1211:. Hopson and Barghausen did not initially come to a conclusion about how dinocephalians, anomodonts and theriodonts were related to each other, but subsequent studies suggested that anomodonts and theriodonts should be classified together as the Neotherapsida. However, there remains debate over these relationships; in particular, some studies have suggested that anomodonts, not gorgonopsians, are the sister taxon of Eutheriodontia, other studies have found dinocephalians and anomodonts to form a clade, and both the phylogenetic position and monophyly of Biarmosuchia remain controversial.
4432:
894:
525:
1449:
4130:
212:
691:
4142:
4136:
4465:
1207:, is well supported, but relationships among the other four clades are controversial. The most widely accepted hypothesis of therapsid relationships, the Hopson and Barghausen paradigm, was first proposed in 1986. Under this hypothesis, biarmosuchians are the earliest-diverging major therapsid group, with the other five groups forming the Eutherapsida, and within Eutherapsida, gorgonopsians are the sister taxon of eutheriodonts, together forming the
3609:
3614:
1385:
1419:
1283:
1248:
760:
1341:
134:
950:, relatives of the cynodonts, managed to survive the Permian–Triassic extinction and continued to diversify through the Early Triassic period. Approaching the end of the period, however, the therocephalians were in decline to eventual extinction, likely outcompeted by the rapidly diversifying Saurian lineage of
675:
Whiskers probably evolved in probainognathian cynodonts. Some studies had inferred an earlier origin for whiskers based on the presence of foramina on the snout of therocephalians and early cynodonts, but the arrangement of foramina in these taxa actually closely resembles lizards, which would make
619:
trends towards loss of the pineal foramen, and the foramen is completely absent in probainognathian cynodonts. Evidence from oxygen isotopes, which are correlated with body temperature, suggests that most
Permian therapsids were ectotherms and that endothermy evolved convergently in dicynodonts and
671:
The closure of the pineal foramen in probainognathian cynodonts may indicate a mutation in the regulatory gene Msx2, which is involved in both the closure of the skull roof and the maintenance of hair follicles in mice. This suggests that hair may have first evolved in probainognathians, though it
1765:
Newham, Elis; Gill, Pamela G.; Brewer, Philippa; Benton, Michael J.; Fernandez, Vincent; Gostling, Neil J.; Haberthür, David; Jernvall, Jukka; Kankaanpää, Tuomas; Kallonen, Aki; Navarro, Charles; Pacureanu, Alexandra; Richards, Kelly; Brown, Kate Robson; Schneider, Philipp; Suhonen, Heikki;
1263:
Biarmosuchia is the most recently recognized therapsid clade, first recognized as a distinct lineage by Hopson and
Barghausen in 1986 and formally named by Sigogneau-Russell in 1989. Most biarmosuchians were previously classified as gorgonopsians. Biarmosuchia includes the distinctive
837:, which were the only dicynodont lineage to thrive during the Triassic. They and the medium-sized cynodonts (including both carnivorous and herbivorous forms) flourished worldwide throughout the Early and Middle Triassic. They disappear from the fossil record across much of
2009:
Bajdek, Piotr; Qvarnström, Martin; Owocki, Krzysztof; Sulej, Tomasz; Sennikov, Andrey G.; Golubev, Valeriy K.; Niedźwiedzki., Grzegorz (2016). "Microbiota and food residues including possible evidence of pre-mammalian hair in Upper
Permian coprolites from Russia".
1325:
Historically, carnivorous dinocephalians, including both anteosaurs and titanosuchids, were called titanosuchians and classified as members of
Theriodontia, while the herbivorous Tapinocephalidae were classified as members of Anomodontia.
1648:
Rey, Kévin; Amiot, Romain; Fourel, François; Abdala, Fernando; Fluteau, Frédéric; Jalil, Nour-Eddine; Liu, Jun; Rubidge, Bruce S; Smith, Roger MH; Steyer, J Sébastien; Viglietti, Pia A; Wang, Xu; Lécuyer, Christophe (18 July 2017).
430:
and their ancestors and close relatives. Many of the traits today seen as unique to mammals had their origin within early therapsids, including limbs that were oriented more underneath the body, resulting in a more "standing"
641:
The evolution of integument in therapsids is poorly known, and there are few fossils that provide direct evidence for the presence or absence of fur. The most basal synapsids with unambiguous direct evidence of fur are
626:
suggest that even early mammaliaforms had reptile-like metabolic rates. Evidence for respiratory turbinates, which have been hypothesized to be indicative of endothermy, was reported in the therocephalian
1226:
from the Early
Permian of the United States has been hypothesized to be an even earlier-diverging therapsid, but more recent study has suggested it is more likely to be a non-therapsid sphenacodontian.
620:
cynodonts near the end of the
Permian. In contrast, evidence from histology suggests that endothermy is shared across Therapsida, whereas estimates of blood flow rate and lifespan in the mammaliaform
1434:
It has been suggested that
Therocephalia might not be monophyletic, with some species more closely related to cynodonts than others. However, most studies regard Therocephalia as monophyletic.
2468:
Angielczyk, Kenneth D.; Kammerer, Christian F. (22 October 2018). "Non-Mammalian synapsids: the deep roots of the mammalian family tree". In Zachos, Frank; Asher, Robert (eds.).
1605:"The sixth sense in mammalians forerunners: variability of the parietal foramen and the evolution of the pineal eye in South African Permo-Triassic eutheriodont therapsids"
579:
and pelycosaurs. Also compared to these groups, the feet were more symmetrical, with the first and last toes short and the middle toes long, an indication that the foot's
2120:"The Evolution of the Maxillary Canal in Probainognathia (Cynodontia, Synapsida): Reassessment of the Homology of the Infraorbital Foramen in Mammalian Ancestors"
652:
preserve skin impressions; the skin is hairless, leathery, and dimpled, somewhat comparable to elephant skin. Fossilized facial skin from the dinocephalian
1363:, a clade of tusked, beaked herbivores, and the most diverse and long-lived clade of non-cynodont therapsids. Other members of Anomodontia include
4555:
2843:
957:
Dicynodonts were among the most successful groups of therapsids during the Late
Permian, and survived through to near the end of the Triassic.
2336:"On the Validity and Phylogenetic Position of Eubrachiosaurus browni, a Kannemeyeriiform Dicynodont (Anomodontia) from Triassic North America"
3827:
668:. Though the source of these hairs is not known with certainty, they may suggest that hair was present in at least some Permian therapsids.
1495:
1268:, but support for the monophyly of Biarmosuchia is relatively low. Many biarmosuchians are known for extensive cranial ornamentation.
4619:
633:, but subsequent study showed that the apparent attachment sites for turbinates may simply be the result of distortion of the skull.
2450:
954:, equipped with sophisticated respiratory systems better suited to the very hot, dry and oxygen-poor world of the End-Triassic.
1471:. Cynodonts are the only major therapsid clade to lack a Middle Permian fossil record, with the earliest-known cynodont being
4614:
2487:
1587:
1573:
792:
459:
2513:"A re-assessment of the oldest therapsid Raranimus confirms its status as a basal member of the clade and fills Olson's gap"
646:, which are mammaliaforms very closely related to crown-group mammals. Two "mummified" juvenile specimens of the dicynodont
599:
The physiology of therapsids is poorly understood. Most
Permian therapsids had a pineal foramen, indicating that they had a
4624:
2874:
1918:
2406:
2255:
1964:"Morphology and composition of bone-bearing coprolites from the Late Permian Beaufort Group, Karoo Basin, South Africa"
886:
and similar animals. Some taxonomists refer to these animals as "mammals", though most limit the term to the mammalian
2118:
Benoit, Julien; Ruf, Irina; Miyamae, Juri A.; Fernandez, Vincent; Rodrigues, Pablo Gusmão; Rubidge, Bruce S. (2020).
