 2098:"Land as Pedagogy" 1947:Botkin, Daniel B. 1766:on 4 December 2012 1694:Wilderness therapy 1488:Environment portal 1351:Theodore Roosevelt 1268: 1127: 1086:(WTF/WCPA) of the 1052: 999: 941: 787:Sami native region 783: 689: 533: 522:El Toro Wilderness 510: 422:wildlife preserves 367:William Wordsworth 104: 85: 67: 6615: 6614: 6419:Waimakariri River 6344:Onekawa Te Mawhai 6165:National reserves 6159: 6158: 6050:Whangarei Harbour 5940:Pohatu / Flea Bay 5789:Historic reserves 5648:North-west Nelson 5503: 5502: 5481: 5480: 5280: 5279: 4959:genetic resources 4895:genetic resources 4530: 4529: 4438:Natural resources 4404: 4403: 4382: 4381: 4055:chemical elements 3830:Environmental Law 3807:978-2-8317-1817-0 3774:Alluaudia procera 3768:features various 3728:978-1-4529-5946-7 3690:978-0-520-93310-1 3602:10.1111/lsi.12222 3555:. Lynne Rienner. 3537:978-0-8223-7397-1 3490:978-0-674-97156-1 3440:978-1-584-65715-6 3412:978-0-415-66110-2 3384:978-1-57062-049-2 3356:978-1-57062-049-2 3328:978-0-8165-2669-7 3296:978-0-7922-6168-1 3275:978-0-8021-4011-1 3109:, Cambridge, UK. 2975:(21): 2929–2934. 2879:. 8 February 2016 1858:(21): 2929–2934. 1658:Outdoor education 1653:Old-growth forest 1643:Natural landscape 1526:Biomass (ecology) 1410:indigenous people 1347:eugenics movement 1191:Amazon rainforest 1112:Togiak Wilderness 1023:Western Australia 892: 891: 622:England and Wales 386:forest management 374:natural resources 145:marine wilderness 141:growing attention 92:Innoko Wilderness 16:(Redirected from 6650: 6638:Wilderness areas 6525:Manawatu Estuary 6482:Peel Forest Park 6429:Waitākere Ranges 6269:Battle Hill Farm 6065: 6064: 5885:Kermadec Islands 5840:Auckland Islands 5693:Te Kahui Kaupeka 5530: 5523: 5516: 5507: 5506: 5493: 5492: 5444: 5391:Natural heritage 5350:overexploitation 5289: 5288: 5023: 5022: 4969:herbal medicines 4949:FAO Plant Treaty 4489: 4466: 4451: 4450: 4431: 4424: 4417: 4408: 4407: 4394: 4393: 4266: 4256: 4255: 4196:tropical cyclone 4146: 4006: 3999: 3992: 3983: 3982: 3942: 3832:(2013): 83-124. 3741: 3740: 3704: 3695: 3694: 3672:Tending the Wild 3666: 3660: 3659: 3631: 3622: 3621: 3596:(4): 1006–1035. 3581: 3575: 3574: 3548: 3542: 3541: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3501: 3495: 3494: 3473: 3467: 3466: 3464: 3462: 3451: 3445: 3444: 3423: 3417: 3416: 3399:Layla AbdelRahim 3395: 3389: 3388: 3367: 3361: 3360: 3339: 3333: 3332: 3314: 3308: 3305: 3299: 3284: 3278: 3263: 3257: 3244: 3235: 3221: 3215: 3208: 3202: 3201: 3194: 3188: 3187: 3159: 3153: 3152: 3140: 3134: 3127: 3121: 3096: 3090: 3083: 3077: 3076: 3066: 3017: 3011: 3010: 2992: 2960: 2954: 2953: 2943: 2895: 2889: 2888: 2886: 2884: 2869: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2837: 2831: 2824: 2818: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2804:. Archived from 2794: 2788: 2787: 2785: 2783: 2774:. Archived from 2764: 2758: 2752: 2746: 2745: 2730: 2724: 2723: 2705: 2699: 2698: 2696: 2694: 2682: 2676: 2675: 2673: 2671: 2657: 2651: 2650: 2643: 2637: 2634: 2628: 2627: 2611: 2605: 2604: 2602: 2600: 2585: 2579: 2578: 2562: 2556: 2555: 2519: 2513: 2512: 2505: 2496: 2495: 2450: 2444: 2443: 2416: 2410: 2409: 2391: 2385: 2384: 2364: 2358: 2351: 2328: 2312: 2306: 2305: 2265: 2240: 2239: 2237: 2235: 2221: 2215: 2205: 2199: 2185: 2179: 2165: 2156: 2153: 2142: 2139: 2124: 2123: 2094: 2088: 2085: 2076: 2073: 2064: 2063: 2045: 2026: 2023: 2017: 2009: 2003: 2000: 1991: 1985: 1972: 1959: 1953: 1952: 1944: 1938: 1937: 1927: 1892: 1886: 1885: 1875: 1841: 1835: 1834: 1824: 1782: 1776: 1775: 1773: 1771: 1762:. Archived from 1752: 1746: 1745: 1743: 1741: 1736:on 15 March 2023 1732:. Archived from 1722: 1596:Last of the Wild 1516:Adventure travel 1504: 1499: 1498: 1490: 1485: 1484: 1476: 1471: 1470: 1469: 1462: 1457: 1456: 1455: 1448: 1443: 1442: 1426:animal migration 1293: 1288:environmentalism 1225:forest gardening 1197:, the Australia 1108:Ahklun Mountains 980:thirty miles of 887: 884: 878: 858: 857: 850: 842:National Parks. 