Seed - Knowledge

29: 1275:(Lodoicea maldivica). This indicates a 25 Billion fold difference in seed weight. Plants that produce smaller seeds can generate many more seeds per flower, while plants with larger seeds invest more resources into those seeds and normally produce fewer seeds. Small seeds are quicker to ripen and can be dispersed sooner, so autumn all blooming plants often have small seeds. Many annual plants produce great quantities of smaller seeds; this helps to ensure at least a few will end in a favorable place for growth. Herbaceous perennials and woody plants often have larger seeds; they can produce seeds over many years, and larger seeds have more energy reserves for germination and seedling growth and produce larger, more established seedlings after germination. 1650:). Seed dormancy is defined as a seed failing to germinate under environmental conditions optimal for germination, normally when the environment is at a suitable temperature with proper soil moisture. This true dormancy or innate dormancy is therefore caused by conditions within the seed that prevent germination. Thus dormancy is a state of the seed, not of the environment. Induced dormancy, enforced dormancy or seed quiescence occurs when a seed fails to germinate because the external environmental conditions are inappropriate for germination, mostly in response to conditions being too dark or light, too cold or hot, or too dry. 1796:, in some plants, including a number of grasses and those from seasonally arid regions, is needed before they will germinate. The seeds are released, but need to have a lower moisture content before germination can begin. If the seeds remain moist after dispersal, germination can be delayed for many months or even years. Many herbaceous plants from temperate climate zones have physiological dormancy that disappears with drying of the seeds. Other species will germinate after dispersal only under very narrow temperature ranges, but as the seeds dry, they are able to germinate over a wider temperature range. 869: 1925:

plus the rate of germination. This is given as a percent of germination over a certain amount of time, 90% germination in 20 days, for example. 'Dormancy' is covered above; many plants produce seeds with varying degrees of dormancy, and different seeds from the same fruit can have different degrees of dormancy. It's possible to have seeds with no dormancy if they are dispersed right away and do not dry (if the seeds dry they go into physiological dormancy). There is great variation amongst plants and a dormant seed is still a viable seed even though the germination rate might be very low.

1715:, germination is prevented due to morphological characteristics of the embryo. In some species, the embryo is just a mass of cells when seeds are dispersed; it is not differentiated. Before germination can take place, both differentiation and growth of the embryo have to occur. In other species, the embryo is differentiated but not fully grown (underdeveloped) at dispersal, and embryo growth up to a species specific length is required before germination can occur. Examples of plant families where morphological dormancy occurs are 1395: 790: 464: 771: 255: 2623: 1943:. The rate of imbibition is dependent on the permeability of the seed coat, amount of water in the environment and the area of contact the seed has to the source of water. For some seeds, imbibing too much water too quickly can kill the seed. For some seeds, once water is imbibed the germination process cannot be stopped, and drying then becomes fatal. Other seeds can imbibe and lose water a few times without causing ill effects, but drying can cause secondary dormancy. 2122: 2010:

harvested while the seeds are still immature and the seed coat is not fully developed and sown right away before the seed coat become impermeable. Under natural conditions, seed coats are worn down by rodents chewing on the seed, the seeds rubbing against rocks (seeds are moved by the wind or water currents), by undergoing freezing and thawing of surface water, or passing through an animal's digestive tract. In the latter case, the seed coat protects the seed from

355: 6497: 2026:, also called moist-chilling, breaks down physiological dormancy, and involves the addition of moisture to the seeds so they absorb water, and they are then subjected to a period of moist chilling to after-ripen the embryo. Sowing in late summer and fall and allowing to overwinter under cool conditions is an effective way to stratify seeds; some seeds respond more favorably to periods of oscillating temperatures which are a part of the natural environment. 850: 1884: 1407: 1120: 2779: 1907:

while it is still in the fruit or after it is dispersed. Environmental conditions like flooding or heat can kill the seed before or during germination. The age of the seed affects its health and germination ability: since the seed has a living embryo, over time cells die and cannot be replaced. Some seeds can live for a long time before germination, while others can only survive for a short period after dispersal before they die.

989:, and the inner endosperm layer as vitellus. Although misleading, the term began to be applied to all the nutrient matter. This terminology persists in referring to endospermic seeds as "albuminous". The nature of this material is used in both describing and classifying seeds, in addition to the embryo to endosperm size ratio. The endosperm may be considered to be farinaceous (or mealy) in which the cells are filled with 1252: 2793: 1597:). Elaiosomes are soft, fleshy structures that contain nutrients for animals that eat them. The ants carry such seeds back to their nest, where the elaiosomes are eaten. The remainder of the seed, which is hard and inedible to the ants, then germinates either within the nest or at a removal site where the seed has been discarded by the ants. This dispersal relationship is an example of 1811:* is caused by conditions after the seed has been dispersed and occurs in some seeds when nondormant seed is exposed to conditions that are not favorable to germination, very often high temperatures. The mechanisms of secondary dormancy are not yet fully understood, but might involve the loss of sensitivity in receptors in the plasma membrane. 1159:. Bitegmic seeds form a testa from the outer integument and a tegmen from the inner integument while unitegmic seeds have only one integument. Usually, parts of the testa or tegmen form a hard protective mechanical layer. The mechanical layer may prevent water penetration and germination. Amongst the barriers may be the presence of 2138: 623:

and the other sperm is not used. Sometimes each sperm fertilizes an egg cell and one zygote is then aborted or absorbed during early development. The seed is composed of the embryo (the result of fertilization) and tissue from the mother plant, which also form a cone around the seed in coniferous plants such as

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species, have multiple types of dormancy, one affects radicle (root) growth, while the other affects plumule (shoot) growth. The terms "double dormancy" and "two-year seeds" are used for species whose seeds need two years to complete germination or at least two winters and one summer. Dormancy of the

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considers species that lack physiological dormancy, but where a chemical prevents germination. This chemical can be leached out of the seed by rainwater or snow melt or be deactivated somehow. Leaching of chemical inhibitors from the seed by rain water is often cited as an important cause of dormancy

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which contains the seed and serves to disseminate it. Many structures commonly referred to as "seeds" are actually dry fruits. Sunflower seeds are sometimes sold commercially while still enclosed within the hard wall of the fruit, which must be split open to reach the seed. Different groups of plants

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described here) both inner and outer integuments contribute to the seed coat formation. With continuing maturation the cells enlarge in the outer integument. While the inner epidermis may remain a single layer, it may also divide to produce two to three layers and accumulates starch, and is referred

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naturally accomplish this task. For seeds planted in gardens, running water is best – if soaked in a container, 12 to 24 hours of soaking is sufficient. Soaking longer, especially in stagnant water, can result in oxygen starvation and seed death. Seeds with hard seed coats can be soaked in hot

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is the length of time it takes for the seeds to germinate. Germination percentages and rates are affected by seed viability, dormancy and environmental effects that impact on the seed and seedling. In agriculture and horticulture quality seeds have high viability, measured by germination percentage

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Seed germination is a process by which a seed embryo develops into a seedling. It involves the reactivation of the metabolic pathways that lead to growth and the emergence of the radicle or seed root and plumule or shoot. The emergence of the seedling above the soil surface is the next phase of the

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seeds are striped with parallel, longitudinal lines or ridges. The most common colours are brown and black, with other colours appearing less frequently. The surface texture varies from highly polished to considerably roughened. The surface may also have a variety of appendages (see Seed coat), and

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The maturing ovule undergoes marked changes in the integuments, generally a reduction and disorganization but occasionally a thickening. The seed coat forms from the two integuments or outer layers of cells of the ovule, which derive from tissue from the mother plant, the inner integument forms the

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roots form the sides. Here the hypocotyl is a rudimentary axis between radicle and plumule. The seeds of corn are constructed with these structures; pericarp, scutellum (single large cotyledon) that absorbs nutrients from the endosperm, plumule, radicle, coleoptile, and coleorhiza – these last

327:(flowering plants) seeds consist of three genetically distinct constituents: (1) the embryo formed from the zygote, (2) the endosperm, which is normally triploid, (3) the seed coat from tissue derived from the maternal tissue of the ovule. In angiosperms, the process of seed development begins with 312:

Angiosperm seeds are "enclosed seeds", produced in a hard or fleshy structure called a fruit that encloses them for protection. Some fruits have layers of both hard and fleshy material. In gymnosperms, no special structure develops to enclose the seeds, which begin their development "naked" on the

