555:
sought to enforce a total school strike since 2017 due to concerns over the lack of
Anglophone teachers and curriculum. Teachers and students have been kidnapped and killed and many schools and school materials burned while many children have had no schooling since the crisis began. Others have alleged that some militias have engaged in ransom attacks against civilians to fund their continued activities. Meanwhile, government forces have torched entire villages suspected of harboring separatists, disappeared and executed civilians without due process, and tortured detainees. Reports of indiscriminate killings, torture, rape and other gender-based violence by both sides have been widely reported. The governments of the United States and Germany have expressed concern over the human rights violations and scaled back or cancelled military cooperation with Cameroon over reported abuses. France, the UK as well as the European Parliament have also expressed concern and pushed for negotiations between the parties to resolve the crisis.
712:
invoking protective magic at their camps. Similarly, some rebels refer to their guns as "bibles" and their attacks as "crusades", whereas others use the terms "sugarcane" or "stick" for weapons and "groundnuts" for cartridges. Lando argued that the usage of more sacrosanct terms by only some rebel factions may had resulted from the internal disagreements within the separatist movement. In contrast, the term "frying popcorn" for combat situations is very common among rebels. When rebels state that they "wasted" an individual, they describe an assassination. Traitors are termed "blacklegs". Those who had suffered amputations, often as a result of torture by rebel militias, are described as "short-sleeved", while the act of cutting off someone's fingers is termed "garri".
473:
leading to clashes between demonstrators and police in which several people were killed. Violence by both sides undermined negotiations in early 2017, which fell apart without an agreement. The violence led to additional demonstrations, general strikes (called "lockdowns"), and further crackdowns by the government into early 2017, including the banning of civil society organizations, cutting off phone and internet connections from
January to April, and arrests of demonstrators. Although the government established a Commission to focus on Anglophone grievances and took steps to address issues of language equity in courts and schools, continued distrust and harsh responses to protests prevented significant deescalation.
532:
497:
56:
44:
679:(SOCADEF), which both cooperate with the ASC on some level. There are also dozens of smaller militias. The insurgent groups differ considerably in their aims and methods, though they generally enjoy some level of grassroots support among the rural population. However, civilian support suffered over the rebellion's course, as a growing number of locals became dissatisfied with the separatists' conduct, rebel infighting, and the conflict's extended duration. Most rebel groups engage to some level in criminal activities such as kidnapping for ransom and illegally taxing the local cocoa industry to sustain themselves.
197:
454:
SCNC. In
October 1999, when many of the accused were found guilty in the 1997 trial, the faction led by Mukete became more assertive. On 1 October 1999, militants took over Radio Buea to proclaim the independence of Southern Cameroons, but failed to do so before security forces intervened. The leadership and many members of the SCNC were subsequently arrested. After clashes with the police, the SCNC was officially declared illegal by the Cameroonian authorities in 2001. In 2006, a faction of SCNC once again declared the independence of Ambazonia.
664:" by researchers. The armed separatists are locally called "Amba Boys". The militias generally vary in size, ranging from small groups to alliances with hundreds of members. The rebel militias are mainly recruited from Anglophone youths who have either lost family members to Cameroonian security forces or believe that they have no future on the labour market of a Francophone Cameroon. Militias are also known to conscript people, including children, into their ranks. Some rebels have also kidnapped girls to serve as sex slaves.
438:(SCNC) as the executive governing body. Younger activists formed the Southern Cameroons Youth League (SCYL) in Buea on 28 May 1995. The SCNC sent a delegation, led by John Foncha, to the United Nations, which was received on 1 June 1995 and presented a petition against the 'annexation' of the Southern Cameroons by French Cameroon. This was followed by a signature referendum the same year, which the organisers claim produced a 99% vote in favour of independence with 315,000 people voting.
266:
618:
the "Southern
Cameroon Broadcasting Corporation" (SCBC) to spread propaganda, and a "Southern Cameroon Ambazonia Education Board" (SCAEB) to enforce a new curriculum in schools in the rebel areas. Currently, a proposal by members of the Ambazonia Interim Government in exile states that the Federal Republic of Ambazonia would be a federation made up of three autonomous states (however, within the proposed constitution in 'Article 1, Section 1.a' this number may be subject to change).
564:
2652:
339:, allowing native authorities to administer the population according to their own traditions. In 1953, the Southern Cameroons delegation at a conference in London asked for a separate region. The British agreed, and Southern Cameroons became an autonomous region with its capital still at Buea. Elections were held in 1954 and the parliament met on 1 October 1954, with
488:. The Cameroonian government stated that the declaration had no legal weight and on 30 November 2017, the President of Cameroon signaled a harder line on separatist attacks on police and soldiers. A massive military deployment accompanied by curfews and forced evacuations of entire villages. This temporarily ended hopes for continued dialogue and kicked off
362:, and as a result was not listed. In the plebiscite, 60% of voters in the Northern Cameroons voted for union with Nigeria, while 70% of voters in the Southern Cameroons opted for union with Cameroon. The results owed partly to a fear of domination by much larger Nigeria. Endeley was defeated in elections on 1 February 1959 by
602:. In course of the insurgency, however, this government-in-exile splintered several times, resulting in infighting and several factions claiming to be the legitimate leadership of Ambazonia. This infighting hampered the coordination among the rebels as well as negotiations between separatists and the Cameroonian government.