593:, which created 553:human population 535:The creation of 426:big game hunting 328:Native Americans 321:get rid of trees 276:Kings of England 268:Edicts of Ashoka 246: 233:Chinese painting 223:occurred in the 156:wilderness areas 113:(usually in the 63:Canadian Rockies 21: 6658: 6657: 6653: 6652: 6651: 6649: 6648: 6647: 6643:Protected areas 6618: 6617: 6616: 6611: 6602:Wilderness area 6592:Ecological area 6575: 6544: 6535:Wairarapa Moana 6515:Firth of Thames 6491: 6459:Scenic reserves 6453: 6369:Queen Elizabeth 6249:Ashley Rakahuri 6225: 6197: 6155: 6139: 6054: 5827:Marine reserves 5821: 5783: 5760: 5717: 5539: 5534: 5504: 5499: 5477: 5442: 5422: 5408:Systems ecology 5374:Natural capital 5276: 5161: 5150:reclaimed water 5012: 4974:UPOV Convention 4822: 4617: 4526: 4500: 4496:Ozone depletion 4487: 4464: 4440: 4435: 4405: 4400: 4378: 4295: 4264: 4245: 4202: 4144: 4124: 4115:Gaia hypothesis 4105:Plate tectonics 4066: 4016: 4010: 3980: 3950: 3945: 3931: 3919:Wayback Machine 3902:Wayback Machine 3868: 3851: 3812:Gutkind, L (Ed) 3750: 3748:Further reading 3745: 3744: 3729: 3705: 3698: 3691: 3667: 3663: 3648: 3632: 3625: 3582: 3578: 3563: 3549: 3545: 3538: 3524: 3520: 3510: 3508: 3503: 3502: 3498: 3491: 3477:Miles A. Powell 3474: 3470: 3460: 3458: 3457:. 11 April 2005 3453: 3452: 3448: 3441: 3424: 3420: 3413: 3396: 3392: 3385: 3371:George Sessions 3368: 3364: 3357: 3340: 3336: 3329: 3315: 3311: 3306: 3302: 3285: 3281: 3264: 3260: 3254:Wayback Machine 3245: 3238: 3232:Wayback Machine 3222: 3218: 3209: 3205: 3196: 3195: 3191: 3160: 3156: 3141: 3137: 3128: 3124: 3097: 3093: 3084: 3080: 3018: 3014: 2969:Current Biology 2961: 2957: 2904:Scientific Data 2896: 2892: 2882: 2880: 2871: 2870: 2866: 2858: 2854: 2848:Wayback Machine 2838: 2834: 2825: 2821: 2811: 2809: 2796: 2795: 2791: 2781: 2779: 2766: 2765: 2761: 2753: 2749: 2732: 2731: 2727: 2706: 2702: 2692: 2690: 2683: 2679: 2669: 2667: 2659: 2658: 2654: 2645: 2644: 2640: 2635: 2631: 2612: 2608: 2598: 2596: 2587: 2586: 2582: 2563: 2559: 2520: 2516: 2507: 2506: 2499: 2451: 2447: 2440: 2417: 2413: 2406: 2392: 2388: 2381: 2365: 2361: 2352: 2331: 2324:Wayback Machine 2313: 2309: 2286:10.2307/3985155 2266: 2243: 2233: 2231: 2223: 2222: 2218: 2206: 2202: 2196:Wayback Machine 2186: 2182: 2176:Wayback Machine 2166: 2159: 2154: 2145: 2140: 2127: 2120: 2096: 2095: 2091: 2086: 2079: 2074: 2067: 2046: 2029: 2024: 2020: 2010: 2006: 2001: 1994: 1986: 1975: 1969:Wayback Machine 1960: 1956: 1949:No Man's Garden 1945: 1941: 1903:Current Biology 1893: 1889: 1851:Current Biology 1842: 1838: 1792:Scientific Data 1783: 1779: 1769: 1767: 1760:WILD Foundation 1754: 1753: 1749: 1739: 1737: 1724: 1723: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1500: 1493: 1486: 1479: 1472: 1467: 1465: 1458: 1453: 1451: 1444: 1437: 1434: 1398: 1390:systemic racism 1339:white supremacy 1291: 1249: 1195:Tibetan Plateau 1172:human footprint 1137:carried out by 1100: 1056:WILD Foundation 1041:Monument Valley 1034: 1025: 967:Gila Wilderness 945:act of Congress 933: 927: 888: 882: 879: 873:Please see the 872: 859: 848: 828: 822: 799: 791:Finnish Lapland 773: 767: 754: 727: 722: 705:Gifford Pinchot 670:Teddy Roosevelt 643: 