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Seed viability is the ability of the embryo to germinate and is affected by a number of different conditions. Some plants do not produce seeds that have functional complete embryos, or the seed may have no embryo at all, often called empty seeds. Predators and pathogens can damage or kill the seed

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In gymnosperms, which do not form ovaries, the ovules and hence the seeds are exposed. This is the basis for their nomenclature – naked seeded plants. Two sperm cells transferred from the pollen do not develop the seed by double fertilization, but one sperm nucleus unites with the egg nucleus

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And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so. And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after its kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in

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is seed sensitivity to heat or cold. Some seeds, including cocklebur and amaranth, germinate only at high temperatures (30 °C or 86 °F); many plants that have seeds that germinate in early to midsummer have thermodormancy, so germinate only when the soil temperature is warm. Other seeds

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Seeds have been considered to occur in many structurally different types (Martin 1946). These are based on a number of criteria, of which the dominant one is the embryo-to-seed size ratio. This reflects the degree to which the developing cotyledons absorb the nutrients of the endosperm, and thus

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As the cells enlarge, and starch is deposited in the outer layers of the pigmented zone below the outer epidermis, this zone begins to lignify, while the cells of the outer epidermis enlarge radially and their walls thicken, with nucleus and cytoplasm compressed into the outer layer. these cells

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allows water and gases to penetrate into the seed; it includes methods to physically break the hard seed coats or soften them by chemicals, such as soaking in hot water or poking holes in the seed with a pin or rubbing them on sandpaper or cracking with a press or hammer. Sometimes fruits are

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are viviparous; they begin to germinate while still attached to the parent. The large, heavy root allows the seed to penetrate into the ground when it falls. Many garden plant seeds will germinate readily as soon as they have water and are warm enough; though their wild ancestors may have had

499:). The cotyledons are also the source of nutrients in the non-endospermic dicotyledons, in which case they replace the endosperm, and are thick and leathery. In endospermic seeds, the cotyledons are thin and papery. Dicotyledons have the point of attachment opposite one another on the axis. 2049:, sodium hypochlorite, and others. Some seeds germinate best after a fire. For some seeds, fire cracks hard seed coats, while in others, chemical dormancy is broken in reaction to the presence of smoke. Liquid smoke is often used by gardeners to assist in the germination of these species. 1741:

includes seeds with underdeveloped embryos, and also have physiological components to dormancy. These seeds, therefore, require a dormancy-breaking treatments, as well as a period of time to develop fully grown embryos. Plant families where morphophysiological dormancy occurs include

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for nutrition during germination and the early growth of the seedling. Some terrestrial orchid seedlings, in fact, spend the first few years of their lives deriving energy from the fungi and do not produce green leaves. At up to 55 pounds (25 kilograms) the largest seed is the

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Six types occur amongst the monocotyledons, ten in the dicotyledons, and two in the gymnosperms (linear and spatulate). This classification is based on three characteristics: embryo morphology, amount of endosperm and the position of the embryo relative to the endosperm.

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Three fundamental conditions must exist before germination can occur. (1) The embryo must be alive, called seed viability. (2) Any dormancy requirements that prevent germination must be overcome. (3) The proper environmental conditions must exist for germination.

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In the majority of flowering plants, the zygote's first division is transversely oriented in regards to the long axis, and this establishes the polarity of the embryo. The upper or chalazal pole becomes the main area of growth of the embryo, while the lower or

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Other methods used to assist in the germination of seeds that have dormancy include prechilling, predrying, daily alternation of temperature, light exposure, potassium nitrate, the use of plant growth regulators, such as gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene,

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Seed dormancy has two main functions: the first is synchronizing germination with the optimal conditions for survival of the resulting seedling; the second is spreading germination of a batch of seeds over time so a catastrophe (e.g. late frosts, drought,

1189:. If the exotesta is also the mechanical layer, this is called an exotestal seed, but if the mechanical layer is the endotegmen, then the seed is endotestal. The exotesta may consist of one or more rows of cells that are elongated and pallisade like (e.g. 1675:

to water. At dormancy break, a specialized structure, the 'water gap', is disrupted in response to environmental cues, especially temperature, so water can enter the seed and germination can occur. Plant families where physical dormancy occurs include

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Often, seed dormancy is divided into four major categories: exogenous; endogenous; combinational; and secondary. A more recent system distinguishes five classes: morphological, physiological, morphophysiological, physical, and combinational dormancy.

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Seeds are very diverse in size. The dust-like orchid seeds are the smallest, with about one million seeds per gram; they are often embryonic seeds with immature embryos and no significant energy reserves. Orchids and a few other groups of plants are

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dicotyledons the endosperm is absorbed by the embryo as the latter grows within the developing seed, and the cotyledons of the embryo become filled with stored food. At maturity, seeds of these species have no endosperm and are also referred to as

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Also called growing true, refers to plants whose seed will yield the same type of plant as the original plant. Open pollinated plants, which include heirlooms, will almost always grow true to seed if another variety does not cross-pollinate them.

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cells. In the inner epidermis, the cells also enlarge radially with plate like thickening of the walls. The mature inner integument has a palisade layer, a pigmented zone with 15–20 layers, while the innermost layer is known as the fringe layer.

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and the zygote. Right after fertilization, the zygote is mostly inactive, but the primary endosperm divides rapidly to form the endosperm tissue. This tissue becomes the food the young plant will consume until the roots have developed after

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Seed production in natural plant populations varies widely from year to year in response to weather variables, insects and diseases, and internal cycles within the plants themselves. Over a 20-year period, for example, forests composed of

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In order for the seed coat to split, the embryo must imbibe (soak up water), which causes it to swell, splitting the seed coat. However, the nature of the seed coat determines how rapidly water can penetrate and subsequently initiate

582:.) The testae of both monocots and dicots are often marked with patterns and textured markings, or have wings or tufts of hair. When the seed coat forms from only one layer, it is also called the testa, though not all such testae are 2765:

Who causeth the seed-grain and the date-stone to split and sprout. He causeth the living to issue from the dead, and He is the one to cause the dead to issue from the living. That is Allah: then how are ye deluded away from the

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Seeds protect and nourish the embryo or young plant. They usually give a seedling a faster start than a sporeling from a spore, because of the larger food reserves in the seed and the multicellularity of the enclosed embryo.

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means the embryo, due to physiological causes, cannot generate enough power to break through the seed coat, endosperm or other covering structures. Dormancy is typically broken at cool wet, warm wet, or warm dry conditions.

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may be able to penetrate into the dormant embryo. The presence of light or the absence of light may trigger the germination process, inhibiting germination in some seeds buried too deeply or in others not buried in the

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grasses. Particularly in developing countries, a major constraint faced is the inadequacy of the marketing channels to get the seed to poor farmers. Thus the use of farmer-retained seed remains quite common.

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are often effective in breaking down hard seed coats and are sometimes used by people as a treatment; the seeds are stored in a moist warm sandy medium for several months under nonsterile conditions.

1805:, the seed or fruit coat is impermeable to water and the embryo has physiological dormancy. Depending on the species, physical dormancy can be broken before or after physiological dormancy is broken. 1601:, since the plants depend upon the ants to disperse seeds, while the ants depend upon the plants seeds for food. As a result, a drop in numbers of one partner can reduce success of the other. In 918:. The scutellum is pressed closely against the endosperm from which it absorbs food and passes it to the growing parts. Embryo descriptors include small, straight, bent, curved, and curled. 2184:

produced from 0 to nearly 5.5 million sound pine seeds per hectare. Over this period, there were six bumper, five poor, and nine good seed crops, when evaluated for production of adequate

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The following types of seed dormancy do not involve seed dormancy, strictly speaking, as lack of germination is prevented by the environment, not by characteristics of the seed itself (see

687:– rounded at both ends, or egg shaped (ovate or obovate, broader at one end), being rounded but either symmetrical about the middle, or broader below the middle, or broader above the middle 2014:, while often weakening the seed coat such that the embryo is ready to sprout when it is deposited, along with a bit of fecal matter that acts as fertilizer, far from the parent plant. 1169:

The outer integument has a number of layers, generally between four and eight organised into three layers: (a) outer epidermis, (b) outer pigmented zone of two to five layers containing

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need cool soils to germinate, while others, such as celery, are inhibited when soil temperatures are too warm. Often, thermodormancy requirements disappear as the seed ages or dries.