617:
In order to provide the separatist movement with some cohesion and strengthen the idea of an
Ambazonian nation state, exile activists have also set up a variety of other organizations to support the Interim Government. These include the "Southern Cameroons Ambazonia Consortium United Front" (SCACUF),
492:
in
Southern Cameroons. Several different armed factions have emerged such as the Red Dragons, Tigers, ARA, Seven Kata, ABL, with varying levels of coordination with and loyalty to Ambazonian political leaders. In practice, pro-independence militias operate largely autonomously from political leaders,
472:
In
November 2016, a number of large protests and strikes were organized, initially by Anglophone lawyers, students, and teachers focused on the growing marginalization of English and Anglophone institutions in the law and education. Several demonstrations were violently dispersed by security forces,
554:
The war has been characterized by guerilla attacks by separatist militias against both security forces and against civilians suspected of collaboration or simply failing to abide militia's declared school and election boycotts or "lockdowns" which prevent all travel and activity. Many militias have
453:
and the SCNC found substantive evidence of admissions through torture and force. The raid and trial resulted in a shutdown of SCNC activities. In response to this, in April 1998 a small faction elected Esoka Ndoki Mukete, a high-ranking member of the Social
Democratic Front, as the new chair of the
711:
in the context of the insurgency. For instance, rebels call their camps "churches", conveying deeper spiritual meaning to these important places where insurgents can organize and hide. Researcher
Roderick Lando also speculated that the term "church" was connected to the rebels conducting rituals
634:
to spread their ideas. In the early phase of the
Anglophone Crisis, the "Southern Cameroons Broadcasting Corporation" (formed by exiles in South Africa) was a major channel to distribute propaganda in Cameroon to incite Anglophones into siding with the rebels. Cameroon attempted to then ban the
428:
In 1993, representatives of Anglophone groups convened the first All Anglophone Conference (AAC1) in Buea. The conference issued the "Buea Declaration", which called for constitutional amendments to restore the 1961 federation. This was followed by the second All Anglophone Conference (AAC2) in
433:
in 1994. This conference issued the "Bamenda Declaration", which stated that if the federal state was not restored within a reasonable time, Southern Cameroons would declare its independence. The AAC was renamed the Southern Cameroons Peoples Conference (SCPC), and later the Southern Cameroons
605:
Despite the Interim Government's internal disputes, its members and other exile activists have maintained some influence over the separatist militias operating in Cameroon itself. For instance, separatist exiles have organized fundraising campaigns which included the introduction of their own
523:
would become the Interim President of the Federal Republic of Ambazonia, temporarily succeeding Ayuk Tabe. However, despite receiving a life sentence on terrorism charges from a Cameroon court, on 2 May 2019, Ayuk Tabe declared from prison the dissolution of Sako's caretaker cabinet and the
159:
actions, with swathes of more remote, rural areas controlled by separatist militias and used to launch guerrilla attacks. Ambazonian forces have struggled to form a united front, and internecine conflicts have hampered efforts to negotiate with Cameroon or establish control over the various
235:" (or sometimes the "NoSo" regions), the official names of the two administrative provinces since 1972. As an alternative to "Ambazonia", separatists have also used "Ambaland". Other sources may also refer to "Southern Cameroons", "Anglophone Cameroon" or "Cameroon's Anglophone regions".
639:, hate speech, propaganda and disinformation have been shown by both sides. The Ambazonians have been accused of using fake news headlines and photo manipulation. Over the course of the insurgency, Ambazonian insurgents have also framed their struggle in religious terms to gain support.
659:
The separatist insurgents involved in the Anglophone Crisis consider themselves loyal to Ambazonia and use the Ambazonian national symbols, but they are split into dozens of often competing militias of changing political allegiances. The militia commanders have been described as
357:
The United Nations organised a plebiscite in the region on 11 February 1961 which put two alternatives to the people: union with Nigeria or union with Cameroon. The third option, independence, was opposed by the British representative to the UN Trusteeship Council,
397:
of the Republic of Cameroon. Pro-independence groups claimed that this violated the constitution, as the majority of deputies from West Cameroon had not consented to legitimize the constitutional changes. They argued that Southern Cameroons had effectively been
635:
channel, but failed as people could still view it on the internet. On the same day the BBC reported that, Voice of America reported that a cable TV distributor got arrested for four days for airing images of the SCBC. On social media platforms such as
2533:
480:(SCACUF). SCACUF unilaterally declared the region's independence as Ambazonia on 1 October, the anniversary of Southern Cameroons' independence from the United Kingdom. SCACUF sought to transition itself into an interim government with its leader,
242:" or "colonial Cameroun". "Banana republic" is used as a criticism of the Cameroonian institutions, whereas "colonial Cameroun" is used to criticize the Francophone dominance. The Ambazonian activists call the war zone of the Anglophone Crisis "
2609:
Jacob, Patience Kondu; Lenshie, Nsemba Edward; Okonkwo, Ifeoma Mary-Marvella; Ezeibe, Christian; Onuoha, Jonah (February 2022). "Ambazonian Separatist Movement in Cameroon and the Dialectics of Cameroonian Refugee Crisis in Nigeria".