515: 508: 465:WILD Foundation 436:passage of the 410: 384:". Concepts of 363:J. M. W. Turner 349:emerged in the 347:intrinsic value 330:were viewed as 309: 264:flora and fauna 244: 217: 212: 178:, solitude and 50: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6656: 6646: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6613: 6612: 6610: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6597:Sanctuary area 6594: 6589: 6583: 6581: 6577: 6576: 6574: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6558: 6552: 6550: 6546: 6545: 6543: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6505:Awarua Wetland 6501: 6499: 6493: 6492: 6490: 6489: 6487:Waro Limestone 6484: 6479: 6474: 6469: 6463: 6461: 6455: 6454: 6452: 6451: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6241: 6235: 6233: 6231:Regional parks 6227: 6226: 6224: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6207: 6205: 6199: 6198: 6196: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6169: 6167: 6161: 6160: 6157: 6156: 6154: 6153: 6147: 6145: 6141: 6140: 6138: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6105:Mount Aspiring 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6071: 6069: 6062: 6060:National parks 6056: 6055: 6053: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5895:Long Bay-Okura 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5831: 5829: 5823: 5822: 5820: 5819: 5814: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5793: 5791: 5785: 5784: 5782: 5781: 5776: 5770: 5768: 5762: 5761: 5759: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5727: 5725: 5719: 5718: 5716: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5638:Mount Richmond 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5549: 5547: 5541: 5540: 5533: 5532: 5525: 5518: 5510: 5501: 5500: 5498: 5497: 5486: 5483: 5482: 5479: 5478: 5476: 5475: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5443:(perpetuation) 5438: 5432: 5430: 5424: 5423: 5421: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5404: 5403: 5396:Nature reserve 5393: 5388: 5387: 5386: 5381: 5371: 5370: 5369: 5359: 5358: 5357: 5352: 5342: 5337: 5336: 5335: 5330: 5320: 5319: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5292: 5286: 5282: 5281: 5278: 5277: 5275: 5274: 5273: 5272: 5267: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5201: 5200: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5169: 5167: 5163: 5162: 5160: 5159: 5154: 5153: 5152: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5131: 5130: 5120: 5115: 5114: 5113: 5101: 5100: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5079: 5074: 5073: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5041: 5040: 5029: 5027: 5020: 5014: 5013: 5011: 5010: 5009: 5008: 5003: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4982: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4925: 4924: 4914: 4913: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4887: 4886: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4873:climate change 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4849: 4848: 4841:Bioprospecting 4838: 4832: 4830: 4824: 4823: 4821: 4820: 4819: 4818: 4813: 4803: 4802: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4786: 4776: 4775: 4774: 4769: 4768: 4767: 4762: 4752: 4751: 4750: 4745: 4735: 4734: 4733: 4723: 4718: 4708: 4707: 4706: 4696: 4695: 4694: 4684: 4683: 4682: 4677: 4672: 4667: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4646: 4645: 4644: 4643: 4627: 4625: 4619: 4618: 4616: 4615: 4610: 4609: 4608: 4603: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4540: 