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Seed dormancy is not the same as seed persistence in the soil or on the plant, though even in scientific publications dormancy and persistence are often confused or used as synonyms.

1342:). A seed must somehow "arrive" at a location and be there at a time favorable for germination and growth. When the fruits open and release their seeds in a regular way, it is called 455:

pole produces the stalk-like suspensor that attaches to the micropyle. The suspensor absorbs and manufactures nutrients from the endosperm that are used during the embryo's growth.

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period (359 to 299 million years ago); they had ovules that were borne in a cupule, which consisted of groups of enclosing branches likely used to protect the developing seed.

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is a measure of the quality of seed, and involves the viability of the seed, the germination percentage, germination rate, and the strength of the seedlings produced.

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that will grow from the embryo. The form of the stored nutrition varies depending on the kind of plant. In angiosperms, the stored food begins as a tissue called the

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The shape of the ovules as they develop often affects the final shape of the seeds. Plants generally produce ovules of four shapes: the most common shape is called

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or light sensitivity affects germination of some seeds. These photoblastic seeds need a period of darkness or light to germinate. In species with thin seed coats,

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is derived from the inner epidermis of the outer integument, and the outer layer of the testa from the outer surface of the outer integument is referred to as the

1105:. According to Bewley and Black (1978), Brazil nut storage is in hypocotyl and this place of storage is uncommon among seeds. All gymnosperm seeds are albuminous. 4990: 307:

1. Endosperm 2. Zygote 3. Embryo 4. Suspensor 5. Cotyledons 6. Shoot Apical Meristem 7. Root Apical Meristem 8. Radicle 9. Hypocotyl 10. Epicotyl 11. Seed Coat

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6 – Seed and fruit – University Publishing Online – Paula J. Rudall. Anatomy of Flowering Plants: An Introduction to Structure and Development. Third edition

2727: 2338:. Reported lethal doses are anywhere from two to eight seeds, though only a few deaths have been reported when castor beans have been ingested by animals. 1854:, seeds are a way for the species to survive dry or cold seasons. Ephemeral plants are usually annuals that can go from seed to seed in as few as six weeks. 515:, the tip of the epicotyl, and has a feathery appearance due to the presence of young leaf primordia at the apex, and will become the shoot upon germination. 3206:

Filonova LH; Bozhkov PV; von Arnold S (February 2000). "Developmental pathway of somatic embryogenesis in Picea abies as revealed by time-lapse tracking".

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dormancy, these cultivated plants lack it. After many generations of selective pressure by plant breeders and gardeners, dormancy has been selected out.

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1846 viability studies by Augustin de Candolle, published in "Sur la durée relative de la faculté de germer des graines appartenant à diverses familles" (

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Blackmore, Stephen; See-Chung Chin; Lindsay Chong Seng; Frieda Christie; Fiona Inches; Putri Winda Utami; Neil Watherston; Alexandra H. Wortley (2012).

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Unlike animals, plants are limited in their ability to seek out favorable conditions for life and growth. As a result, plants have evolved many ways to

6465: 4961: 3374: 524:, the embryonic axis below the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s), connecting the epicotyl and the radicle, being the stem-root transition zone. 4180:

Koppen G; Verschaeve L (2001). "The alkaline single-cell gel electrophoresis/comet assay: a way to study DNA repair in radicle cells of germinating

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Matsumoto H, Fan X, Wang Y, Kusstatscher P, Duan J, Wu S, et al. (January 2021). "Bacterial seed endophyte shapes disease resistance in rice".

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is an indication of that ancient origin of seed-plants. As with modern ferns, most land plants before this time reproduced by sending into the air

1151:. The seed coat helps protect the embryo from mechanical injury, predators, and drying out. Depending on its development, the seed coat is either 1989:

appear to be a problem for seed survival, and the enzymatic repair of DNA damages during germination appears to be important for seed viability.

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from one species to the next. The funiculus abscisses (detaches at fixed point – abscission zone), the scar forming an oval depression, the

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that is involved in repair of single- and double-strand breaks during seed germination is an important determinant of seed longevity. Also, in

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and food reserve enclosed in a protective outer covering called a seed coat (testa). More generally, the term "seed" means anything that can be

578:. (The seed coats of some monocotyledon plants, such as the grasses, are not distinct structures, but are fused with the fruit wall to form a 1779:

radicle (seedling root) is broken during the first winter after dispersal while dormancy of the shoot bud is broken during the second winter.

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Bray CM; West CE (December 2005). "DNA repair mechanisms in plants: crucial sensors and effectors for the maintenance of genome integrity".

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Published literature about seed storage, viability and its hygrometric dependence began in the early 19th century, influential works being:

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Shannon DA; Isaac L; Brockman FE (February 1996). "Assessment of hedgerow species for seed size, stand establishment and seedling height".

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seeds, the reduction of DNA integrity due to damage is associated with loss of seed viability during storage. Upon germination, seeds of

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Seeds may be sterile for few reasons: they may have been irradiated, unpollinated, cells lived past expectancy, or bred for the purpose.

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In endospermic seeds, there are two distinct regions inside the seed coat, an upper and larger endosperm and a lower smaller embryo. The

1243:, where the seed was attached to the ovary wall by the funicle. Just below it is a small pore, representing the micropyle of the ovule. 213:(1832, v. 2, pp. 618–626, Paris); (translated title, "Plant physiology, or Exposition of the vital forces and functions of plants") 4792: 3942:

Baskin, C.C. and Baskin, J.M. (1998) Seeds: Ecology, biogeography, and evolution of dormancy and germination.San Diego, Academic Press.

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The biology of seeds recent research advances : proceedings of the Seventh International Workshop on Seeds, Salamanca, Spain 2002

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Baskin, C.C. and Baskin, J.M. (1998) Seeds: Ecology, biogeography, and evolution of dormancy and germination.San Diego, Academic Press

3709: 592:. Anatropous ovules have a portion of the funiculus that is adnate (fused to the seed coat), and which forms a longitudinal ridge, or 4900: 3042: 2129:

Seeds harbor a diverse microbial community. Most of these microorganisms are transmitted from the seed to the developing seedlings.

175: 6199: 4587:"Twenty years of natural loblolly and shortleaf pine seed production on the Crossett Experimental Forest in southeastern Arkansas" 3241: 3013: 997:, or not (non-farinaceous). The endosperm may also be referred to as "fleshy" or "cartilaginous" with thicker soft cells such as 87:. The embryo within a seed develops from the zygote and grows within the mother plant to a certain size before growth is halted. 5178:

A.C. Martin. The Comparative Internal Morphology of Seeds. American Midland Naturalist Vol. 36, No. 3 (Nov., 1946), pp. 513–660

5012: 3018:(Agriculture Handbook No. 506 ed.). Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture. p. 252. Archived from 1366:. When fruits do not open and release their seeds in a regular fashion, they are called indehiscent, which include the fruits 4845: 4710: 2065:

The issue of the origin of seed plants remains unsolved. However, more and more data tends to place this origin in the middle

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Taxonomists have described early "true" seeds from the upper Devonian, which probably became the theater of their true first

4670: 4086: 1484:, produce buoyant seeds termed sea-beans or drift seeds because they float in rivers to the oceans and wash up on beaches. 5235: 3315:

Carol C. Baskin, Jerry M. Baskin. Seeds: Ecology, Biogeography, and Evolution of Dormancy and Germination. Elsevier, 2001

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evolved around 468 million years ago, and reproduced using spores. The earliest seed bearing plants to appear were the

5041: 3291: 6389: 5201: 5189: 5141: 5125: 4385:"Experimental evidence of microbial inheritance in plants and transmission routes from seed to phyllosphere and root" 4330: 4068: 3731: 1564:); the seeds are stored some distance from the parent plant, and some escape being eaten if the animal forgets them. 5284: 3782:

Eira MTS, Caldas LS (2000) Seed dormancy and germination as concurrent processes. Rev Bras Fisiol Vegetal 12:85–104

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Seeds serve several functions for the plants that produce them. Key among these functions are nourishment of the

5723: 5254:: collecting, storing, sowing, germinating, and exchanging seeds, with pictures of seeds, seedpods and seedlings. 1617:

and displaced native species of ants. Unlike the native ant species, Argentine ants do not collect the seeds of

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during unfavorable conditions. Seeds fundamentally are means of reproduction, and most seeds are the product of

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is simply the proportion of seeds that germinate from all seeds subject to the right conditions for growth. The

6204: 110:, do not have seeds and use water-dependent means to propagate themselves. Seed plants now dominate biological 4880: 4687: 3954:

Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C. (2004) A classification system for seed dormancy. Seed Science Research 14:1–16.