2226:
2469:
508:, becoming extinct towards the end of the period. The last surviving group of non-mammaliaform cynodonts were the
496:) in the Late Triassic around 225 million years ago, the only therapsid clade that survived beyond the end of the
4431:
603:
like many modern reptiles and amphibians. The parietal eye serves an important role in thermoregulation and the
583:
was placed parallel to that of the animal, not sprawling out sideways. This orientation would have given a more
1214:
In addition to the six major groups, there are several other lineages and species of uncertain classification.
551:
were larger than those of the pelycosaurs. The jaws of some therapsids were more complex and powerful, and the
1710:"Were the synapsids primitively endotherms? A palaeohistological approach using phylogenetic eigenvector maps"
795:, with the very successful gorgonopsians and the biarmosuchians dying out altogether and the remaining groups—
454:, more than 279.5 million years ago. They replaced the pelycosaurs as the dominant large land animals in the
1833:"The Role of Foraging Mode in the Origin of Therapsids: Implications for the Origin of Mammalian Endothermy"
736:. After a brief burst of evolutionary diversity, the dinocephalians died out in the later Middle Permian (
4141:
845:(Late Triassic), although they continued for some time longer in the wet equatorial band and the south.
4129:
2271:
Benoit, Julien; Norton, Luke A.; Manger, Paul R.; and
Rubidge, Bruce S. (2017). Claessens, Leon (ed.).
211:
2334:
Kammerer, Christian F.; Fröbisch, Jörg; Angielczyk, Kenneth D. (31 May 2013). Farke, Andrew A. (ed.).
2699:"The oldest therocephalians (Therapsida, Eutheriodontia) and the early diversification of Therapsida"
1547:
17:
575:
Therapsid legs were positioned more vertically beneath their bodies than were the sprawling legs of
4581:
2953:
2895:
2247:
1651:"Oxygen isotopes suggest elevated thermometabolism within multiple Permo-Triassic therapsid clades"
696:
2980:
2867:
2776:
1963:
1879:
1500:
1481:
age of the Late Permian. Non-mammalian cynodonts include both carnivorous and herbivorous forms.
1467:
Cynodonts are the most diverse and longest-lived of the therapsid groups, as Cynodontia includes
4573:
2814:
Padian, Kevin (2013-09). "A Review of "Forerunners of Mammals: Radiation, Histology, Biology"".
2185:
1579:
4485:
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1401:
1220:
from the early Middle Permian of China is likely to be the earliest-diverging known therapsid.
4135:
3608:
2662:
Spindler, Frederik (2020). "The skull of Tetraceratops insignis (Synapsida, Sphenacodontia)".
4568:
4240:
4214:
2239:
4560:
4542:
4523:
4298:
4266:
2710:
2587:
2524:
2415:
2404:(4 September 2013). "A Review of "Forerunners of Mammals: Radiation, Histology, Biology"".
2347:
2288:
2063:
2019:
1975:
1891:
1779:
1490:
899:
685:
658:
has been described as showing that the skin was glandular and lacked both scales and hair.
648:
1880:"Taphonomy of drought afflicted tetrapods in the Early Triassic Karoo Basin, South Africa"
1832:
8:
4609:
4356:
3613:
2714:
2591:
2528:
2419:
2351:
2292:
2165:
Estes, Richard (1961). "Cranial anatomy of the cynodont reptile Thrinaxodon liorhinus".
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2023:
1979:
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2335:
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1860:
1808:
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1766:
Tafforeau, Paul; Williams, Katherine A.; Zeller-Plumhoff, Berit; Corfe, Ian J. (2020).
1742:
1709:
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2540:
2483:
2431:
2383:
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2316:
2251:
2240:"Chapter 4. The Paleobiology and Bone Microstructure of Pelycosauriangrade Synapsids"
2151:
2139:
2097:
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1991:
1852:
1813:
1795:
1747:
1729:
1690:
1672:
1622:
1583:
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548:
295:
2648:
2497:
2052:"Palaeoneurological clues to the evolution of defining mammalian soft tissue traits"
1864:
1634:
141:
From top to bottom and left to right, several examples of non-mammalian therapsids:
3985:
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1983:
1899:
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1803:
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1612:
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604:
513:
893:
4051:
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3650:
2938:
2427:
2360:
2301:
1987:
1903:
1473:
976:
940:
931:
904:
861:
654:
509:
524:
4379:
4310:
4008:
3937:
3857:
3820:
3778:
3769:
3521:
3425:
3370:
3359:
3316:
3282:
3192:
3067:
2965:
2536:
2135:
1791:
1519:
1453:
1448:
1319:
1307:
1265:
1204:
968:
936:
877:
816:
709:
580:
530:
493:
451:
420:
381:
269:
2479:
1848:
4603:
4508:
4453:
4322:
4081:
4073:
3994:
3944:
3914:
3904:
3841:
3701:
3659:
3456:
3441:
3414:
3393:
3255:
3248:
3164:
2804:(2014th ed.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6841-3
2732:
2640:
2544:
2435:
2369:
2143:
2083:
1995:
1856:
1799:
1733:
1676:
1626:
1478:
1428:
1413:
1389:
1292:
1222:
1196:
1096:
947:
853:
812:
800:
777:
749:
612:
564:
535:
501:
387:
282:
188:
173:
91:
2811:. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/Permian-Period
752:
flourished, being joined at the very end of the Permian by the first of the
4458:
4448:
4412:
4272:
4229:
4203:
4065:
4001:
3806:
3792:
3785:
3708:
3680:
3407:
3323:
3262:
3206:
3199:
3157:
3150:
3143:
3092:
2552:
2401:
2387:
2320:
2101:
1817:
1751:
1725:
1694:
1617:
1543:
1423:
1345:
1287:
1277:
1257:
1252:
1242:
1208:
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1008:
882:
774:
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729:
721:
690:
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470:
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370:
348:
342:
313:
163:
158:
148:
143:
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2631:
2205:
4534:
4517:
4287:
4255:
4058:
4037:
3813:
3673:
3666:
3631:
3574:
3564:
3492:
3400:
3295:
3123:
3101:
3082:
1878:
Smith, Roger M.H.; Botha, Jennifer; Viglietti, Pia A. (15 October 2022).
1394:
1379:
1335:
1315:
1302:
1230:
Further information on the dubious genus of non-mammalian therapsid:
1192:
1188:
1074:
1052:
964:
919:
887:
849:
820:
745:
737:
629:
608:
462:, therapsids declined in relative importance to the rapidly diversifying
455:
432:
376:
193:
183:
178:
66:
2675:
2615:"On the Affinities of Tetraceratops insignis, an Early Permian Synapsid"
1667:
4402:
4392:
4345:
4023:
3971:
3755:
3687:
3534:
3449:
3434:
3344:
3337:
3309:
3234:
3220:
1943:
Chudinov, P. K. (1968). "Structure of the integuments of theromorphs".
1603:
Benoit, Julien; Abdala, Fernando; Manger, Paul; Rubidge, Bruce (2016).