4538: 4532: 4531: 4528: 4527: 4525: 4524: 4519: 4514: 4508: 4506: 4502: 4501: 4499: 4498: 4493: 4492: 4491: 4486:Clean Air Act 4478: 4473: 4468: 4459: 4457: 4448: 4442: 4441: 4434: 4433: 4426: 4419: 4411: 4402: 4401: 4399: 4398: 4387: 4384: 4383: 4380: 4379: 4377: 4376: 4369: 4368: 4367: 4362: 4352: 4351: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4339: 4338: 4328: 4327: 4326: 4311: 4306: 4300: 4297: 4296: 4294: 4293: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4259: 4253: 4247: 4246: 4244: 4243: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4212: 4210: 4204: 4203: 4201: 4200: 4199: 4198: 4193: 4183: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4140: 4134: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4123: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4082: 4076: 4074: 4068: 4067: 4065: 4064: 4059: 4058: 4057: 4052: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4026: 4024: 4018: 4017: 4009: 4008: 4001: 3994: 3986: 3979: 3978: 3972: 3963: 3957: 3951: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3943: 3926: 3921: 3909: 3904: 3892: 3887: 3881: 3880: 3879: 3874: 3867: 3866:External links 3864: 3863: 3862: 3850: 3847: 3846: 3845: 3842: 3839: 3836: 3826: 3809: 3796: 3749: 3746: 3743: 3742: 3727: 3696: 3689: 3661: 3646: 3623: 3576: 3561: 3543: 3536: 3518: 3496: 3489: 3468: 3446: 3439: 3427:Jonathan Spiro 3418: 3411: 3390: 3383: 3362: 3355: 3334: 3327: 3309: 3300: 3279: 3258: 3236: 3216: 3203: 3189: 3154: 3135: 3122: 3091: 3078: 3012: 2955: 2890: 2864: 2852: 2832: 2819: 2798:"Aldo Leopold" 2789: 2772:Wilderness.net 2759: 2747: 2725: 2700: 2677: 2652: 2638: 2629: 2606: 2580: 2557: 2514: 2497: 2462:(1): 116–126. 2445: 2438: 2411: 2404: 2386: 2379: 2359: 2329: 2307: 2241: 2216: 2200: 2180: 2157: 2143: 2125: 2118: 2089: 2077: 2065: 2027: 2018: 2004: 1992: 1973: 1954: 1939: 1887: 1836: 1777: 1747: 1716: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1708: 1707: 1701: 1696: 1691: 1688:Wilderness Act 1685: 1680: 1678:Wild fisheries 1675: 1673:Protected area 1670: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1645: 1640: 1635: 1628: 1623: 1618: 1613: 1608: 1603: 1601:Leave no trace 1598: 1593: 1588: 1583: 1578: 1573: 1571:Global warming 1568: 1563: 1558: 1553: 1548: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1523: 1518: 1513: 1507: 1506: 1505: 1491: 1477: 1474:Ecology portal 1463: 1449: 1446:Biology portal 1433: 1430: 1414:climate change 1397: 1394: 1385:Dorceta Taylor 1353:to create the 1331:Anthropologist 1298:Michael Pollan 1277:the Everglades 1272:William Cronon 1248: 1245: 1151:Protected Area 1099: 1096: 1058:, its founder 1033: 1030: 1024: 1021: 1017:Pelican Island 952:Wilderness Act 929:Main article: 926: 923: 890: 889: 862: 860: 853: 847: 844: 824:Main article: 821: 818: 798: 795: 769:Main article: 766: 763: 759:megaherbivores 753: 750: 726: 723: 721: 718: 667:U.S. President 655:John Burroughs 642: 639: 626:national parks 537:national parks 514: 513:National parks 511: 506: 438:Wilderness Act 414:British Empire 409: 406: 402:nature reserve 359:John Constable 308: 305: 216: 213: 211: 208: 126:human activity 32:The Wilderness 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6655: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6625: 6623: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6584: 6582: 6578: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6553: 6551: 6547: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6510:Farewell Spit 6508: 6506: 6503: 6502: 6500: 6498: 6494: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6464: 