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microorganisms that can perform various functions, the most important of which is protection against disease.

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Cheah KS; Osborne DJ (April 1978). "DNA lesions occur with loss of viability in embryos of ageing rye seed".

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Patten D.T. (1978). "Productivity and production efficiency of an Upper Sonoran Desert ephemeral community".

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Monocotyledonous plants have two additional structures in the form of sheaths. The plumule is covered with a

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ovules have a curved megagametophyte often giving the seed a tight "C" shape. The last ovule shape is called

4958: 1234:(a soft spongy outgrowth from the outer integument in the vicinity of the micropyle), spines, or tubercles. 6373: 5960: 5475: 3839:

Thompson K, Ceriani RM, Bakker JP, Bekker RM (2003). "Are seed dormancy and persistence in soil related?".

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itself, after its kind: and God saw that it was good. And the evening and the morning were the third day.

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account for 72 percent of corn and soybean seed sales in the U.S. with the average price of a bag of GMO

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Jon E. Keeley and Fotheringham (1997-05-23). "Trace Gas Emissions and Smoke-Induced Seed Germination".

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ovules are straight with all the parts of the ovule lined up in a long row producing an uncurved seed.

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Hunt L; Holdsworth MJ; Gray JE (August 2007). "Nicotinamidase activity is important for germination".

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While some seeds are edible, others are harmful, poisonous or deadly. Plants and seeds often contain

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Canadian Grain Commission:Seed characters used in the identification of small oilseeds and weed seeds

5241: 3682: 3366: 2882: 1131:, originally surrounding the ovule. The seed coat in the mature seed can be a paper-thin layer (e.g. 554:

two structures are sheath-like and enclose the plumule and radicle, acting as a protective covering.

4501:"Seeds of native alpine plants host unique microbial communities embedded in cross-kingdom networks" 4499:

Wassermann, Birgit; Cernava, Tomislav; Müller, Henry; Berg, Christian; Berg, Gabriele (2019-07-24).

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In the United States farmers spent $ 22 billion on seeds in 2018, a 35 percent increase since 2010.

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forms a supply of nutrients for the embryo in most monocotyledons and the endospermic dicotyledons.

6536: 6477: 6322: 5372: 3906:

Baskin JM, Baskin CC, Li X (2000) "Taxonomy, anatomy and evolution of physical dormancy in seeds".

1928:

Environmental conditions affecting seed germination include; water, oxygen, temperature and light.

4820: 4357: 5160: 5115: 3356:

Bewley & Black (1978) Physiology and Biochemistry of Seeds in Relation to Germination, pag.11

2022: 1339: 5120:(1st ed.). New York, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company (published 1980). p. 186. 4920: 4106: 868: 6307: 6231: 4734: 4564: 4352: 4034: 2327:. Children, being smaller than adults, are more susceptible to poisoning by plants and seeds. 2093: 2089: 2005: 1114: 696:

resembling a disc or plate, having both thickness and parallel faces and with a rounded margin)

6036: 3396: 3339: 3182: 3176: 2983: 1985:(PARP) are likely needed for successful germination. Thus DNA damages that accumulate during 1226:), or hairs (trichomes). In the latter example these hairs are the source of the textile crop 6472: 3648: 2956: 2904: 2402: 2302: 2231: 1647: 443:, where the ovule is partly inverted and turned back 90 degrees on its stalk (the funicle or 388: 20: 5212:

Stuppy, W. Glossary of Seed and Fruit Morphological Terms. Royal botanical gardens, Kew 2004

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or the soaking in water removes chemical inhibitors in some seeds that prevent germination.

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Gutterman, Y. (1993) Seed germination in desert plants. Springer Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg.

3805: 3557: 3514: 2807: 2255: 2202:

Many seeds are edible and the majority of human calories comes from seeds, especially from

2197: 1672: 1335: 1288: 1060:) the embryo is embedded in the endosperm (and nucellus), which the seedling will use upon 939: 328: 187: 5694: 8: 6364: 5909: 5183:

M.B. McDonald, Francis Y. Kwong (eds.). Flower Seeds: Biology and Technology. CABI, 2005.

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Nelson, Eric B. (2018-01-01). "The seed microbiome: Origins, interactions, and impacts".

2931: 2320: 1598: 1343: 1296: 423:, the base of the ovule opposite the micropyle, where integument and nucellus are joined. 4461: 4400: 4139: 3809: 3744:

Bond, W.J.; P. Slingsby (1984). "Collapse of an ant-plant mutualism: The Argentine ant,

3561: 3518: 3501:

Kosinki, Igor (2007). "Long-term variability in seed size and seedling establishment of

3463: 6302: 6167: 5945: 5637: 5423: 5319: 5135: 5087: 4916: 4707: 4644: 4619: 4535: 4500: 4481: 4430: 4159: 4007: 3856: 3821: 3765: 3616: 3573: 3530: 2663: 2639: 2475: 2458: 2308: 2142: 2104:. Seed plants progressively became one of the major elements of nearly all ecosystems. 1790:

is usually the growth inhibitor in seeds, and its production can be affected by light.

1619: 1094: 914: 854: 583: 5242:

Plant Physiology online: Types of Seed Dormancy and the Roles of Environmental Factors

3019: 2482:. Normal cooking processes degrade lectins and trypsin inhibitors to harmless forms. 1449:

Other seeds are enclosed in fruit structures that aid wind dispersal in similar ways:

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Edred John Henry Corner. The Seeds of Dicotyledons. Cambridge University Press, 1976.

5185: 5164: 5121: 5068: 4812: 4773: 4769: 4649: 4540: 4522: 4473: 4434: 4422: 4414: 4326: 4304: 4300: 4269: 4264: 4247: 4228: 4224: 4193: 4151: 4102: 4064: 4038: 4027: 3727: 3654: 3620: 3608: 3431: 3319: 3223: 3186: 3148: 3105: 2989: 2962: 2910: 2827: 2558: 2374: 1304: 1265: 1261: 639:

Seeds are very diverse, and as such there are many terms are used to describe them.

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Abdelfattah, Ahmed; Wisniewski, Michael; Schena, Leonardo; Tack, Ayco J. M. (2021).

3860: 3534: 1997:

A number of different strategies are used by gardeners and horticulturists to break

1703:

release in seeds of desert plants, but little evidence exists to support this claim.

211:

Physiologie végétale, ou Exposition des forces et des fonctions vitales des végétaux

6246: 6152: 6147: 6101: 5994: 5979: 5940: 5865: 5706: 5630: 5527: 5469: 4912: 4837: 4804: 4765: 4639: 4631: 4598: 4530: 4512: 4465: 4404: 4362: 4296: 4259: 4246:

Waterworth WM; Masnavi G; Bhardwaj RM; Jiang Q; Bray CM; West CE (September 2010).

4220: 4163: 4143: 3999: 3887: 3848: 3813: 3757: 3600: 3577: 3565: 3522: 3481: 3423: 3215: 3174: 3082: 2837: 2646: 2324: 2096:, shape, dispersal and eventually the radiation of gymnosperms and angiosperms and 1614: 1351: 111: 6041: 4366: 1956: 1931:

Three distinct phases of seed germination occur: water imbibition; lag phase; and

853:

Diagram of a generalized dicot seed (1) versus a generalized monocot seed (2). A.

6526: 6500: 6482: 6344: 6173: 6123: 6111: 6073: 6009: 5836: 5804: 5765: 5738: 5567: 5562: 5453: 5389: 5270: 5206: 5194: 5182: 5154: 4965: 4887: 4869: 4756:

Wedin GP; Neal JS; Everson GW; Krenzelok EP (May 1986). "Castor bean poisoning".