1443:
1360:
1350:
1200:
1111:
925:
917:
The non-eucynodont cynodonts survived the Permian–Triassic extinction;
865:
796:
770:
741:
733:
505:
447:
363:
111:
76:
48:
2075:
2031:
1714:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
4189:
4044:
3745:
3470:
3330:
3241:
3185:
3178:
3116:
3046:
3033:
2992:
2883:
2574:
Laurin, M.; Reisz, R. R. (1996). "The osteology and relationships of
2511:
Duhamel, A.; Benoit, J.; Rubidge, B. S. & Liu, J. (August 2021).
1919:"These Fossil Mummies Reveal a Brutal World Long Before T. Rex Lived"
1353:
1297:
1231:
1216:
972:
830:
825:
791:
Like all land animals, the therapsids were seriously affected by the
725:
705:
661:
643:
478:
466:
440:
354:
335:
256:
223:
168:
116:
4479:
1400:
Gorgonopsia is an abundant but morphologically homogeneous group of
4502:
4030:
3884:
3799:
3554:
3544:
3477:
3463:
3386:
3379:
3134:
3109:
2913:
2907:
1461:
1384:
907:
873:
852:. At least three groups of them survived. They all appeared in the
808:
804:
784:
753:
497:
485:
474:
423:
392:
243:
198:
153:
106:
101:
86:
81:
71:
52:
31:
2697:
Abdala, Fernando; Rubidge, Bruce S.; van den Heever, Juri (2008).
1418:
1282:
1247:
759:
3213:
2922:
1365:
1340:
971:
period, radiated from a group of mammaliaforms that included the
951:
842:
713:
576:
556:
436:
121:
96:
4547:
716:, displacing the pelycosaurs. Therapsida consists of four major
4586:
4362:
3352:
2901:
1468:
1458:
1173:
The Hopson and Barghausen paradigm for therapsid relationships
960:
911:
857:
838:
717:
588:
584:
500:. The only other group of therapsids to have survived into the
489:
427:
400:
233:
133:
59:
3171:
2800:
Kammerer, C. F., Angielczyk, K. D., & öbisch, J. (2014).
2186:"New basal synapsid supports Laurasian origin for therapsids"
781:
552:
322:
2852:
811:. Surviving dicynodonts were represented by two families of
712:. Therapsids became the dominant land animals in the Middle
664:
containing what appear to be hairs have been found from the
2696:
2008:
446:
Therapsids evolved from earlier synapsids commonly called "
435:
posture, as opposed to the lower sprawling posture of many
2333:
2277:(Therapsida, Therocephalia) using μCT-scanning techniques"
607:
of ectotherms, but is absent in modern mammals, which are
2797:. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, 207-218.
2270:
2117:
1602:
1179:
Six major groups of therapsids are generally recognized:
2050:
Benoit, J.; Manger, P. R.; Rubidge, B. S. (9 May 2016).
1768:"Reptile-like physiology in Early Jurassic stem-mammals"
1203:. A clade uniting therocephalians and cynodonts, called
2791:
The metabolic and thermoregulatory status of therapsids
2510:
458:
through to the Early Triassic. In the aftermath of the
2461:
1764:
807:—reduced to a handful of species each by the earliest
2244:
Forerunners of Mammals: Radiation, Histology, Biology
672:
does not entirely rule out an earlier origin of fur.
4408:
4398:
4388:
4319:
4284:
4252:
4226:
4200:
4185:
3982:
3967:
3925:
3910:
3900:
3890:
3880:
3870:
3766:
3751:
3741:
3647:
3580:
3570:
3560:
3550:
3540:
3530:
3292:
3079:
3063:
2451:"Meet the Ancient Reptile that Gave Rise to Mammals"
1708:
Faure-Brac, Mathieu G.; Cubo, Jorge (2 March 2020).
1647:
331:
2049:
1877:
1314:Dinocephalia comprises two distinctive groups, the
2467:
2238:Huttenlocker, Adam K. and Rega, Elizabeth (2012).
2184:Liu, Jun; Rubidge, Bruce; and Li, Jinling (2009).
1968:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
1962:Smith, Roger M.H.; Botha-Brink, Jennifer (2011).
1884:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
4601:
2237:
1961:
1578:. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. pp.
3646:
2795:The ecology and biology of mammal-like reptiles
1370:which is thought to have been a climbing form.
848:Some exceptions were the still further derived
676:the presence of mammal-like whiskers unlikely.
2937:
2471:Mammalian Evolution, Diversity and Systematics
2045:
2043:
2041:
1707:
963:are the only living therapsids. The mammalian
3519:
2868:
2167:Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology
2113:
2111:
1701:
2789:Bennett, A. F., & Ruben, J. A. (1986). "
2786:. University of Chicago Press, 1933; 3rd ed.
2655:
2183:
1936:
1496:Timeline of the evolutionary history of life
975:. The mammaliaforms themselves evolved from
611:. Near the end of the Permian, dicynodonts,
2802:Early Evolutionary History of the Synapsida
2612:
2573:
2273:"Reappraisal of the envenoming capacity of
2038:
2875:
2861:
2690:
2567:
2108:
2002:
1596:
943:, however, only the eucynodonts remained.
132:
4170:
2834:Therapsida: Mammals and extinct relatives
2722:
2630:
2606:
2377:
2359:
2310:
2300:
2227:Synapsid Classification & Apomorphies
2204:
2158:
2091:
1955:
1824:
1807:
1758:
1741:
1684:
1666:
1616:
3044:
2768:. W. H. Freeman & Company, New York.
2661:
1942:
1536:
1447:
1417:
1383:
1339:
1281:
1246:
979:, a lineage of the eucynodont suborder.
892:
868:. Another extremely mammal-like family,
758:
689:
523:
2766:Vertebrate Paleontology & Evolution
1916:
1568:
679:
419:is a clade comprising a major group of
14:
4602:
2448:
2400:
2264:
1830:
1641:
4484:
4483:
4157:
3629:
3031:
2894:
2856:
2442:
2177:
2164:
1917:Timmons, Jeanne (20 September 2022).
1575:Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution
1542:
829:, and a single group of large stocky
2242:. In Chinsamy-Turan, Anusuya (ed.).
1831:Hopson, James A. (18 October 2012).
1548:"On the use of the term Anomodontia"
780:is suspected to be the oldest-known
481:, etc.) during the Middle Triassic.
27:Clade of tetrapods including mammals
2773:The origin and evolution of mammals
2613:Amson, Eli; Laurin, Michel (2011).
872:, are unknown later than the Early
708:from a group of pelycosaurs called
24:
2816:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
2751:
2580:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
2407:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
519:
512:, which became extinct during the
25:
4636:
2826:
1837:Fieldiana Life and Earth Sciences
982:
793:Permian–Triassic extinction event
555:were differentiated into frontal
460:Permian–Triassic extinction event
4620:Extant Permian first appearances
4464:
4463:
4430:
4140:
4134:
4128:
3612:
3607:
2724:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2008.00784.x
2474:. De Gruyter. pp. 117–198.
1407:
700:, the most basal-known therapsid
567:for shearing and chopping food.
563:for puncturing and tearing, and
542:
210:
64:
3630:
2807:Ross, R.P., Ross, C.A. (2023).
2578:, the oldest known therapsid".
2504:
2394:
2327:
2231:
2220:
1910:
1271:
1236:
880:was the third group, including
591:-like gait of the pelycosaurs.
4158:
2600:10.1080/02724634.1996.10011287
2124:Journal of Mammalian Evolution
1871:
1562:
1513:
1373:
1329:
488:, the group that gave rise to
13:
1:
3032:
2882:
2809:Permian Period, geochronology
2761:, 3rd ed., Blackwell Science.