6462: 6460: 6456: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6409:Te Rau Pūriri 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6364:Papamoa Hills 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6240: 6237: 6236: 6234: 6232: 6228: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6211:Bastion Point 6209: 6208: 6206: 6204: 6200: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6170: 6168: 6166: 6162: 6152: 6149: 6148: 6146: 6142: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6085:Arthur's Pass 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6072: 6070: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6057: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5832: 5830: 5828: 5824: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5794: 5792: 5790: 5786: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5771: 5769: 5767: 5763: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5728: 5726: 5724: 5720: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5708:Whakarewarewa 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5603:Kaimai Mamaku 5601: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5551: 5550: 5548: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5531: 5526: 5524: 5519: 5517: 5512: 5511: 5508: 5496: 5488: 5487: 5484: 5474: 5473:Non-renewable 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5433: 5431: 5429: 5425: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5413:Urban ecology 5411: 5409: 5406: 5402: 5399: 5398: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5376: 5375: 5372: 5368: 5365: 5364: 5363: 5360: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5347: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5325: 5324: 5321: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5298: 5297: 5294: 5293: 5290: 5287: 5283: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5262: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5245:Privatization 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5199: 5196: 5195: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5164: 5158: 5155: 5151: 5148: 5147: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5140:Surface water 5138: 5136: 5133: 5129: 5126: 5125: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5112: 5111: 5107: 5106: 5105: 5102: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5084: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5057: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5039: 5036: 5035: 5034: 5031: 5030: 5028: 5024: 5021: 5019: 5015: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4998: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4946: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4923: 4920: 4919: 4918: 4915: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4892: 4891: 4888: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4870: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4847: 4844: 4843: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4833: 4831: 4829: 4825: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4808: 4807: 4804: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4781: 4780: 4777: 4773: 4770: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4757: 4756: 4753: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4740: 4739: 4736: 4732: 4729: 4728: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4713: 4712: 4709: 4705: 4702: 4701: 4700: 4697: 4693: 4690: 4689: 4688: 4685: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4662: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4642: 