413:
was unconstitutional and announced the former Southern Cameroons should become independent as the Republic of Ambazonia. Dinka was incarcerated the following January without trial. Three years later, he escaped to Nigeria.
551:. Peace talks mediated by the Swiss government have fallen apart multiple times, primarily due to factional divisions and lack of actual control over militias by separatist leaders making even preliminary steps difficult.
150:
was met with a violent government crackdown, which led to rioting and violence against security forces and, in 2017, a unilateral declaration of independence by Ambazonian leaders. The violence developed into a
2544:
1550:
786:
In 2017, resentment at perceived discrimination snowballed into the declaration of an independent state -- the 'Federal Republic of Ambazonia,' an entity that is not recognised internationally.
2717:
402:
by Cameroon. Shortly afterwards, French Cameroun's political leadership changed the constitution again, appointed French-speaking Paul Biya as Prime Minister and successor to Ahmadou Ahidjo.
373:. However, the English-speaking peoples of the Southern Cameroons did not believe that they were fairly treated by the 80% majority French-speaking government of the country. Then-president
1040:
17:
227:
is more usually associated with the separatist or independence-seeking faction, while the Cameroonian government and other official sources, such as the UN, continue to refer to the "
484:, as interim president. At least 17 people were killed in protests following the declaration of independence, while fourteen Cameroonian troops were killed in attacks claimed by the
2069:
143:
and resent what they perceive as discrimination and efforts to eliminate Anglophone legal, administrative, educational, and cultural institutions by the Cameroonian government.
1315:
1956:
519:, were arrested and deported to Cameroon into the custody of government forces to face criminal charges. On 4 February 2018, it was announced that US-based preacher Dr.
842:
324:. The French mandate was known as Cameroun, and comprised most of the former German territory. The British mandate was an elongated strip of land along the border of
2671:
1640:
1610:
1284:
Betrayal of Too Trusting a People. The UN, the UK and the Trust Territory of the Southern Cameroons: The UN, the UK and the Trust Territory of the Southern Cameroons
476:
By late 2017, with dialogue efforts moribund and violence continuing on both sides, the leading Ambazonian nationalist movements organized the umbrella organization
1922:
1554:
1973:
654:
2277:
912:
887:
477:
2454:
Lando, Rodrick (2022). "A Survey of Some Anglophone Crisis-induced Semantic Extensions in Contemporary Cameroon English Usage". In Aloysius Ngefac (ed.).
1065:
2308:
819:
2191:"View of VISUAL PROPAGANDA AND (ANTI-)SEPARATISM IN THE CAMEROONIAN CYBERSPACE: A CONCEPTUAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE ROLE OF IMAGES IN THE AMBAZONIA WAR"
1745:
1705:
1692:
924:
238:
To refer to the French-speaking parts of Cameroon, Ambazonian separatists have used the term "la République" and more derogatory descriptors like "
688:) are important to many insurgents, but "de-contextualised Biblical and Koranic verses" are also used in propaganda videos. Rebel leaders such as
2018:
112:, and supportive militias have exerted control over parts of the claimed territory. No country has recognized Ambazonia's existence as of 2024.
1822:
614:; the resulting money is then used to buy weaponry for the militias on the ground. The commanders of some militias also operate from exile.
328:, consisting of Northern Cameroons and Southern Cameroons, including the historical Ambas Bay Protectorate. This territory was organized as
1295:
Nkwi; Nchoji, Paul (2015). The Anthropology of Africa: Challenges for the 21st Century (illustrated, reprint ed.), p. 478. Langaa RPCIG.
378:
2058:
1476:
1451:
2712:
1576:
1438:
155:, and as of 2023, clashes continue, with population centers and strategic locations largely controlled by the government engaged in
1312:
441:
SCNC activities were routinely disrupted by police. On 23 March 1997, about ten people were killed in a raid on a gendarme camp in
1897:
1795:
1719:
1130:
104:
of Cameroon. Since 2017, Ambazonian rebels have engaged in armed conflict with the Cameroonian military, in what is known as the
2265:
377:
feared that Southern Cameroons would secede from the union, taking its natural resources with it. Following a French Cameroon
2692:
2592:
2522:
2465:
2444:
1410:
1364:
1300:
1235:
976:
806:
2584:
Imperialistic politics in Cameroun: resistance & the inception of the restoration of the statehood of southern Cameroons
1706:"Just In-Dr Samuel Ikome Sako Is New Acting Interim President of The 'Federal Republic of Ambazonia' – Cameroon News Agency"
1590:
289:). In 1884, the area became the British Ambas Bay Protectorate, with Victoria as its capital. Britain ceded the area to the
2172:"Inside the Virtual Ambazonia: Separatism, Hate Speech , Disinformation and Diaspora in the Cameroonian Anglophone Crisis"
1618:
1499:
1770:
435:
423:
370:
220:
in 1984 as part of a campaign for the restoration of autonomy and preservation of Anglophone institutions in the region.