2619:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
2193:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
1609:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
1529:
1437:
732:, and the mostly carnivorous
636:
594:
4615:Cisuralian first appearances
2428:10.1080/02724634.2013.763814
2361:10.1371/journal.pone.0064203
2302:10.1371/journal.pone.0172047
1988:10.1016/j.palaeo.2011.09.006
1904:10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.111207
1552:Records of the Albany Museum
910:related to the ancestors of
7:
1484:
559:for nipping, great lateral
484:The therapsids include the
450:", specifically within the
10:
4641:
4625:Taxa named by Robert Broom
2537:10.1007/s00114-021-01736-y
2136:10.1007/s10914-019-09467-8
1792:10.1038/s41467-020-18898-4
1441:
1411:
1377:
1333:
1275:
1240:
1229:
864:, survived into the Early
744:as well as the theriodont
683:
570:
29:
4492:
4443:
4428:
4377:
4344:
4318:
4309:
4283:
4251:
4225:
4199:
4181:
4166:
4153:
4126:
4092:
3981:
3963:
3954:
3924:
3866:
3855:
3765:
3737:
3733:
3722:
3642:
3638:
3625:
3605:
3515:
3491:
3424:
3369:
3304:
3291:
3280:
3133:
3091:
3078:
3059:
3055:
3040:
3027:
2991:
2973:
2964:
2946:
2933:
2890:
2480:10.1515/9783110341553-005
1849:10.3158/2158-5520-5.1.126
1359:Anomodontia includes the
1109:
1094:
1087:
1072:
1065:
1050:
1043:
1028:
1021:
1006:
999:
328:
321:
207:Scientific classification
205:
140:
131:
41:
2759:Vertebrate Palaeontology
2248:Indiana University Press
1506:
697:Raranimus dashankouensis
30:Not to be confused with
2784:Vertebrate Paleontology
2777:Oxford University Press
2764:Carroll, R. L. (1988).
1945:Doklady Akad. Nauk SSSR
1501:Vertebrate paleontology
1402:saber-toothed predators
967:, which evolved in the
2757:Benton, M. J. (2004).
2576:Tetraceratops insignis
2275:Euchambersia mirabilis
1726:10.1098/rstb.2019.0138
1618:10.4202/app.00219.2015
1464:
1431:
1397:
1356:
1311:
1260:
914:
856:period. The extremely
823:), the scarcely known
788:
701:
539:
4569:Paleobiology Database
2782:Romer, A. S. (1966).
2632:10.4202/app.2010.0063
2517:The Science of Nature
2206:10.4202/app.2008.0071
1772:Nature Communications
1451:
1421:
1387:
1343:
1285:
1250:
896:
773:prey. Note that this
762:
693:
527:
2844:Therapsida: overview
2771:Kemp, T. S. (2005).
1491:Evolution of mammals
900:Bonacynodon schultzi
740:) but the anomodont
686:Evolution of mammals
680:Evolutionary history
649:Lystrosaurus murrayi
587:-like gait than the
397:Various extinct taxa
359:Various extinct taxa
2715:2008Palgy..51.1011A
2676:10.18563/pv.43.1.e1
2592:1996JVPal..16...95L
2529:2021SciNa.108...26D
2455:Scientific American
2449:Geggel, L. (2016).
2420:2013JVPal..33.1250P
2352:2013PLoSO...864203K
2293:2017PLoSO..1272047B
2250:. pp. 90–119.
2068:2016NatSR...625604B
2024:2016Letha..49..455B
1980:2011PPP...312...40S
1896:2022PPP...60411207S
1784:2020NatCo..11.5121N
1668:10.7554/eLife.28589
935:are known from the
615:and cynodonts show
2056:Scientific Reports
1720:(1793): 20190138.
1465:
1432:
1398:
1357:
1312:
1261:
915:
897:Reconstruction of
841:at the end of the
835:Kannemeyeriiformes
789:
728:, the carnivorous
724:, the herbivorous
702:
694:Holotype skull of
549:temporal fenestrae
540:
4597:
4596:
4486:Taxon identifiers
4477:
4476:
4439:
4438:
4426:
4425:
4422:
4421:
4373:
4372:
4149:
4148:
4124:
4123:
4120:
4119:
4116:
4115:
4112:
4111:
3956:Sphenacodontoidea
3929:Palaeohatteriidae
3851:
3850:
3718:
3717:
3621:
3620:
3603:
3602:
3599:
3598:
3595:
3594:
3511:
3510:
3487:
3486:
3276:
3275:
3272:
3271:
3023:
3022:
3019:
3018:
3015:
3014:
3011:
3010:
2489:978-3-11-034155-3
2076:10.1038/srep25604
2032:10.1111/let.12156
1589:978-0-7167-1822-2
1177:
1176:
1167:
1166:
1158:
1157:
1149:
1148:
1140:
1139:
1131:
1130:
1122:
1121:
977:probainognathians
414:
413:
317:
296:Sphenacodontoidea
16:(Redirected from
4632:
4590:
4589:
4577:
4576:
4564:
4563:
4551:
4550:
4538:
4537:
4528:
4527:
4526:
4513:
4512:
4511:
4481:
4480:
4467:
4466:
4434:
4410:
4400:
4390:
4321:
4316:
4315:
4286:
4254:
4228:
4202:
4187:
4179:
4178:
4168:
4167:
4155:
4154:
4144:
4138:
4132:
3986:Sphenacodontidae
3984:
3969:
3961:
3960:
3927:
3912:
3902:
3892:
3882:
3872:
3864:
3863:
3768:
3753:
3743:
3735:
3734:
3731:
3730:
3725:Haptodontiformes
3649:
3644:
3643:
3640:
3639:
3627:
3626:
3616:
3611:
3585:Protoclepsydrops
3582:
3572:
3562:
3552:
3542:
3532:
3517:
3516:
3302:
3301:
3294:
3289:
3288:
3228:Lalieudorhynchus
3089:
3088:
3081:
3065:
3057:
3056:
3053:
3052:
3042:
3041:
3029:
3028:
2971:
2970:
2944:
2943:
2935:
2934:
2928:
2927:
2892:
2891:
2877:
2870:
2863:
2854:
2853:
2745:
2744:
2726:
2709:(4): 1011–1024.
2694:
2688:
2687:
2664:Palaeovertebrata
2659:
2653:
2652:
2634:
2610:
2604:
2603:
2571:
2565:
2564:
2508:
2502:
2501:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2446:
2440:
2439:
2414:(5): 1250–1251.