4641:peak farmland 4639: 4638: 4637: 4634: 4633: 4632: 4629: 4628: 4626: 4624: 4620: 4614: 4611: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4599: 4598: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4541: 4539: 4537: 4533: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4509: 4507: 4503: 4497: 4494: 4490: 4484: 4483: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4461: 4460: 4458: 4456: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4432: 4427: 4425: 4420: 4418: 4413: 4412: 4409: 4397: 4389: 4388: 4385: 4375: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4357: 4356: 4353: 4349: 4346: 4344: 4341: 4337: 4334: 4333: 4332: 4329: 4325: 4322: 4321: 4320: 4317: 4316: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4301: 4298: 4291: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4265:(abiogenesis) 4261: 4260: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4248: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4213: 4211: 4209: 4205: 4197: 4194: 4192: 4189: 4188: 4187: 4184: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4174: 4172: 4169: 4167: 4164: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4141: 4139: 4136: 4135: 4133: 4131: 4127: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4090: 4086: 4083: 4081: 4080:Earth science 4078: 4077: 4075: 4073: 4069: 4063: 4060: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4047: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4027: 4025: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4007: 4002: 4000: 3995: 3993: 3988: 3987: 3984: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3970:Roderick Nash 3967: 3964: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3952: 3940: 3939: 3934: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3916: 3913: 3910: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3899: 3896: 3893: 3891: 3888: 3886: 3883: 3882: 3878: 3875: 3873: 3870: 3869: 3861: 3860:David Cebulla 3857: 3853: 3852: 3849:Documentaries 3843: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3825: 3824:1-58542-173-1 3821: 3817: 3813: 3810: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3797: 3795: 3794:0-7679-0251-3 3791: 3787: 3783: 3780: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3711: 3703: 3701: 3692: 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2842: 2836: 2829: 2823: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2793: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2763: 2757: 2751: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2729: 2721: 2717: 2716: 2711: 2708:Molloy, Les. 2704: 2688: 2681: 2666: 2662: 2656: 2648: 2642: 2633: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2610: 2594: 2590: 2584: 2577:(7): 314–322. 2576: 2572: 2568: 2561: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2518: 2510: 2504: 2502: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2449: 2441: 2439:9782831718170 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2415: 2407: 2401: 2397: 2390: 2382: 2380:9780415202855 2376: 2372: 2371: 2363: 2356: 2350: 2348: 2346: 2344: 2342: 2340: 2338: 2336: 2334: 2326: 2325: 2321: 2318: 2311: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2264: 2262: 2260: 2258: 2256: 2254: 2252: 2250: 2248: 2246: 2230: 2226: 2220: 2213: 2210: 2204: 2197: 2193: 2190: 2184: 2177: 2173: 2170: 2164: 2162: 2152: 2150: 2148: 2138: 2136: 2134: 2132: 2130: 2121: 2119:9781452956008 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2093: 2084: 2082: 2072: 2070: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2052: 2044: 2042: 2040: 2038: 2036: 2034: 2032: 2022: 2015: 2008: 1999: 1997: 1989: 1984: 1982: 1980: 1978: 1970: 1966: 1963: 1958: 1950: 1943: 1935: 1931: 1926: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1904: 1899: 1891: 1883: 1879: 1874: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1852: 1847: 1840: 1832: 1828: 1823: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1799:(1): 170187. 