4714: 4694: 4674: 4090: 4058: 3313: 3142: 2741: 2650: 2606: 2501: 2446: 1707:

Endogenous dormancy is caused by conditions within the embryo itself, including:

1480: 1394: 1383: 1347: 1239: 750: 588: 474: 130: 107: 5049: 4667: 4083: 3219: 3086: 1346:, which is often distinctive for related groups of plants; these fruits include 463: 358:

Plant ovules: Gymnosperm ovule on left, angiosperm ovule (inside ovary) on right

6521: 6394: 6359: 6312: 6294: 6258: 6014: 5841: 5819: 5785: 5760: 5743: 5733: 5728: 5610: 5428: 5413: 5367: 5362: 3793: 3604: 2877: 2784: 2573: 2550: 2323:), but other compounds are toxic or break down into toxic compounds within the 2316: 2282: 2181: 1685: 1623:

or eat the elaiosomes. In areas where these ants have invaded, the numbers of

1379: 1329: 1009: 873: 789: 492: 410:, a small pore or opening in the apex of the integument of the ovule where the 400: 383: 234: 95: 5258:

Plant Fix: Check out various plant seeds and learn more information about them

4808: 4517: 4469: 3526: 2744:

in the Old Testament begins with an explanation of how all plant forms began:

770: 6515: 6430: 6178: 6096: 6068: 6031: 5999: 5935: 5904: 5855: 5755: 5557: 5540: 5463: 5443: 5384: 5379: 5327: 4732: 4526: 4477: 4418: 3791: 3466:"Observations on the Morphology, Pollination and Cultivation of Coco de Mer ( 3427: 2798: 2715: 2696:. They are only 85 micrometers long, and weigh 0.81 micrograms. They have no 2386: 2354: 2227: 2177: 2097: 2015: 1998: 1863: 1787: 1763: 1747: 1732: 1677: 1636: 1606: 994: 947: 901: 896:

from which a new plant will grow under proper conditions. The embryo has one

191: 186:

period (416 million to 358 million years ago). From these early gymnosperms,

72: 4409: 4384: 2689:

may weigh up to 23 kilograms (50 pounds) and usually contains a single seed.

1196:

In addition to the three basic seed parts, some seeds have an appendage, an

6425: 6415: 6317: 6026: 5535: 5502: 4816: 4653: 4603: 4586: 4544: 4426: 4308: 4273: 4232: 4197: 4155: 3650:

California desert flowers: an introduction to families, genera, and species

3612: 3285: 3227: 2862: 2847: 2842: 2832: 2535: 2398: 2041:

water to break open the impermeable cell layers that prevent water intake.

1851: 1759: 1755: 1728: 1602: 1569: 1495: 1136: 1030: 877: 563: 550: 496: 379: 314: 139: 91: 4777: 4635: 3794:"Redefining seed dormancy: an attempt to integrate physiology and ecology" 3486: 3465: 2622: 2137: 1660:

Exogenous dormancy is caused by conditions outside the embryo, including:

1017:. The endosperm is called "horny" when the cell walls are thicker such as 6241: 6226: 6221: 6157: 6019: 5799: 5770: 5669: 5664: 5512: 5352: 5347: 5332: 2857: 2678: 2631: 2562: 2512: 2434: 2335: 2215: 2211: 2121: 2101: 1978: 1940: 1878: 1816: 1549: 1375: 1271: 1148: 1061: 1057: 1022: 974:

layer (peripheral endosperm), filled with proteinaceous aleurone grains.

963: 912:(caryopses) the single monocotyledon is shield shaped and hence called a 905: 411: 337: 254: 182:, which have no ovaries to contain the seeds. They arose during the late 179: 155: 151: 4245: 3978:

Seeds physiology of development and germination. The language of science

2906:

When the Invasion of Land Failed: The Legacy of the Devonian Extinctions

2667:(narrow-leafed campion) from material preserved for 31,800 years in the 2146:(common bean or green bean) seeds are diverse in size, shape, and color. 962:, the food storage tissue (also called endosperm) is part of the female 508:, the embryonic axis above the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s). 6270: 6263: 6253: 6236: 5919: 5914: 5850: 5642: 5489: 5448: 5342: 5224: 4011: 3892: 3875: 3852: 3825: 3769: 3569: 2852: 2671: 2610: 2596: 2554: 2531: 2450: 2426: 2406: 2312: 2247: 2164: 1970: 1965: 1720: 1594: 1144: 1128: 1034: 746: 545: 539: 452: 354: 324: 68: 32: 1883: 736:

Other common descriptors for seeds focus on color, texture, and form.

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develop into the seeds. The ovule consists of a number of components:

6378: 6275: 6004: 5809: 5790: 5701: 5625: 5545: 5497: 5438: 5418: 5357: 4755: 4147: 2867: 2812: 2708: 2697: 2642: 2539: 2524: 2497: 2418: 2342: 2286: 2270: 2235: 2156: 2011: 1888: 1751: 1724: 1693: 1681: 1643: 1582: 1578: 1552:) are attractive long-term storable food resources for animals (e.g. 1453: 1371: 1308: 1300: 1222: 1216: 1163: 1160: 1102: 1045: 1018: 982: 959: 935: 897: 862: 858: 849: 829: 806: 802: 798: 742: 601:

to as the colourless layer. By contrast, the outer epidermis becomes

520: 491:, the seed leaves, attached to the embryonic axis. There may be one ( 487: 332: 119: 4790: 4003: 3817: 3761: 3070: 1406: 1119: 657:) – resembling a kidney, with lobed ends on either side of the hilum 6420: 6410: 6354: 6349: 6116: 5989: 5965: 5882: 5552: 5337: 4983:"Ice Age flower revival that could lead to resurrection of mammoth" 2982:

Taylor, Edith L.; Taylor, Thomas N.; Krings, Michael (2009-01-21).

2778: 2711: 2600: 2505: 2438: 2430: 2422: 2410: 2373:, and others – when consumed in sufficient amounts, may cause 2290: 2266: 2239: 2219: 2185: 2160: 2074: 2066: 2046: 1986: 1952: 1874: 1843: 1774: 1743: 1716: 1689: 1586: 1438: 1411: 1292: 1190: 971: 943: 931: 927: 504: 183: 163: 147: 123: 4935:"Effects of Invasive Clusia rosea in Hawai'i – Nick Schlotterbeck" 4735:"Poisonous Plants and Plant Parts – Archives – Aggie Horticulture" 4248:"A plant DNA ligase is an important determinant of seed longevity" 1955:, often associated with unpredictable and stressful environments, 1510:) which attach to animal fur or feathers, and then drop off later. 5605: 5600: 5517: 5507: 5030:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. pp. 313–314. 3205: 2872: 2693: 2668: 2580: 2479: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2350: 2274: 2265:

Seeds are used to propagate many crops such as cereals, legumes,

2243: 2078: 1932: 1534: 1522: 1503: 1442: 1363: 1359: 1177:

is derived from the inner epidermis of the inner integument, the

1140: 1074: 1041: 1003: 998: 986: 967: 955: 667:– angular, with all sides being either equal, or longer-than-wide 529: 419: 318: 90:

The formation of the seed is the defining part of the process of

3698:"Ants – The astonishing intimacy between ants & plants" 3175:

Rost, Thomas L.; Weier, T. Elliot; Weier, Thomas Elliot (1979).

2466:

which can cause gastric distress if the beans are eaten without

403:

and main region of the ovule where the megagametophyte develops.

6058: 5950: 5870: 5824: 5814: 5775: 5713: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5293: 4382: 2704: 2658: 2654: 2588: 2520: 2516: 2490: 2414: 2394: 2390: 2382: 2378: 2370: 2366: 2319:. In some cases, these compounds simply taste bad (such as in 2251: 2207: 2203: 1974: 1768: 1590: 1561: 1542: 1530: 1518: 1499: 1474: 1431: 1399: 1367: 1355: 1284: 1251: 1227: 1211: 1170: 1132: 1098: 1090: 1026: 990: 951: 909: 889: 817: 783: 708: 628: 605:. The inner integument may consist of eight to fifteen layers. 602: 469: 115: 84: 80: 76: 52: 48: 40: 4342: 3124:

Raven, Peter H., Ray Franklin Evert, and Helena Curtis. 1981.