2398:
2392:
2391:
2381:
2363:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2314:
2304:
2268:
2262:
2261:
2235:
2229:
2224:
2218:
2217:
2215:
2213:
2208:
2190:
2181:
2175:
2174:
2162:
2156:
2155:
2115:
2106:
2105:
2095:
2047:
2036:
2035:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1959:
1953:
1952:
1940:
1934:
1933:
1931:
1929:
1914:
1908:
1907:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1811:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1745:
1705:
1699:
1698:
1688:
1670:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1620:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1540:
1523:
1517:
1090:
1089:
1068:
1067:
1046:
1045:
1024:
1023:
1002:
1001:
992:
991:
987:
986:
905:probainognathian
870:Tritheledontidae
605:circadian rhythm
528:Illustration of
514:Early Cretaceous
333:
312:
215:
214:
136:
126:
63:
58:(Range includes
56:
45:Temporal range:
39:
38:
21:
4640:
4639:
4635:
4634:
4633:
4631:
4630:
4629:
4600:
4599:
4598:
4593:
4585:
4580:
4572:
4567:
4559:
4554:
4546:
4541:
4533:
4531:
4522:
4521:
4516:
4507:
4506:
4501:
4488:
4478:
4473:
4435:
4418:
4369:
4340:
4305:
4279:
4247:
4221:
4195:
4175:
4162:
4145:
4108:
4088:
4052:Secodontosaurus
3977:
3950:
3920:
3895:Hypselohaptodus
3860:
3847:
3835:Remigiomontanus
3761:
3727:
3714:
3695:Stereophallodon
3651:Ophiacodontidae
3634:
3617:
3591:
3507:
3483:
3420:
3365:
3285:
3268:
3129:
3074:
3049:
3036:
3007:
2987:
2960:
2954:Tetrapodomorpha
2939:Tetrapodomorpha
2929:
2897:
2896:
2886:
2881:
2829:
2822:(5): 1250–1251.
2754:
2752:Further reading
2749:
2748:
2695:
2691:
2660:
2656:
2611:
2607:
2572:
2568:
2509:
2505:
2490:
2466:
2462:
2447:
2443:
2399:
2395:
2332:
2328:
2287:(2): e0172047.
2269:
2265:
2258:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2221:
2211:
2209:
2188:
2182:
2178:
2163:
2159:
2116:
2109:
2048:
2039:
2007:
2003:
1960:
1956:
1941:
1937:
1927:
1925:
1915:
1911:
1876:
1872:
1829:
1825:
1763:
1759:
1706:
1702:
1646:
1642:
1601:
1597:
1590:
1567:
1563:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1526:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1487:
1474:Charassognathus
1446:
1440:
1416:
1410:
1382:
1376:
1338:
1332:
1308:tapinocephalian
1280:
1274:
1245:
1239:
1234:
1168:
1159:
1150:
1141:
1132:
1123:
985:
948:therocephalians
941:Middle Triassic
932:Platycraniellus
862:Tritylodontidae
801:therocephalians
763:Restoration of
750:therocephalians
688:
682:
655:Estemmenosuchus
639:
613:therocephalians
597:
573:
545:
522:
520:Characteristics
510:Tritylodontidae
421:eupelycosaurian
311:
209:
127:
125:
124:
119:
114:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
57:
47:
46:
43:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4638:
4628:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4595:
4594:
4592:
4591:
4578:
4565:
4552:
4539:
4529:
4514:
4498:
4496:
4490:
4489:
4475:
4474:
4472:
4471:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4444:
4441:
4440:
4437:
4436:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4423:
4420:
4419:
4417:
4416:
4406:
4396:
4385:
4383:
4380:Incertae sedis
4375:
4374:
4371:
4370:
4368:
4367:
4366:
4365:
4359:
4350:
4348:
4342:
4341:
4339:
4338:
4337:
4336:
4327:
4325:
4313:
4311:Eutheriodontia
4307:
4306:
4304:
4303:
4302:
4301:
4292:
4290:
4281:
4280:
4278:
4277:
4276:
4275:
4269:
4260:
4258:
4249:
4248:
4246:
4245:
4244:
4243:
4234:
4232:
4223:
4222:
4220:
4219:
4218:
4217:
4208:
4206:
4197:
4196:
4194:
4193:
4182:
4176:
4171:
4164:
4163:
4151:
4150:
4147:
4146:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4121:
4118:
4117:
4114:
4113:
4110:
4109:
4107:
4106:
4105:
4104:
4098:
4096:
4090:
4089:
4087:
4086:
4078:
4070:
4062:
4055:
4048:
4041:
4034:
4027:
4020:
4012:
4009:Ctenospondylus
4005:
3998:
3990:
3988:
3979:
3978:
3976:
3975:
3964:
3958:
3952:
3951:
3949:
3948:
3941:
3938:Palaeohatteria
3933:
3931:
3922:
3921:
3919:
3918:
3908:
3898:
3888:
3878:
3867:
3861:
3858:Sphenacodontia
3856:
3853:
3852:
3849:
3848:
3846:
3845:
3838:
3831:
3824:
3821:Melanedaphodon
3817:
3810:
3803:
3796:
3789:
3782:
3779:Bohemiclavulus
3774:
3772:
3770:Edaphosauridae
3763:
3762:
3760:
3759:
3749:
3738:
3728:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3716:
3715:
3713:
3712:
3705:
3698:
3691:
3684:
3677:
3670:
3663:
3655:
3653:
3636:
3635:
3623:
3622:
3619:
3618:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3600:
3597:
3596:
3593:
3592:
3590:
3589:
3578:
3568:
3558:
3548:
3538:
3527:
3525:
3522:Incertae sedis
3513:
3512:
3509:
3508:
3506:
3505:
3504:
3503:
3497:
3495:
3489:
3488:
3485:
3484:
3482:
3481:
3474:
3467:
3460:
3453:
3446:
3438:
3430:
3428:
3426:Varanodontinae
3422:
3421:
3419:
3418:
3411:
3404:
3397:
3390:
3383:
3375:
3373:
3371:Mesenosaurinae
3367:
3366:
3364:
3363:
3360:Thrausmosaurus
3356:
3349:
3341:
3334:
3327:
3320:
3317:Archaeovenator
3313:
3305:
3299:
3286:
3283:Eupelycosauria
3281:
3278:
3277:
3274:
3273:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3266:
3259:
3252:
3245:
3238:
3231:
3224:
3217:
3210:
3203:
3196:
3193:Cotylorhynchus
3189:
3182:
3175:
3168:
3161:
3154:
3147:
3139:
3137:
3131:
3130:
3128:
3127:
3120:
3113:
3106:
3097:
3095:
3086:
3076:
3075:
3073:
3072:
3068:Diadectomorpha
3060:
3050:
3045:
3038:
3037:
3025:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3017:
3016:
3013:
3012:
3009:
3008:
3006:
3005:
3004:
3003:
2997:
2995:
2989:
2988:
2986:
2985:
2984:
2983:
2981:Reptiliomorpha
2974:
2968:
2966:Reptiliomorpha
2962:
2961:
2959:
2958:
2957:
2956:
2947:
2941:
2931:
2930:
2926:
2925:
2916:
2910:
2904:
2888:
2887:
2880:
2879:
2872:
2865:
2857:
2851:
2850:
2840:
2828:
2827:External links
2825:
2824:
2823:
2812:
2805:
2798:
2787:
2780:
2769:
2762:
2753:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2689:
2654:
2625:(2): 301–312.
2605:
2566:
2503:
2488:
2460:
2441:
2393:
2326:
2263:
2257:978-0253005335
2256:
2230:
2219:
2199:(3): 393–400.
2176:
2157:
2130:(3): 329–348.
2107:
2037:
2018:(4): 455–477.
2001:
1974:(1–2): 40–53.
1954:
1935:
1909:
1870:
1823:
1757:
1700:
1640:
1595:
1588:
1570:Carroll, R. L.