1798: 1794: 1793: 1788: 1781: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1751: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1721: 1717: 1705: 1704:Terra nullius 1702: 1700: 1697: 1695: 1692: 1689: 1686: 1684: 1681: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1663:Permaforestry 1661: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1639: 1636: 1634: 1633: 1629: 1627: 1624: 1622: 1619: 1617: 1614: 1612: 1609: 1607: 1604: 1602: 1599: 1597: 1594: 1592: 1589: 1587: 1584: 1582: 1579: 1577: 1574: 1572: 1569: 1567: 1564: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1549: 1547: 1546:Deforestation 1544: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1529: 1527: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1512: 1509: 1508: 1503: 1502:Plants portal 1497: 1492: 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48: 44: 37: 33: 19: 6601: 6587:Amenity area 6540:Whangamarino 6299:Hunua Ranges 6284:East Harbour 6110:Nelson Lakes 6020:Tonga Island 5812:Stony Batter 5633:Mavora Lakes 5471: / 5417: 5345:Exploitation 5230:Conservation 5173:Desalination 5108: 5001:conservation 4836:Biodiversity 4784:conservation 4631:Agricultural 4559:Fossil fuels 4371: 4304:Biodiversity 4290:astrobiology 4235: 4012:Elements of 3936: 3856:Wild Forests 3855: 3829: 3815: 3785: 3758:spiny forest 3709: 3671: 3664: 3636: 3593: 3589: 3579: 3552: 3546: 3527: 3521: 3509:. Retrieved 3499: 3480: 3471: 3459:. Retrieved 3449: 3430: 3421: 3402: 3393: 3374: 3365: 3346: 3343:Thomas Birch 3337: 3318: 3312: 3303: 3287: 3282: 3266: 3261: 3219: 3206: 3192: 3167: 3163: 3157: 3148: 3138: 3130: 3125: 3120:Web Archives 3099: 3094: 3081: 3033:(1): 12558. 3030: 3026: 3015: 2972: 2968: 2958: 2907: 2903: 2893: 2881:. Retrieved 2876: 2873:"Wilderness" 2867: 2855: 2835: 2822: 2810:. Retrieved 2806:the original 2801: 2792: 2780:. Retrieved 2776:the original 2771: 2762: 2750: 2738:linz.govt.nz 2737: 2728: 2713: 2703: 2691:. Retrieved 2680: 2668:. Retrieved 2664: 2655: 2641: 2632: 2623: 2619: 2609: 2597:. Retrieved 2592: 2583: 2574: 2570: 2560: 2527: 2523: 2517: 2459: 2455: 2448: 2421: 2414: 2395: 2389: 2369: 2362: 2354: 2315: 2310: 2280:(3): 29–49. 2277: 2273: 2232:. Retrieved 2228: 2219: 2211: 2203: 2183: 2101: 2092: 2050: 2021: 2007: 1957: 1948: 1942: 1907: 1901: 1890: 1855: 1849: 1839: 1796: 1790: 1780: 1768:. Retrieved 1764:the original 1750: 1738:. Retrieved 1734:the original 1720: 1683:Wildcrafting 1630: 1616:Bob Marshall 1511:Aldo Leopold 1407: 1403: 1399: 1358: 1336: 1322:Deep Ecology 1319: 1315: 1305: 1301: 1296: 1285: 1281:biodiversity 1269: 1258:in northern 1236:biodiversity 1233: 1218: 1171: 1170:generated a 1165: 1160: 1154: 1134: 1132: 1128: 1081: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1053: 1026: 1009: 1000: 971: 963:Aldo Leopold 960: 957: 949: 942: 916: 905: 893: 880: 868: 864: 829: 815: 808: 804: 800: 789:in northern 784: 755: 746: 742: 739: 728: 712: 708: 701: 697:deep ecology 693:Aldo Leopold 690: 659:Aldo Leopold 644: 635: 619: 604: 588: 573: 569: 565: 558: 534: 481: 450: 448:, followed. 