1671:
1253:
864:
2633:
With or against us: People of the North-West region of Cameroon caught between the army, armed separatists and militias
2571:
1334:
1271:
Inside the Virtual Ambazonia: Separatism, Hate Speech, Disinformation and Diaspora in the Cameroonian Anglophone Crisis
648:
572:
463:
446:
2119:
1199:
773:
736:
676:
525:
352:
128:
277:
is where the English language was permanently established for the first time in Southern Cameroons, when missionary
2631:
2141:
255:
147:
531:
2707:
2702:
584:
544:
2190:
668:
2697:
2226:
2059:"PROCLAMATION OF RESTORATION OF INDEPENDENCE & INTERIM CONSTITUTION OF The FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF AMBAZONIA"
684:
682:
A significant number of rebels also use religion to justify their operations. Protective magic and charms (
590:
132:
389:, and also gave more power to the president. Southern Cameroons lost its autonomous status and became the
2722:
704:
595:
The separatists assert that Ambazonia is legally governed by the "Interim Government of Ambazonia", as a
394:
390:
232:
228:
101:
97:
68:
64:
543:
As the violence intensified, international efforts to resolve the crisis picked up. On 13 May 2019, the
297:
in 1887. Germany had some trouble establishing control over the hinterlands of Victoria, and fought the
2656:
2477:"Current Insights into the Evolution of Cameroon English: The Contribution of the 'Anglophone Problem'"
692:
have publicly suggested that they enjoy mythical and religious protection to enhance their reputation.
1870:
999:
496:
405:
In a memorandum dated 20 March 1985, Anglophone lawyer and President of the Cameroon Bar Association
321:
55:
43:
449:, an opposition party with significant support in the Anglophone regions. In the subsequent trials,
1844:
1693:
Just In-Dr Samuel Ikome Sako Is New Acting Interim President of The 'Federal Republic of Ambazonia'
941:
672:
485:
359:
445:. The police arrested between 200 and 300 people, mostly SCNC supporters, but also members of the
2476:
516:
481:
2056:
1974:"Cameroon's anglophone conflict has lasted for six years: what citizens say about how to end it"
1746:"Ambazonia Leader Sisiku Ayuktabe Dissolves Sako Caretaker Government, Re-installs Own Cabinet"
596:
513:
86:
1398:
1354:
1225:
843:"Cameroon: Crisis grinds on due to anglophone divisions, Yaoundé's unwillingness to negotiate"
369:
Southern Cameroons federated with Cameroon on 1 October 1961 as "West Cameroon", with its own
450:
2017:
966:
196:
131:
was held, and voters in Southern Cameroons opted to join Cameroon as a constituent state of
1658:
Cameroon's Anglophone crisis: Red Dragons and Tigers – the rebels fighting for independence
1524:
313:
8:
701:
599:
109:
2687:
2499:
2019:"English-speaking villages are burning in Cameroon: A report from a forgotten conflict"
1595:
731:
406:
217:
181:
116:
31:
1134:
2588:
2567:
2518:
2503:
2461:
2440:
1551:"Southern Cameroons gets new government with Sessekou Ayuk Tabe as Interim President"
1406:
1360:
1296:
1231:
1195:
972:
802:
568:
548:
520:
489:
467:
329:
156:
105:
48:
1227:
Southern West Cameroon Revisited (1950–1972) Volume One: Unveiling Inescapable Traps
1166:
Comparing British and French colonial legacies: A discontinuity analysis of Cameroon
888:"Cameroon Separatists Enforce Curfew After President Says Troops Crushing Rebellion"
820:"Cameroon: how language plunged a country into deadly conflict with no end in sight"
2619:
2491:
1720:"Cameroon: Separatist leader and followers handed life sentences | DW | 20.08.2019"
1525:"A Turn for the Worse: Violence and Human Rights Violations in Anglophone Cameroon"
382:
340:
325:
120:
2623:
2057:
Interim Government Official Site – Federal Republic of Ambazonia (17 March 2018).
2582:
2564:
In Search of an Independent Ambazonian Nation: Dimensions of Identity and Freedom
2512:
2455:
2434:
2109:
1657:
1382:, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, 31 January 2001. Accessed 10 May 2019.