543:

that forms the first leaf while the radicle is covered with a

533:, the basal tip of the hypocotyl, grows into the primary root. 239:

Studies in Seeds and Fruits- An Investigation with the Balance

154:

are the one-seeded, hard-shelled fruit of some plants with an

6282: 6216: 6138: 6106: 6063: 5955: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5875: 5860: 5829: 5750: 5408: 5399: 5257: 3646: 3290:, Gerhard Leubner Lab, Royal Holloway, University of London, 2792: 2762: 2754: 2723: 2719: 2686: 2627: 2493: 2442: 2358: 2346: 2331: 2259: 2223: 2082: 1827: 1557: 1553: 1514: 1507: 1459: 1207: 1203: 1014: 893: 794: 779: 363: 349: 313:

bracts of cones. However, the seeds do become covered by the

159: 143: 134: 64: 60: 5225:

Royal Holloway, University of London: The Seed Biology Place

3590: 3547: 1646:) does not result in the death of all offspring of a plant ( 1577:. Foraging ants disperse seeds which have appendages called 1230:. Other seed appendages include the raphe (a ridge), wings, 938:, which is derived from the mother plant and the pollen via 6133: 6128: 5620: 5595: 5590: 5574: 5433: 5207:

United States Forest Service. Woody Plant Seed Manual. 1948

5149:

Heywood, Vernon Hilton; Moore, David Moresby, eds. (1984).

4498: 3838: 3635:

Plant systematics. McGraw-Hill series in organismic biology

2546: 2362: 2037: 2033: 1842:

Not all seeds undergo a period of dormancy. Seeds of some

1538: 1526: 1424: 1198: 1078: 978: 775: 624: 103: 99: 56: 4617: 4378: 4376: 4286: 3792:

Vleeshouwers L.M.; Bouwmeester H.J.; Karssen C.M. (1995).

3674: 2649:

seed about 2,000 years old, recovered from excavations at

6053: 5615: 5262: 4560:"The Startup Taking On Bayer With Cheaper, Non-GMO Seeds" 4018: 3647:

Morhardt, Sia; Morhardt, Emil; Emil Morhardt, J. (2004).

3050:. London, England: Williams and Norgate. pp. 147–150 2661:. It was germinated in 2005. (A reported regeneration of 1960: 1766:. Some plants with morphophysiological dormancy, such as 1574: 1086: 1082: 473:

seed, showing a well-developed embryo, nutritive tissue (

3873: 3653:. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 24. 2478:

which interfere with the action of the digestive enzyme

1135:) or something more substantial (e.g. thick and hard in 4793:"Evaluation of castor bean toxicosis in dogs: 98 cases" 4584: 4373: 4029:

The encyclopedia of seeds: science, technology and uses

3963:

International Workshop on Seeds, and G. Nicolas. 2003.

3397:"plant_anatomy Term "seed coat epidermis" (PO:0006048)" 3280: 3278: 2985:

Paleobotany: The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants

16:

Embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering

5099:

Quran, Translation: Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Al-An'aam 95:6

4113:. Wageningen?: International Seed Testing Association. 2511:

Many important nonfood oils are extracted from seeds.

2456:

The seeds of many legumes, including the common bean (

4898: 3743: 3256: 2579:

Seeds used as toys by children, such as for the game

1896:

plant's growth and is called seedling establishment.

1127:

The seed coat develops from the maternal tissue, the

562:"Seed coat" redirects here. For artificial coat, see 5067:. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 466. 4179: 3340:"The Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed. (1888) vol. 4" 3275: 2774: 1338:

their offspring by dispersing their seeds (see also

1237:

A scar also may remain on the seed coat, called the

1181:

from the outer surface of the inner integument. The

609:

which are broader on their inner surface are called

241:" (1912, London, England); subsequently reviewed in 5062: 4733:Martin Anderson, Texas AgriLife Extension Service. 4321:Hartmann, Hudson Thomas, and Dale E. Kester. 1983. 3950: 3948: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3454:. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p. 8. 2250:content and physical properties. For example, the 749:(finger-like). A seed coat with the consistency of 414:

usually enters during the process of fertilization.