434: 411: 395: 371: 344: 336: 325: 310: 293:natura lapsa 292: 285: 258:, the Great 250:For most of 249: 240: 228: 225:Tang Dynasty 218: 204:laboratories 176:conservation 172:biodiversity 155: 153: 137:agricultural 130:nonurbanized 110: 106: 105: 51: 6549:Other areas 6477:Goldie Bush 6394:Tawhitokino 6384:Tāpapakanga 6349:Orere Point 6309:Lake Tekapo 6075:Abel Tasman 5985:Te Angiangi 5975:Tauparikākā 5965:Taputeranga 5628:Lake Sumner 5578:Craigieburn 5464:Nationalism 5436:Common-pool 5077:Hydrosphere 5070:remediation 5055:Groundwater 4650:Degradation 4355:Prokaryotes 4143:Atmosphere 4138:Meteorology 3948:Definitions 3200:. BBC Four. 2670:28 November 2530:: 373–382. 2207:Mangan, E. 1770:20 February 1740:28 December 1377:Nordic race 1229:terra preta 1114:within the 1092:Category 1b 908:New Zealand 846:New Zealand 561:Yellowstone 530:Puerto Rico 524:within the 493:Los Angeles 313:puritanical 283:countries. 272:Middle Ages 6628:Wilderness 6622:Categories 6472:Bruce Park 6449:Whakatīwai 6444:Whakanewha 6439:Wenderholm 6389:Tāwharanui 6379:Shakespear 6359:Pakuratahi 6254:Ātiu Creek 6178:Lewis Pass 6151:Te Urewera 5980:Tāwharanui 5930:Parininihi 5865:Horoirangi 5736:Bushy Park 5698:Te Papanui 5683:Ruataniwha 5573:Coromandel 5459:Extraction 5418:Wilderness 5379:accounting 5362:Management 5328:ecological 5316:tragedy of 5235:Peak water 5220:Efficiency 5193:Sanitation 5135:Stormwater 5128:harvesting 5104:Irrigation 5006:management 4964:gene banks 4905:management 4883:management 4799:resilience 4765:phosphorus 4721:industrial 4699:Management 4675:soundscape 4581:Geothermal 4236:Wilderness 4089:geological 3814:. 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(1998). 3766:Madagascar 3511:7 February 3461:7 February 2812:7 December 2782:7 December 2626:: 406–412. 2234:7 December 1726:"Glossary" 1712:References 1531:Bioproduct 1327:speciation 1205:, and the 1159:(5.5%) or 1060:Ian Player 996:New Mexico 919:West Coast 806:habitats. 549:recreation 485:landscapes 382:technology 200:arboretums 180:recreation 107:Wilderness 82:Washington 6571:Whitireia 6374:Scandrett 6319:Mahurangi 6289:Ferrymead 6239:Akatarawa 6135:Whanganui 6125:Tongariro 6100:Kahurangi 6095:Fiordland 6000:Te Matuku 5950:Punakaiki 5875:Kahurangi 5860:Hikurangi 5756:Zealandia 5678:Raukumara 5643:Northland 5608:Kaimanawa 5469:Renewable 5454:Depletion 5441:Conflict 5323:Economics 5301:enclosure 5260:Resources 5240:Pollution 5157:Watershed 5060:pollution 4991:Seed bank 4986:Rangeland 4868:Fisheries 4853:Biosphere 4846:biopiracy 4789:fertility 4665:cityscape 4660:Landscape 4567:peak coal 4554:Resources 4505:Emissions 4314:Eukaryota 4281:Hierarchy 4276:Biosphere 4241:Wildfires 4231:Radiation 4221:Ecosystem 4161:Moonlight 4095:Structure 4050:particles 3782:Bryson, B 3770:Adansonia 3737:230646912 3618:157705999 3610:0897-6546 3571:760384471 3164:Antiquity 3107:UNEP-WCMC 3055:2041-1723 2999:0960-9822 2932:2052-4463 2693:2 October 2599:19 August 2552:199641237 2302:143232340 2060:873974940 1418:pollution 1373:John Muir 1365:Ota Benga 1355:Bronx Zoo 1211:geoglyphs 1122:state of 982:Manhattan 883:July 2023 875:talk page 836:Parnassos 663:John Muir 584:Australia 545:lifestyle 317:civilized 237:Shan shui 128:, or any 111:wildlands 98:state of 80:state of 18:Wildlands 6497:Wetlands 6314:Long Bay 5703:Victoria 5668:Remutaka 5658:Pirongia 5588:Hakatere 5495:Category 5428:Resource 5367:adaptive 5265:improved 5225:Conflict 5210:Security 5205:Scarcity 5198:improved 5188:Leaching 5065:recharge 5045:Drinking 4996:Wildlife 4863:Bushmeat 4858:Bushfood 4811:planning 4716:gemstone 4711:Minerals 4692:property 4680:viewshed 4670:seascape 4601:sunlight 4575:peak oil 4571:peak gas 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