1561:
1534:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1524:
1522:: 'beast-arch'
1511:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1504:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1486:
1483:
1454:Trucidocynodon
1442:Main article:
1439:
1436:
1429:therocephalian
1412:Main article:
1409:
1406:
1378:Main article:
1375:
1372:
1334:Main article:
1331:
1328:
1320:Tapinocephalia
1300:) devouring a
1288:dinocephalians
1286:Two genera of
1276:Main article:
1273:
1270:
1266:Burnetiamorpha
1241:Main article:
1238:
1235:
1205:Eutheriodontia
1175:
1174:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1156:
1155:
1152:
1151:
1147:
1146:
1143:
1142:
1138:
1137:
1134:
1133:
1129:
1128:
1125:
1124:
1120:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1108:
1105:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1093:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1071:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1057:
1056:
1049:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1038:
1035:
1034:
1027:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1005:
1000:
998:
990:
984:
983:Classification
981:
969:Early Jurassic
937:Early Triassic
878:Mammaliaformes
860:-like family,
817:Lystrosauridae
778:therocephalian
730:biarmosuchians
722:dinocephalians
681:
678:
638:
635:
596:
593:
572:
569:
544:
541:
536:therocephalian
531:Alopecognathus
521:
518:
494:Mammaliaformes
471:pseudosuchians
452:Sphenacodontia
426:that includes
412:
411:
410:
409:
408:
407:
406:
405:
404:
403:
398:
390:
382:Eutheriodontia
379:
368:
367:
366:
360:
351:
345:
339:
326:
325:
319:
318:
306:
299:
298:
293:
286:
285:
280:
273:
272:
270:Sphenacodontia
267:
260:
259:
254:
247:
246:
241:
237:
236:
231:
227:
226:
221:
217:
216:
203:
202:
138:
137:
129:
128:
120:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
44:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4637:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4607:
4605:
4588:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4544:
4540:
4536:
4530:
4525:
4519:
4515:
4510:
4504:
4500:
4499:
4497:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4482:
4470:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4454:Phthinosuchia
4452:
4450:
4446:
4445:
4442:
4433:
4415:
4414:
4407:
4405:
4404:
4397:
4395:
4394:
4387:
4386:
4384:
4382:
4381:
4376:
4364:
4360:
4358:
4354:
4353:
4352:
4351:
4349:
4347:
4343:
4335:
4334:Therocephalia
4331:
4330:
4329:
4328:
4326:
4324:
4323:Therocephalia
4317:
4314:
4312:
4308:
4300:
4296:
4295:
4294:
4293:
4291:
4289:
4282:
4274:
4270:
4268:
4264:
4263:
4262:
4261:
4259:
4257:
4250:
4242:
4238:
4237:
4236:
4235:
4233:
4231:
4224:
4216:
4212:
4211:
4210:
4209:
4207:
4205:
4198:
4192:
4191:
4184:
4183:
4180:
4177:
4174:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4156:
4152:
4143:
4139:
4137:
4131:
4102:
4101:
4100:
4099:
4097:
4095:
4091:
4084:
4083:
4082:Tetraceratops
4079:
4076:
4075:
4074:Tappenosaurus
4071:
4068:
4067:
4063:
4061:
4060:
4056:
4054:
4053:
4049:
4047:
4046:
4042:
4040:
4039:
4035:
4033:
4032:
4028:
4026:
4025:
4021:
4018:
4017:
4013:
4011:
4010:
4006:
4004:
4003:
3999:
3997:
3996:
3995:Cryptovenator
3992:
3991:
3989:
3987:
3980:
3974:
3973:
3966:
3965:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3953:
3947:
3946:
3945:Pantelosaurus
3942:
3940:
3939:
3935:
3934:
3932:
3930:
3923:
3917:
3916:
3915:Tetraceratops
3909:
3907:
3906:
3905:Kenomagnathus
3899:
3897:
3896:
3889:
3887:
3886:
3879:
3877:
3876:
3869:
3868:
3865:
3862:
3859:
3854:
3844:
3843:
3842:Xyrospondylus
3839:
3837:
3836:
3832:
3830:
3829:
3825:
3823:
3822:
3818:
3816:
3815:
3811:
3809:
3808:
3804:
3802:
3801:
3797:
3795:
3794:
3790:
3788:
3787:
3783:
3781:
3780:
3776:
3775:
3773:
3771:
3764:
3758:
3757:
3750:
3748:
3747:
3740:
3739:
3736:
3732:
3729:
3726:
3721:
3711:
3710:
3706:
3704:
3703:
3702:Stereorhachis
3699:
3697:
3696:
3692:
3690:
3689:
3685:
3683:
3682:
3678:
3676:
3675:
3671:
3669:
3668:
3664:
3662:
3661:
3660:Archaeothyris
3657:
3656:
3654:
3652:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3628:
3624:
3615:
3610:
3587:
3586:
3579:
3577:
3576:
3569:
3567:
3566:
3559:
3557:
3556:
3549:
3547:
3546:
3539:
3537:
3536:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3524:
3523:
3518:
3514:
3501:
3500:
3499:
3498:
3496:
3494:
3490:
3480:
3479:
3475:
3473:
3472:
3468:
3466:
3465:
3461:
3459:
3458:
3457:Tambacarnifex
3454:
3452:
3451:
3447:
3444:
3443:
3442:Mycterosaurus
3439:
3437:
3436:
3432:
3431:
3429:
3427:
3423:
3417:
3416:
3415:Microvaranops
3412:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3403:
3402:
3398:
3396:
3395:
3394:Elliotsmithia
3391:
3389:
3388:
3384:
3382:
3381:
3377:
3376:
3374:
3372:
3368:
3362:
3361:
3357:
3355:
3354:
3350:
3347:
3346:
3342:
3340:
3339:
3335:
3333:
3332:
3328:
3326:
3325:
3321:
3319:
3318:
3314:
3312:
3311:
3307:
3306:
3303:
3300:
3297:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3279:
3265:
3264:
3260:
3258:
3257:
3256:Ruthenosaurus
3253:
3251:
3250:
3249:Phreatophasma
3246:
3244:
3243:
3239:
3237:
3236:
3232:
3230:
3229:
3225:
3223:
3222:
3218:
3216:
3215:
3211:
3209:
3208:
3204:
3202:
3201:
3197:
3195:
3194:
3190:
3188:
3187:
3183:
3181:
3180:
3176:
3174:
3173:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3165:Callibrachion
3162:
3160:
3159:
3155:
3153:
3152:
3148:
3146:
3145:
3141:
3140:
3138:
3136:
3132:
3126:
3125:
3121:
3119:
3118:
3114:
3112:
3111:
3107:
3104:
3103:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3094:
3090:
3087:
3084:
3077:
3070:
3069:
3062:
3061:
3058:
3054:
3051:
3048:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3030:
3026:
3001:
3000:
2999:
2998:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2982:
2978:
2977:
2976:
2975:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2963:
2955:
2951:
2950:
2949:
2948:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2924:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2911:
2909:
2905:
2903:
2899:
2898:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2878:
2873:
2871:
2866:
2864:
2859:
2858:
2855:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2830:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2810:
2806:
2803:
2799:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2785:
2781:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2767:
2763:
2760:
2756:
2755:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2703:Palaeontology
2700:
2693:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2658:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2609:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2586:(1): 95–102.
2585:
2581:
2577:
2570:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2507:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2472:
2464:
2456:
2452:
2445:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2408:
2403:
2402:Padian, Kevin
2397:
2389:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2346:(5): e64203.
2345:
2341:
2337:
2330:
2322:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2276:
2267:
2259:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2234:
2228:
2223:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2187:
2180:
2172:
2168:
2161:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2114:
2112:
2103:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2046:
2044:
2042:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2005:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1958:
1950:
1946:
1939:
1924:
1920:
1913:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1874:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1827:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1761:
1753:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1704:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1644:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1599:
1591:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1576:
1571:
1565:
1558:(4): 266–269.