1338:
1319:
1257:
689:
363:
286:
239:
139:, expanded at the expense of the region's autonomy. Many inhabitants identify as
124:
1379:
607:
509:
374:
381:
on 20 May 1972, a new constitution was adopted in Cameroon which replaced the
2681:
1250:
386:
336:
290:
152:
2490:(3). Athens: Athens Institute for Education and Research (ATINER): 233–260.
1331:
265:
2534:"The Anglophone conflict in Cameroon – historical and political background"
2095:
1923:"Several killed in Cameroon as anglophones declare 'independent Ambazonia'"
1823:"Caught in the middle: Peace activists in Cameroon try to end a brutal war"
1611:"Biya declares war on Anglophone separatists – The SUN Newspaper, Cameroon"
631:
508:
On 5 January 2018, members of the Ambazonia Interim Government in exile in
278:
165:
136:
925:
Briefing: Cameroon's intensifying conflict and what it means for civilians
2171:
309:
302:
274:
243:
209:
140:
2495:
2460:. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 116–129.
2433:
DeLancey, Mark Dike; DeLancey, Mark W.; Mbuh, Rebecca Neh, eds. (2019).
1896:
Searcey, Dionne; Eric, Schmitt; Thomas, Gibbons-Neff (7 February 2019).
399:
298:
185:
89:
2674:, Africa Intelligence, February 22, 2023 (requires free registration)
2309:"Why the spoils of war may outweigh incentives for peace in Cameroon"
2142:"Cameroon Arrests Cable TV Distributors Over 'Separatist' Broadcasts"
2000:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1022:
1020:
671:(ASC) under the Interim Government. Major non-ASC groups include the
563:
410:
282:
213:
164:
engaged in the fighting. Ongoing violence has led to widely reported
2266:
Cameroon: I spent a week embedded with Anglophone armed separatists
1441:, The New Humanitarian, 19 February 2007. Accessed 27 October 2019.
721:
636:
627:
611:
571:
by 2023, with Ambazonian separatist control or presence marked per
169:
93:
60:
35:
1991:
1017:
2096:
Cameroon's Separatist War: Anglophone Grievances and its Diaspora
1641:"Cameroon escalates military crackdown on Anglophone separatists"
927:, The New Humanitarian, 6 February 2020. Accessed 18 August 2021.
661:
442:
430:
294:
173:
161:
2664:
2066:
Interim Government Official Site – Federal Republic of Ambazonia
1898:"U.S. Reduces Military Aid to Cameroon Over Human Rights Abuses"
1695:, Cameroon News Agency, 4 February 2018. Accessed 19 April 2018.
27:
Political entity proclaimed by Cameroon's Anglophone separatists
2651:
726:
536:
317:
135:. Over time, the power of the central government, dominated by
1313:
Cameroon's anglophone war, Part 1: A rifle as the only way out
524:
restoration of his own cabinet. Sako resisted, leading to the
2718:
Members of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
1971:
1771:"UN Security Council to Discuss Cameroon's Escalating Crisis"
1427:
Sovereignty in the Making: The Case of Anglophone Cameroon. 2
708:
96:. The separatists claim that Ambazonia should consist of the
1796:"Cameroon: UN Security Council to discuss Anglophone crisis"
2514:
The Anthropology of Africa: Challenges for the 21st Century
2246:
2244:
2098:(Report). South African Institute of International Affairs.
2026:. No. 7 November 2019. 9 November 2019. pp. 41–42
1577:"Cameroon government 'declares war' on secessionist rebels"
1380:
March 1997 incidents in the north-west province CMR36066.E'
1000:"Gorji Dinka Releases Ambazonia Message | CameroonPostline"
501:
246:", a reference to the destruction caused by the civil war.
177:
707:. However, separatist forces have also developed a unique
2608:
2114:
1452:"Cameroon teachers, lawyers strike in battle for English"
123:
while the rest of Cameroon was a French trust territory,
2386:
2362:
2326:
2241:
2110:"Cameroon bans 'opposition' English-language TV channel"
1672:"Who are Cameroon's self-named Ambazonia secessionists?"
1098:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1090:
865:"Who are Cameroon's self-named Ambazonia secessionists?"
776:. Voice of America. Agence France-Presse. 11 August 2022
2672:
US plays unwilling host to Cameroon's rebel fundraisers
1500:"Cameroon restores internet to English-speaking region"
1113:
1111:
756:
754:
752:
285:
in 1858, which was later renamed Victoria (present-day
63:
claimed by separatists, corresponding to the country's
2195:
ETHIOINQUIRY Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
1698:
1212:
The 'Igbo scare' in the British Cameroons, c. 1945–61.
918:
840:
655:
List of Ambazonian commanders in the Anglophone Crisis
578:
417:
2283:
2038:
1957:
Cameroon's Separatist Movement Is Going International
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1155:
The Cameroon Tribune, No. 600, p. 2, 26 December 1996
1087:
1041:"Cameroon Head of State's Message to the Nation 2019"
457:
2432:
2410:
2398:
2374:
2350:
2338:
2227:"Amba Boys: Transforming Pacifists into Warmongers?"