5005:"Russian Scientists Revive 32,000-Year-Old Flower" 4125: 3633:Jones, Samuel B., and Arlene E. Luchsinger. 1979. 2981: 2470:. The common bean and many others, including the 1402:, which can be carried long distances by the wind. 1299:which produces a remixing of genetic material and 5117:Pods: wildflowers and weeds in their final beauty 4791:Albretsen JC; Gwaltney-Brant SM; Khan SA (2000). 2530:Seeds are the source of some medicines including 596:, just above the hilum. In bitegmic ovules (e.g. 6513: 4959:2,000-Year-Old Seed Sprouts, Sapling Is Thriving 3945: 3931: 2932:"Devonian Period: Climate, Animals & Plants" 2707:seeds are around 365 million years old from the 2565:. However, the latter three are also poisonous. 2060: 1981:seeds, the activities of the DNA repair enzymes 1255:A collection of various vegetable and herb seeds 908:and two or more in gymnosperms. In the fruit of 378:) or seed stalk which attaches the ovule to the 3099: 3012:Justice, Oren L.; Bass, Louis N. (April 1978). 226:1897 seed hygrometric studies by Victor Jodin ( 5238:– a backup facility for the world's seed banks 4210: 4101:International Seed Testing Association. 1973. 3140: 2645:-dated seed that has grown into a plant was a 5278: 3726:, 3rd ed., p. 396. (New York: W.H. Freeman). 3716: 3675:"www.seabean.com – Sea-Beans and Drift Seeds" 3178:Botany: a brief introduction to plant biology 2692:The smallest seeds are produced by epiphytic 2085:that would land and become whole new plants. 1857: 926:Within the seed, there usually is a store of 6384:International Association for Plant Taxonomy 5148: 4280: 4239: 4204: 3311: 3267:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBarthlott1984 ( 3136: 3134: 2246:of the embryo and endosperm differ in their 2125:Microbial transmission from seed to seedling 2069:. The description in 2004 of the proto-seed 150:) fused to and surrounding the actual seed. 5232:Kew Garden's ambitious preservation project 4063:. Springer. 26 December 2007. p. 147. 4060:Photobiology: The Science of Life and Light 4024: 3989: 3976:Bewley, J. Derek, and Michael Black. 1994. 3876:"A classification system for seed dormancy" 3695: 3312:Baskin, Carol C.; Baskin, Jerry M. (2001). 3068: 3011: 2929: 2674:was achieved using fruit tissue, not seed.) 2377:. Other seeds that contain poisons include 1541:) which then disperse these seeds in their 970:tissue. The endosperm is surrounded by the 5285: 5271: 5151:"Microstructural Features of Seed Surface" 5065:The biology and evolution of fossil plants 5025: 4323:Plant propagation principles and practices 3967:. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CABI Pub. p. 113. 2449:are also poisonous, containing the poison 1427:) have a wing that aids in wind dispersal. 1173:and starch, and (c) inner epidermis. The 1073:seeds. The exalbuminous seeds include the 642: 317:scales as they develop in some species of 5113: 5042:"Botanical Record-Breakers (Part 1 of 2)" 4881:Chia Joo Suan Food Safety: Seeds of doubt 4832: 4830: 4643: 4620:"The Development of Endosperm in Grasses" 4602: 4534: 4516: 4408: 4356: 4263: 4175: 4173: 4025:Black, Michael H.; Halmer, Peter (2006). 3891: 3485: 3262: 3131: 3100:Galili G; Kigel J (1995). "Chapter One". 3007: 3005: 2296: 812:A typical seed includes two basic parts: 477:), and a bit of the surrounding seed coat 6328:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN) 4121: 4119: 3015:Principles and Practices of Seed Storage 2621: 2136: 2120: 1882: 1488: 1466: 1445:) have hairs that aid in wind dispersal. 1405: 1393: 1250: 1118: 867: 848: 788: 769: 673:– three-sided, broadest below the middle 462: 353: 253: 138:have other modifications, the so-called 27: 4728: 4726: 4325:. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 3500: 3199: 1992: 1946: 1903:Far red light can prevent germination. 1389: 977:Originally, by analogy with the animal 793:Diagram of the internal structure of a 634: 481:The main components of the embryo are: 63:. Seeds are the product of the ripened 6514: 4827: 4447: 4170: 3417: 3367:"Sinauer Associates, Inc., Publishers" 3294:from the original on 24 September 2015 3069:Harshberger, John W. (June 12, 1914). 3002: 2902: 2132: 549:that connects to the primary root and 5266: 4618:Sabelli, P.A.; Larkins, B.A. (2009). 4116: 3128:. New York: Worth Publishers. p. 410. 3040: 2254:of wheat, important in providing the 1398:Dandelion seeds are contained within 1314: 1202:, a fleshy outgrowth of the funicle ( 892:is the fertilised ovule, an immature 4723: 4591:Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 4557: 3377:from the original on 22 January 2014 3034: 2954: 2903:McGhee, George R. Jr. (2013-11-12). 2718:. The seeds are preserved immature 2677:The largest seed is produced by the 2549:in necklaces and rosaries including 1434:are carried efficiently by the wind. 1246: 1025:, or "ruminated" if mottled, as in 797:seed and embryo: (a) seed coat, (b) 263: 2700:and contain underdeveloped embryos. 2238:dominates and provides most of the 2107: 1513:Seeds with a fleshy covering (e.g. 921: 716:(Inflated, but less than spherical) 146:) have a hardened fruit layer (the 13: 5156:Current Concepts in Plant Taxonomy 4989:. 21 February 2012. Archived from 4917:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1990.tb06789.x 2500:seeds. Other seed fibers are from 2262:is strictly an endosperm protein. 2170: 2116: 1959:accumulates as the seeds age. In 861:C. Hilum D. Plumule E. Radicle F. 14: 6548: 6333:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP) 5218: 4558:Dunn, Elizabeth G. (2019-03-04). 4033:. Wallingford, UK: CABI. p. 3980:. New York: Plenum Press. p. 230. 3874:Baskin J.M., Baskin C.C. (2004). 2757:speaks of seed germination thus: 2281:Seeds are also eaten by animals ( 2188:for natural forest reproduction. 6496: 6495: 5230:The Millennium Seed Bank Project 5015:from the original on 2012-02-27. 4899:Dhurandhar NV; Chang KC (1990). 4848:from the original on 2017-07-18. 4745:from the original on 2007-09-08. 4585:Cain M.D., Shelton M.G. (2001). 4301:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2007.03151.x 4265:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2010.04285.x 4225:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01548.x 3748:and myrmecochorous Proteaceae". 3712:from the original on 2006-08-18. 3685:from the original on 2006-07-11. 3637:. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 195. 3407:from the original on 2014-02-03. 3252:from the original on 2014-02-26. 3102:Seed development and germination 2791: 2777: 2052: 1040:In most monocotyledons (such as 5106: 5093: 5081: 5056: 5034: 5019: 4997: 4975: 4951: 4927: 4892: 4874: 4863:Washington Post January 5, 2005 4852: 4784: 4749: 4700: 4680: 4660: 4611: 4578: 4551: 4492: 4441: 4336: 4315: 4095: 4077: 4051: 3983: 3970: 3957: 3922: 3913: 3900: 3867: 3832: 3785: 3776: 3737: 3689: 3667: 3627: 3584: 3541: 3494: 3457: 3444: 3411: 3389: 3359: 3350: 3332: 3305: 3234: 3168: 3071:"Book Review: Scientific Books" 2617: 2572:Seeds once used as weights for 2191: 904:, two cotyledons in almost all 219:Annales des Sciences Naturelles 5236:The Svalbard Global Seed Vault 5063:Taylor EL; Taylor TMC (1993). 3422:. Cambridge University Press. 3118: 3093: 3062: 2975: 2948: 2923: 2896: 2735: 2341:In addition, seeds containing 2150: 2092:. With this radiation came an 1868: 1193:), hence 'palisade exotesta'. 1108: 741:be described by terms such as 617: 249: 1: 5140:: CS1 maint: date and year ( 4367:10.1126/science.276.5316.1248 2909:. Columbia University Press. 2889: 2823:List of world's largest seeds 2545:Many seeds have been used as 2485: 2061:Evolution and origin of seeds 1573:is the dispersal of seeds by 1001:, but may also be oily as in 836: 782:), showing the seed coat and 245:(June 1914, Washington, D.C.) 55:, which may include seed and 6374:History of plant systematics 5961:Thorns, spines, and prickles 5028:The Natural History of Palms 4770:10.1016/0735-6757(86)90080-X 3181:. New York: Wiley. pp. 3141:T.T. Kozlowski, ed. (1972). 2681:, or "double coconut palm", 2515:is used in paints. Oil from 1739:Morphophysiological dormancy 1498:) with barbs or hooks (e.g. 1323: 1278: 981:, the outer nucellus layer ( 765: 557: 203:Augustin Pyramus de Candolle 7: 4868:September 15, 2017, at the 4688:Seeds of Doubt: Food Safety 4111:Seed science and technology 3722:Ricklefs, Robert E. (1993) 3470:(J F Gmel.) Pers., Palmae)" 3087:10.1126/science.39.1015.873 3044:Studies in Seeds and Fruits 2770: 2462:), contain proteins called 1983:Poly ADP ribose polymerases 1630: 1214:) or an oily appendage, an 883: 201:1832 seed storage guide in 10: 6555: 6190:Alternation of generations 5292: 4708:Poisonous Plants and Seeds 4389:Environmental Microbiology 4084:Seed Vigor and Vigor Tests 3992:American Journal of Botany 3605:10.1038/s41477-020-00826-5 2930:Mary Bagley (2014-02-22). 