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1539:
1535:
1521:
1516:
1512:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1488:
1482:
1480:
1479:Wuchiapingian
1476:
1475:
1470:
1463:
1460:
1456:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1435:
1430:
1426:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1414:Therocephalia
1408:Therocephalia
1405:
1403:
1396:
1392:
1391:
1390:Inostrancevia
1386:
1381:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1362:
1355:
1352:
1348:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1327:
1323:
1321:
1317:
1309:
1305:
1304:
1299:
1295:
1294:
1293:Titanophoneus
1289:
1284:
1279:
1269:
1267:
1259:
1258:biarmosuchian
1255:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1233:
1228:
1225:
1224:
1223:Tetraceratops
1219:
1218:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1197:Therocephalia
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1172:
1171:
1163:
1162:
1154:
1153:
1145:
1144:
1136:
1135:
1127:
1126:
1118:
1117:
1114:
1113:
1107:
1106:
1103:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1097:Therocephalia
1092:
1091:
1085:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1077:
1076:
1070:
1069:
1063:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1041:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1033:
1032:
1026:
1025:
1019:
1018:
1015:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1004:
1003:
997:
994:
993:
989:
988:
980:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
955:
953:
949:
944:
942:
938:
934:
933:
928:
927:
922:
921:
913:
909:
906:
902:
901:
895:
891:
889:
885:
884:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
854:Late Triassic
851:
846:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
827:
822:
818:
814:
813:disaster taxa
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
786:
783:
779:
776:
775:South African
772:
768:
767:
761:
757:
755:
751:
747:
746:gorgonopsians
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
710:sphenacodonts
707:
699:
698:
692:
687:
677:
673:
669:
667:
663:
659:
657:
656:
651:
650:
645:
634:
632:
631:
625:
624:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
592:
590:
586:
582:
578:
568:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
543:Jaw and teeth
537:
533:
532:
526:
517:
515:
511:
507:
503:
502:Late Triassic
499:
495:
491:
487:
482:
480:
476:
472:
468:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
444:
442:
438:
434:
429:
425:
422:
418:
402:
399:
396:
395:
394:
391:
389:
388:Therocephalia
385:
384:
383:
380:
378:
374:
373:
372:
369:
365:
361:
358:
357:
356:
352:
350:
346:
344:
340:
338:
337:
330:
329:
327:
324:
320:
315:
310:
307:
304:
301:
300:
297:
294:
291:
288:
287:
284:
283:Pantherapsida
281:
278:
275:
274:
271:
268:
265:
262:
261:
258:
255:
252:
249:
248:
245:
242:
239:
238:
235:
232:
229:
228:
225:
222:
219:
218:
213:
208:
204:
200:
196:
195:
190:
189:Therocephalia
186:
185:
180:
176:
175:
174:Inostrancevia
170:
166:
165:
160:
156:
155:
150:
146:
145:
139:
135:
130:
123:
118:
113:
108:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
61:
54:
50:
40:
37:
33:
19:
4582:Tree of Life
4493:
4459:Theriodontia
4449:Pelycosauria
4413:Niaftasuchus
4411:
4401:
4391:
4378:
4241:Dinocephalia
4230:Dinocephalia
4215:Biarmosuchia
4204:Biarmosuchia
4188:
4172:
4159:
4133:
4093:
4080:
4072:
4066:Steppesaurus
4064:
4057:
4050:
4043:
4036:
4029:
4022:
4014:
4007:
4002:Ctenorhachis
4000:
3993:
3970:
3943:
3936:
3913:
3903:
3893:
3883:
3873:
3840:
3833:
3826:
3819:
3812:
3807:Ianthasaurus
3805:
3798:
3793:Glaucosaurus
3791:
3786:Edaphosaurus
3784:
3777:
3754:
3744:
3709:Varanosaurus
3707:
3700:
3693:
3686:
3681:Echinerpeton
3679:
3672:
3665:
3658:
3583:
3573:
3563:
3553:
3543:
3533:
3520:
3476:
3469:
3462:
3455:
3448:
3440:
3433:
3413:
3408:Mesenosaurus
3406:
3399:
3392:
3385:
3378:
3358:
3351:
3343:
3336:
3329:
3324:Ascendonanus
3322:
3315:
3308:
3263:Trichasaurus
3261:
3254:
3247:
3240:
3233:
3226:
3219:
3212:
3207:Ennatosaurus
3205:
3200:Datheosaurus
3198:
3191:
3184:
3177:
3170:
3163:
3158:Arisierpeton
3156:
3151:Angelosaurus
3149:
3144:Alierasaurus
3142:
3122:
3115:
3108:
3100:
3093:Eothyrididae
3066:
2918:
2912:Superclass:
2847:
2838:Tree of Life
2837:
2819:
2815:
2808:
2801:
2794:
2783:
2772:
2765:
2758:
2706:
2702:
2692:
2667:
2663:
2657:
2622:
2618:
2608:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2569:
2520:
2516:
2506:
2470:
2463:
2454:
2444:
2411:
2405:
2396:
2343:
2339:
2329:
2284:
2280:
2274:
2266:
2243:
2233:
2222:
2212:25 September
2210:. Retrieved
2196:
2192:
2179:
2170:
2166:
2160:
2127:
2123:
2062:(1): 25604.
2059:
2055:
2015:
2011:
2004:
1971:
1967:
1957:
1948:
1944:
1938:
1926:. Retrieved
1922:
1912:
1887:
1883:
1873:
1840:
1836:
1826:
1775:
1771:
1760:
1717:
1713:
1703:
1658:
1654:
1643:
1608:
1598:
1574:
1564:
1555:
1551:
1538:
1515:
1472:
1466:
1452:
1433:
1424:Moschorhinus
1422:
1399:
1395:gorgonopsian
1388:
1364:
1358:
1346:Lystrosaurus
1344:
1324:
1313:
1301:
1291:
1278:Dinocephalia
1272:Dinocephalia
1262:
1253:Biarmosuchus
1251:
1243:Biarmosuchia
1237:Biarmosuchia
1221:
1215:
1213:
1209:Theriodontia
1185:Dinocephalia
1181:Biarmosuchia
1178:
1110:
1095:
1073:
1051:
1031:Dinocephalia
1029:
1009:Biarmosuchia
1007:
995:
959:
956:
945:
930:
924:
918:
916:
898:
883:Morganucodon
881:
847:
824:
790:
766:Euchambersia
764:
703:
695:
674:
670:
666:Late Permian
660:
653:
647:
640:
628:
623:Morganucodon
621:
601:parietal eye
598:
574:
547:Therapsids'
546:
529:
483:
464:archosaurian
445:
416:
415:
371:Theriodontia
364:Dicynodontia
349:Dinocephalia
343:Biarmosuchia
334:
308:
302:
289:
276:
263:
250:
192:
182:
172:
164:Lystrosaurus
162:
159:Dinocephalia
152:
149:Biarmosuchia
144:Biarmosuchus
142:
36:
4518:Wikispecies
4299:Gorgonopsia
4288:Gorgonopsia
4273:dicynodonts
4267:Anomodontia
4256:Anomodontia
4059:Sphenacodon
4038:Macromerion
3828:Ramodendron
3814:Lupeosaurus
3674:Clepsydrops
3667:Baldwinonus
3632:Metopophora
3575:Mastersonia
3565:Knoxosaurus
3493:Metopophora
3401:Heleosaurus
3296:Varanopidae
3124:Vaughnictis
3102:Asaphestera
3083:Caseasauria
1843:: 126–148.