2004:
1959:, Foreign Policy, 13 May 2019. Accessed 14 May 2019.
1214:
The Journal of African History 31.2 (1990): 281–293.
1108:
1026:
749:
626:
Ambazonian separatists have a major presence in the
478:
Southern Cameroons Ambazonia Consortium United Front
18:
Southern Cameroons Ambazonia Consortium United Front
1591:"Cameroon's English-speakers call for independence"
115:Until 1961, the territory of these regions was the
2439:(5th ed.). London: Rowman & Littlefield.
2280:, Crisis Group, May 2, 2019. Accessed May 2, 2019.
2278:Cameroon's Anglophone Crisis: How to Get to Talks?
1967:
1965:
1941:
1670:Frohlich, Silja; Kopp, Dirke (30 September 2019).
1177:DeLancey, Mark W., and Mark Dike DeLancey (2000):
1066:"Cameroon Humanitarian Response Plan (March 2021)"
913:Cameroon's Anglophone Crisis: How to Get to Talks?
906:
2436:Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon
2010:
1895:
1352:
1190:Nohlen, D, Krennerich, M & Thibaut, B (1999)
1181:(3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press.
1179:Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon
964:
797:Nohlen, D, Krennerich, M & Thibaut, B (1999)
335:The British administered the territories through
260:
208:, the local name for the bay at the mouth of the
30:Not to be confused with the historical colony of
2679:
2580:
2170:Jules Roger, Sombaye Eyango (14 December 2018).
1972:Gordon Crawford; Maurice Beseng (30 July 2023).
1849:HRW World Report 2020: Rights Trends in Cameroon
1477:"Cameroon's Anglophone Crisis at the Crossroads"
1045:Republic of Cameroon: Presidency of the Republic
943:HRW World Report 2020: Rights Trends in Cameroon
915:, Crisis Group, 2 May 2019. Accessed 2 May 2019.
2517:(illustrated, reprint ed.). Langaa RPCIG.
2306:
2189:Endong, Floribert Patrick C. (31 August 2023).
1962:
1660:, BBC, 4 October 2018. Accessed 4 October 2018.
1553:. Cameroon Concord. 9 July 2017. Archived from
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1332:Southern Cameroons Peoples Organisation website
1322:, IPP Media, 9 July 2018. Accessed 9 July 2018.
1286:, pp. 108–111. African Books Collective, 2009.
774:""Cameroon Military Executing, Abusing" - HRW"
204:The term "Ambazonia" is derived from the word
1168:, p. 10 APSA 2011 Annual Meeting Paper. 2011.
409:wrote that the Cameroonian government led by
2224:
1669:
1396:
1223:
817:
191:
2541:Arnold-Bergstraesser-Institut Working Paper
2268:, RFI, Jun 14, 2018. Accessed Jun 14, 2018.
2169:
1651:
1479:. International Crisis Group. 2 August 2017
200:Colonial-era map showing Ambas Bay far left
2612:Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies
2510:
2261:
2259:
1348:
1346:
1403:Political Handbook of the World 2016–2017
1359:. Europa Publications. pp. 163–164.
971:. Lynne Rienner Publishers. pp. 6–.
2587:. African Books Collective. p. 60.
1519:
1517:
1497:
1164:Lee, Alexander, and Kenneth A. Schultz.
958:
935:
933:
885:
841:Nancy-Wangue Moussissa (2 August 2022).
562:
530:
495:
281:founded a settlement of freed slaves by
269:Boundary changes of Cameroon, 1901–1961.
264:
195:
54:
42:
2531:
2484:Athens Journal of Humanities & Arts
2289:
2256:
2250:
1343:
1102:
879:
547:had an informal meeting to discuss the
434:Peoples Organisation (SCAPO), with the
14:
2680:
2639:. London: Amnesty International. 2023.
2474:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2188:
2044:
1851:. Human Rights Watch. 10 December 2019
946:. Human Rights Watch. 10 December 2019
760:
85:, is a political entity proclaimed by
2453:
2416:
2404:
2392:
2380:
2368:
2356:
2344:
2332:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2165:
2163:
2093:
1915:
1820:
1531:. Amnesty International. 11 June 2018
1514:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1131:"The Early Times in Victoria (Limbe)"
1117:
930:
667:Many guerilla groups have joined the
2618:(2). Taylor & Francis: 386–401.
2561:
2532:Pelican, Michaela (September 2022).
1871:"Cameroon: New Abuses by Both Sides"
1686:
1373:
1192:Elections in Africa: A data handbook
799:Elections in Africa: A data handbook
558:
500:Destroyed vehicles after a clash in
2295:
2122:from the original on 10 August 2024
2075:from the original on 7 January 2023
1877:. Human Rights Watch. 2 August 2021
579:Interim government and exile groups
436:Southern Cameroons National Council
424:Southern Cameroons National Council
418:Southern Cameroons National Council
24:
2555:
2213:
2160:
2005:DeLancey, DeLancey & Mbuh 2019
1743:
1385:
1269:Roger, Jules, and Sombaye Eyango.
1027:DeLancey, DeLancey & Mbuh 2019
649:List of Ambazonian militant groups
458:Protests and civil war in Cameroon
346:
92:who are seeking independence from
25:
2734:
2644:
2225:Alex Purcell (28 November 2023).
1617:. 5 December 2017. Archived from
886:Kindzeka, Moki (2 January 2023).
737:Timeline of the Anglophone Crisis
677:Southern Cameroons Defence Forces
567:Map of military situation of the
526:2019 Ambazonian leadership crisis
353:1961 British Cameroons referendum
273:The area around the mouth of the
2713:Territorial disputes of Cameroon
2650:
2581:Carlson Anyangwe (August 2008).
2307:R. Maxwell Bone (19 July 2022).
1498:Caldwell, Mark (21 April 2017).
1038:
316:, Kamerun was divided between a
256:Origins of the Anglophone Crisis
168:abuses by both sides, including
51:, used by separatists since 1999
2271:
2182:
2134:
2102:
2087:
2050:
1889:
1863:
1837:
1814:
1788:
1763:
1737:
1712:
1663:
1633:
1603:
1583:
1569:
1543:
1491:
1469:
1444:
1432:
1419:
1356:Africa South of the Sahara 2004
1353:Katharine Murison, ed. (2003).
1325:
1306:
1289:
1276:
1263:
1244:
1230:. Langaa RPCIG. pp. 217–.
1217:
1204:
1184:
1171:
1158:
1149:
1123:
1058:
1032:
992:
818:Rogers Orock (11 August 2022).
642:
585:Interim Government of Ambazonia
545:United Nations Security Council
180:and other gender-based crimes,
2566:. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
2426:
1405:. CQ Press. pp. 236–246.
1224:Ndi, Anthony (16 March 2014).
968:Politics in Francophone Africa
857:
834:
811:
791:
766:
700:Ambazonians generally use the
669:Ambazonia Self-Defence Council
464:2016–2017 Cameroonian protests
261:Colonial contest in the region
119:of a British trust territory,
13:
1:
2624:10.1080/15562948.2022.2037807
2543:. No. 20. Archived from
2457:Aspects of Cameroon Englishes
742:
148:a widespread protest movement
79:Federal Republic of Ambazonia
2693:Former British protectorates
2562:Akoh, Harry A., ed. (2024).
2475:Nkwain, Joseph (July 2022).
940:"Cameroon: Events of 2019".
591:Ambazonian leadership crisis
7:
2511:Nkwi; Nchoji, Paul (2015).
1821:Craig, Jess (1 June 2021).
1615:The SUN Newspaper, Cameroon
715:
695:
212:river, known in English as
10:
2739:
1845:"Cameroon: Events of 2019"
1397:Tom Lansdorf, ed. (2017).
1260:African Elections Database
965:Victor T. Le Vine (2004).
652:
646:
588:
582:
461:
421:
350:
253:
249:
29:
1337:27 September 2007 at the
493:who are mostly in exile.
490:full-fledged guerilla war
322:League of Nations Mandate
216:. The name was coined by
192:Etymology and terminology
1256:3 September 2011 at the
673:Ambazonia Defence Forces
621:
486:Ambazonia Defence Forces
108:, attempted to set up a
1802:(in French). 5 May 2019
867:. DW. 30 September 2019
517:Sisiku Julius Ayuk Tabe
482:Sisiku Ayuk Tabe Julius
447:Social Democratic Front
2708:Separatism in Cameroon
2703:Independence movements
2094:Orock, Rogers (2021).
1825:. The New Humanitarian
1210:Amaazee, Victor Bong.
630:, and effectively use
575:
540:
505:
270:
201:
182:unjustified detentions
170:indiscriminate killing
71:
52:
1251:Elections in Cameroon
566:
539:, South West Cameroon
534:
504:, South West Cameroon
499:
451:Amnesty International
379:unilateral referendum
268:
199:
58:
46:
2698:Politics of Cameroon
2659:at Wikimedia Commons
2550:on 16 November 2022.
2313:The New Humanitarian
1750:Cameroon News Agency
1004:cameroonpostline.com
535:Destroyed school in
314:Treaty of Versailles
77:, alternatively the
2496:10.30958/ajha.9-3-3
2395:, pp. 125–126.
2371:, pp. 121–123.
2335:, pp. 120–126.
1800:Journal du Cameroun
1425:Elong, Eric Ebolo.
1318:9 July 2018 at the
1282:Anyangwe, Carlson.
845:. The Africa Report
702:Cameroonian English
600:government in exile
127:. At independence,
110:government-in-exile
2723:Proposed countries
2118:. 30 August 2017.
1708:. 4 February 2018.
1647:. 6 December 2017.
1579:. 4 December 2017.