1778:(1): 5121.
1380:Gorgonopsia
1374:Gorgonopsia
1361:dicynodonts
1336:Anomodontia
1330:Anomodontia
1316:Anteosauria
1303:Ulemosaurus
1193:Gorgonopsia
1189:Anomodontia
1075:Gorgonopsia
1053:Anomodontia
965:crown group
920:Thrinaxodon
888:crown group
850:eucynodonts
821:Myosauridae
797:dicynodonts
742:dicynodonts
738:Guadalupian
734:theriodonts
704:Therapsids
630:Glanosuchus
609:endothermic
534:, an early
506:dicynodonts
456:Guadalupian
448:pelycosaurs
433:quadrupedal
377:Gorgonopsia
355:Anomodontia
194:Chiniquodon
184:Glanosuchus
179:Gorgonopsia
169:Anomodontia
4610:Therapsids
4604:Categories
4587:Therapsida
4524:Therapsida
4494:Therapsida
4447:See also:
4403:Kamagorgon
4393:Dinosaurus
4357:Cynodontia
4346:Cynodontia
4173:Therapsida
4160:Therapsida
4103:see below↓
4094:Therapsida
4024:Dimetrodon
3972:Shashajaia
3756:Milosaurus
3688:Ophiacodon
3535:Dimacrodon
3502:see below↓
3450:Ruthiromia
3435:Aerosaurus
3345:Nitosaurus
3338:Dendromaia
3310:Apsisaurus
3235:Martensius
3221:Euromycter
3002:see below↓
2173:: 165–180.
1951:: 226–229.
1890:: 111207.
1661:: –28589.
1530:References
1444:Cynodontia
1438:Cynodontia
1351:dicynodont
1201:Cynodontia
1112:Cynodontia
996:Therapsida
926:Galesaurus
866:Cretaceous
831:herbivores
771:dicynodont
726:anomodonts
684:See also:
662:Coprolites
637:Integument
595:Physiology
479:pterosaurs
467:sauropsids
441:amphibians
417:Therapsida
393:Cynodontia
309:Therapsida
199:Cynodontia
55:279.5–0 Ma
49:Cisuralian
42:Therapsida
32:Theropsida
4361:includes
4271:includes
4190:Raranimus
4045:Neosaurus
3746:Ianthodon
3471:Varanodon
3331:Eoscansor
3242:Oromycter
3186:Caseopsis
3179:Caseoides
3117:Oedaleops
3047:Synapsida
3034:Synapsida
2993:Synapsida
2914:Tetrapoda
2900:Kingdom:
2884:Synapsida
2741:129791548
2733:1475-4983
2684:214247325
2670:(1): e1.
2641:0567-7920
2561:235403632
2545:0028-1042
2523:(4): 26.
2436:0272-4634
2370:1932-6203
2152:156055693
2144:1573-7055
2084:2045-2322
1996:0031-0182
1857:2158-5520
1800:2041-1723
1734:1471-2970
1677:2050-084X
1627:0567-7920
1544:Broom, R.
1477:from the
1459:mammalian
1354:anomodont
1298:anteosaur
1232:Cynodraco
1217:Raranimus
973:docodonts
939:. By the
826:Kombuisia
805:cynodonts
754:cynodonts
644:docodonts
538:therapsid
486:cynodonts
475:dinosaurs
424:synapsids
336:Raranimus
257:Synapsida
230:Kingdom:
224:Eukaryota
18:Therapsid
4532:BioLib:
4503:Wikidata
4469:Category
4031:Eosyodon
4016:Cutleria
3885:Haptodus
3875:Cutleria
3800:Gordodon
3555:Gorgodon
3545:Driveria
3478:Watongia
3464:Varanops
3387:Cabarzia
3380:Anningia
3135:Caseidae
3110:Eothyris
2908:Chordata
2906:Phylum:
2902:Animalia
2649:56425905
2553:34115204
2498:92370138
2388:23741307
2340:PLOS ONE
2321:28187210
2281:PLOS ONE
2102:27157809
1865:84471370
1818:33046697
1752:31928185
1695:28716184
1635:59143925
1572:(1988).
1546:(1905).
1485:See also
1462:cynodont
1457:, a non-
1290: :
952:diapsids
908:cynodont
874:Jurassic
809:Triassic
785:tetrapod
782:venomous
617:parallel
577:reptiles
557:incisors
498:Triassic
437:reptiles
401:Mammalia
244:Chordata
240:Phylum:
234:Animalia
220:Domain:
154:Moschops
53:Holocene
4548:4522847
4509:Q322241
4363:mammals
3214:Eocasea
2923:Amniota
2848:Palaeos
2711:Bibcode
2588:Bibcode
2525:Bibcode
2416:Bibcode
2379:3669350
2348:Bibcode
2312:5302418
2289:Bibcode
2093:4860582
2064:Bibcode
2020:Bibcode
2012:Lethaia
1976:Bibcode
1928:25 July
1923:Gizmodo
1892:Bibcode
1809:7550344
1780:Bibcode
1743:7017441
1686:5515572
1469:mammals
1366:Suminia
961:Mammals
912:mammals
843:Carnian
714:Permian
706:evolved
571:Posture
561:canines
490:mammals
428:mammals
191:) and
60:mammals
4574:145256
3353:Pyozia
2793:." In
2739:
2731:
2682:
2647:
2639:
2559:
2551:
2543:
2496:
2486:
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2368:
2319:
2309:
2254:
2150:
2142:
2100:
2090:
2082:
1994:
1863:
1855:
1816:
1806:
1798:
1750:
1740:
1732:
1693:
1683:
1675:
1633:
1625:
1586:
858:mammal
839:Pangea
833:, the
720:: the
718:clades
589:lizard
585:mammal
565:molars
504:, the
323:Clades
316:, 1905
4561:11523
4556:IRMNG
4535:18764
3172:Casea
2919:Clade
2737:S2CID
2680:S2CID
2645:S2CID
2557:S2CID
2494:S2CID
2189:(PDF)
2148:S2CID
1861:S2CID
1655:eLife
1631:S2CID
1520:Greek
1507:Notes
769:with
553:teeth
314:Broom
303:Clade
290:Clade
277:Clade
264:Clade
251:Clade
4355:see
4332:see
4297:see
4265:see
4239:see
4213:see
2979:see
2952:see
2729:ISSN
2637:ISSN
2549:PMID
2541:ISSN
2484:ISBN
2432:ISSN
2384:PMID
2366:ISSN
2317:PMID
2252:ISBN
2214:2009
2140:ISSN
2098:PMID
2080:ISSN
1992:ISSN
1930:2024
1853:ISSN
1814:PMID
1796:ISSN
1748:PMID
1730:ISSN
1691:PMID
1673:ISSN
1623:ISSN
1584:ISBN
1427:, a
1393:, a
1349:, a
1318:and
1296:(an
1256:, a
1199:and
946:The
929:and
903:, a
819:and
803:and
748:and
581:axis
477:and
439:and
67:PreꞒ
4543:EoL
2719:doi
2672:doi
2627:doi
2596:doi
2533:doi
2521:108
2476:doi
2424:doi
2374:PMC
2356:doi
2307:PMC
2297:doi
2201:doi
2171:125
2132:doi
2088:PMC
2072:doi
2028:doi
1984:doi
1972:312
1949:179
1900:doi
1888:604
1845:doi
1804:PMC
1788:doi
1738:PMC
1722:doi
1718:375
1681:PMC
1663:doi
1613:doi
1580:698
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