822:. The Conversation
732:Southern Cameroons
576:
541:
506:
407:Fongum Gorji Dinka
271:
202:
146:In 2016 and 2017,
133:a federal republic
83:State of Ambazonia
72:
53:
32:Southern Cameroons
2655:Media related to
2594:978-9956-558-50-6
2524:978-9956-792-79-5
2467:978-1-5275-8028-2
2446:978-1-5381-1967-9
2253:, pp. 16–17.
1456:www.aljazeera.com
1412:978-1-5063-2715-0
1366:978-1-85743-183-4
1301:978-9956-792-79-5
1237:978-9956-791-44-6
978:978-1-58826-249-3
807:978-0-19-829645-4
569:Anglophone Crisis
559:Separatist forces
549:Anglophone Crisis
521:Samuel Ikome Sako
468:Anglophone Crisis
330:British Cameroons
157:counterinsurgency
106:Anglophone Crisis
59:Territory within
49:flag of Ambazonia
16:(Redirected from
2730:
2668:
2667:
2665:Official website
2654:
2640:
2638:
2627:
2605:
2603:
2601:
2577:
2551:
2549:
2538:
2528:
2507:
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2222:
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2180:
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2167:
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2157:
2155:
2153:
2148:. 30 August 2017
2146:Voice of America
2138:
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2100:
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2084:
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2042:
2036:
2035:
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2031:
2021:
2014:
2008:
2002:
1989:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1978:The Conversation
1969:
1960:
1954:
1939:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1929:. 2 October 2017
1919:
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1783:
1781:
1775:Voice of America
1767:
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1756:
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1734:
1732:
1730:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1702:
1696:
1690:
1684:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1674:. Deutsche Welle
1667:
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1607:
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1562:
1547:
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1521:
1512:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1502:. Deutsche Welle
1495:
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1202:
1188:
1182:
1175:
1169:
1162:
1156:
1153:
1147:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1133:. Archived from
1127:
1121:
1115:
1106:
1100:
1085:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1075:. United Nations
1070:
1062:
1056:
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899:
892:Voice of America
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827:
815:
809:
795:
789:
788:
783:
781:
770:
764:
758:
395:Southwest Region
391:Northwest Region
360:Sir Andrew Cohen
341:E. M. L. Endeley
326:Colonial Nigeria
233:Southwest Region
229:Northwest Region
121:British Cameroon
102:Southwest Region
98:Northwest Region
69:Southwest Region
65:Northwest Region
21:
2738:
2737:
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2574:
2558:
2556:Further reading
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2257:
2249:
2242:
2232:
2230:
2229:. Grey Dynamics
2223:
2214:
2204:
2202:
2187:
2183:
2176:Master's Theses
2168:
2161:
2151:
2149:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2125:
2123:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2092:
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2043:
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2016:
2015:
2011:
2003:
1992:
1982:
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1963:
1955:
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1677:
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1668:
1664:
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1639:
1638:
1634:
1624:
1622:
1621:on 31 July 2018
1609:
1608:
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1589:
1588:
1584:
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1560:
1558:
1557:on 25 July 2020
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1378:
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1351:
1344:
1339:Wayback Machine
1330:
1326:
1320:Wayback Machine
1311:
1307:
1294:
1290:
1281:
1277:
1273:, p. 28 (2018).
1268:
1264:
1258:Wayback Machine
1249:
1245:
1238:
1222:
1218:
1209:
1205:
1189:
1185:
1176:
1172:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1150:
1140:
1138:
1137:on 7 March 2016
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718:
698:
690:General No Pity
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645:
624:
593:
587:
581:
561:
470:
462:Main articles:
460:
426:
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364:John Ngu Foncha
355:
349:
347:1961 referendum
263:
258:
252:
240:banana republic
218:Fon Gorji Dinka
194:
125:French Cameroon
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2736:
2726:
2725:
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2705:
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2646:
2645:External links
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2419:, p. 126.
2409:
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2397:
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2373:
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2349:
2347:, p. 120.
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2068:. p. 24.
2049:
2047:, p. 235.
2037:
2009:
1990:
1961:
1940:
1914:
1902:New York Times
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1120:, p. 124.
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763:, p. 245.
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697:
694:
675:(ADF) and the
647:Main article:
644:
641:
623:
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608:cryptocurrency
583:Main article:
580:
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560:
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510:Abuja, Nigeria
459:
456:
422:Main article:
419:
416:
375:Ahmadou Ahidjo
371:prime minister
351:Main article:
348:
345:
320:and a British
301:against local
262:
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254:Main article:
251:
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193:
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172:of civilians,
162:militia groups
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2116:
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2097:
2090:
2071:
2067:
2060:
2053:
2046:
2041:
2025:
2024:The Economist
2020:
2013:
2007:, p. 48.
2006:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1979:
1975:
1968:
1966:
1958:
1953:
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597:provisional
310:World War I
275:Wouri River
244:Ground Zero
186:kidnappings
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308:Following
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