2818:Genetically modified crops 2593:seeds used to caulk boats. 2538:and the quack cancer drug 2334:, comes from seeds of the 2300: 2230:. In different seeds the 2214:. Seeds also provide most 2195: 1872: 1861: 1858:Persistence and seed banks 1634: 1327: 1112: 958:. In gymnosperms, such as 561: 347: 259:Stages of seed development 169: 133:, the ovary ripens into a 18: 6491: 6439: 6403: 6340:Cultivated plant taxonomy 6303:Biological classification 6293: 6166: 6082: 5978: 5928: 5653: 5583: 5526: 5488: 5462: 5398: 5318: 5300: 4809:10.5326/15473317-36-3-229 4518:10.1186/s40168-019-0723-5 4470:10.1007/s11104-017-3289-7 3702:Plants & Gardens News 3527:10.1007/s11258-007-9281-1 3418:Rudall, Paula J. (2007). 3220:10.1093/jexbot/51.343.249 2958:Principles of Paleobotany 2883:Selective embryo abortion 2568:Other seed uses include: 2167:seed is priced at $ 270. 458: 362:After fertilization, the 6200:Evolutionary development 5114:Embertson, Jane (1979). 5090:, Genesis 1:12,13, 1611. 4970:National Geographic News 3428:10.1017/CBO9780511801709 3318:. Elsevier. p. 27. 3041:Guppy, Henry B. (1912). 2609:used as animal feed and 1627:seedlings have dropped. 1525:) are eaten by animals ( 1123:Seed coat of pomegranate 1056:) dicotyledons (such as 761:(hard, thin or brittle). 574:and the outer forms the 343: 207:Conservation des Graines 98:). Other plants such as 5851:Hypanthium (Floral cup) 5161:Systematics Association 4410:10.1111/1462-2920.15392 3144:Seed Biology Volume III 3104:. New York: M. Dekker. 2961:. Mittal Publications. 2285:), and are also fed to 1462:samaras have two wings. 1340:vegetative reproduction 1307:acts. Plant seeds hold 1291:to a new location, and 1143:), or fleshy as in the 643:Terms to describe shape 431:, with a curved shape. 209:, part of his 3-volume 6466:by author abbreviation 6390:Plant taxonomy systems 6308:Botanical nomenclature 5046:waynesword.palomar.edu 4565:Bloomberg Businessweek 3450:Smith, Welby R. 1993. 3328:– via google.ca. 3287:The Seed Biology Place 2768: 2751: 2634: 2297:Poison and food safety 2147: 2126: 2094:evolution of seed size 2090:evolutionary radiation 1918:germination percentage 1892: 1803:combinational dormancy 1783:Physiological dormancy 1713:morphological dormancy 1671:occurs when seeds are 1593:, and many species of 1430:The dustlike seeds of 1419: 1403: 1256: 1124: 1115:Scarification (botany) 880: 865: 809: 786: 757:. Other terms include 478: 399:, the remnant of the 386:or fruit wall, at the 359: 309: 36: 6473:Botanical expeditions 4957:Roach, John. (2005) " 4636:10.1104/pp.108.129437 3908:Plant Species Biology 3880:Seed Science Research 3841:Seed Science Research 3724:The Economy of Nature 2759: 2746: 2625: 2303:Category:Plant toxins 2301:Further information: 2196:Further information: 2140: 2124: 1886: 1862:Further information: 1489:By animals (zoochory) 1472:Some plants, such as 1467:By water (hydrochory) 1409: 1397: 1303:variability on which 1254: 1122: 1093:, vegetables such as 1085:), trees such as the 985:) was referred to as 871: 852: 792: 773: 466: 357: 257: 122:both in hot and cold 31: 21:Seed (disambiguation) 6205:Evolutionary history 6195:Double fertilization 6047:Cellular respiration 4797:J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 4604:10.1093/sjaf/25.1.40 3696:Marinelli J (1999). 3550:Agroforestry Systems 3503:Maianthemum bifolium 3452:Orchids of Minnesota 3346:. 1888. p. 155. 2808:Biological dispersal 2445:. The seeds of the 2198:List of edible seeds 2071:Runcaria heinzelinii 1993:Inducing germination 1947:Repair of DNA damage 1390:By wind (anemochory) 940:double fertilization 635:Shape and appearance 329:double fertilization 296:Mature Embryo 228:Annales Agronomiques 19:For other uses, see 5424:Non-vascular plants 5163:. pp. 95–105. 5026:Corner EJH (1966). 4838:"Almond/Almond Oil" 4462:2018PlSoi.422....7N 4401:2021EnvMi..23.2199A 4351:(5316): 1248–1250. 4186:Folia Biol. (Praha) 4140:1978Natur.272..593C 3810:1995JEcol..83.1031V 3746:Iridomyrmex humilis 3562:1996AgrSy..35...95S 3519:2007PlEco.194..149K 3487:10.1155/2012/687832 2955:Bora, Lily (2010). 2728:Elkinsia polymorpha 2226:and some important 2133:Economic importance 1456:achenes have hairs. 1297:sexual reproduction 376:funiculus, funiculi 190:evolved during the 6532:Plant reproduction 5929:Surface structures 5724:Flower development 5088:King James Version 4964:2007-02-03 at the 4886:2008-04-29 at the 4719:Healthy Child Care 4713:2007-10-12 at the 4693:2008-04-29 at the 4673:2009-09-09 at the 4089:2006-09-12 at the 3893:10.1079/ssr2003150 3853:10.1079/ssr2003128 3798:Journal of Ecology 3570:10.1007/BF02345331 3468:Lodoicea maldivica 3022:on 7 February 2023 2988:. Academic Press. 2683:Lodoicea maldivica 2664:Silene stenophylla 2635: 2496:grows attached to 2476:trypsin inhibitors 2459:Phaseolus vulgaris 2309:chemical compounds 2258:property to bread 2148: 2143:Phaseolus vulgaris 2127: 1893: 1809:Secondary dormancy 1620:Mimetes cucullatus 1611:Linepithema humile 1423:Some seeds (e.g., 1420: 1404: 1315:Embryo nourishment 1257: 1125: 993:, as for instance 881: 866: 810: 787: 753:is referred to as 479: 360: 310: 37: 6509: 6508: 6148:Herbaceous plants 5974: 5973: 5170:978-0-12-347060-7 5074:978-0-13-651589-0 4993:on 22 March 2014. 4706:Clelland, Mike. " 4134:(5654): 593–599. 4044:978-0-85199-723-0 3660:978-0-520-24003-2 3474:Journal of Botany 3437:978-0-521-69245-8 3325:978-0-12-080263-0 3192:978-0-471-02114-8 3154:978-0-323-15067-5 3126:Biology of plants 3111:978-0-8247-9229-9 3081:(1015): 873–874. 2995:978-0-08-055783-0 2968:978-81-8293-024-7 2916:978-0-231-16057-5 2828:Recalcitrant seed 2375:cyanide poisoning 2330:A deadly poison, 1700:Chemical dormancy 1665:Physical dormancy 1437:Some seeds (e.g. 1416:Asclepias syriaca 1305:natural selection 1266:mycorrhizal fungi 1247:Size and seed set 946:, and is rich in 827:In addition, the 300: 299: 176:first land plants 158:seed, such as an 6544: 6499: 6498: 6478:Individual trees 6153:Secondary growth 6124:Succulent plants 6112:Prostrate shrubs 5995:Apical dominance 5980:Plant physiology 5941:Epicuticular wax 5486: 5485: 5479: 5470:Plant morphology 5287: 5280: 5273: 5264: 5263: 5174: 5145: 5139: 5131: 5100: 5097: 5091: 5085: 5079: 5078: 5060: 5054: 5053: 5048:. Archived from 5038: 5032: 5031: 5023: 5017: 5016: 5001: 4995: 4994: 4979: 4973: 4955: 4949: 4948: 4946: 4945: 4931: 4925: 4924: 4919:. Archived from 4896: 4890: 4878: 4872: 4861:Seeds of Anxiety 4856: 4850: 4849: 4834: 4825: 4824: 4819:. Archived from 4788: 4782: 4781: 4753: 4747: 4746: 4730: 4721: 4704: 4698: 4686:Chia Joo Suan, " 4684: 4678: 4664: 4658: 4657: 4647: 4624:Plant Physiology 4615: 4609: 4608: 4606: 4582: 4576: 4575: 4573: 4572: 4555: 4549: 4548: 4538: 4520: 4496: 4490: 4489: 4445: 4439: 4438: 4412: 4395:(4): 2199–2214. 4380: 4371: 4370: 4360: 4340: 4334: 4319: 4313: 4312: 4284: 4278: 4277: 4267: 4243: 4237: 4236: 4208: 4202: 4201: 4177: 4168: 4167: 4148:10.1038/272593a0 4123: 4114: 4099: 4093: 4081: 4075: 4074: 4055: 4049: 4048: 4032: 4022: 4016: 4015: 3987: 3981: 3974: 3968: 3961: 3955: 3952: 3943: 3940: 3929: 3926: 3920: 3917: 3911: 3904: 3898: 3897: 3895: 3871: 3865: 3864: 3836: 3830: 3829: 3804:(6): 1031–1037. 3789: 3783: 3780: 3774: 3773: 3756:(4): 1031–1037. 3741: 3735: 3720: 3714: 3713: 3693: 3687: 3686: 3671: 3665: 3664: 3644: 3638: 3631: 3625: 3624: 3588: 3582: 3581: 3545: 3539: 3538: 3498: 3492: 3491: 3489: 3461: 3455: 3448: 3442: 3441: 3415: 3409: 3408: 3393: 3387: 3386: 3384: 3382: 3371:5e.plantphys.net 3363: 3357: 3354: 3348: 3347: 3336: 3330: 3329: 3309: 3303: 3302: 3301: 3299: 3282: 3273: 3272: 3260: 3254: 3253: 3238: 3232: 3231: 3214:(343): 249–264. 3203: 3197: 3196: 3172: 3166: 3165: 3163: 3161: 3138: 3129: 3122: 3116: 3115: 3097: 3091: 3090: 3066: 3060: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3049: 3038: 3032: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3009: 3000: 2999: 2979: 2973: 2972: 2952: 2946: 2945: 2943: 2942: 2927: 2921: 2920: 2900: 2838:Seed enhancement 2801: 2796: 2795: 2787: 2782: 2781: 2647:Judean date palm 2325:digestive system 2108:True to the seed 1922:germination rate 1410:The seed pod of 1264:which depend on 1262:mycoheterotrophs 942:. It is usually 922:Nutrient storage 900:or seed leaf in 656: 655: 467:The inside of a 264: 131:flowering plants 94:in seed plants ( 35:of various seeds 6554: 6553: 6547: 6546: 6545: 6543: 6542: 6541: 6537:Plant sexuality 6512: 6511: 6510: 6505: 6487: 6456:Botanical terms 6449: 6435: 6399: 6345:Citrus taxonomy 6323:Author citation 6289: 6183: 6162: 6084: 6078: 6074:Turgor pressure 5982: 5970: 5924: 5739:Floral symmetry 5657: 5649: 5579: 5568:Vascular bundle 5563:Vascular tissue 5522: 5482: 5473: 5472: 5458: 5429:Vascular plants 5394: 5390:Plant pathology 5314: 5296: 5291: 5221: 5216: 5171: 5133: 5132: 5128: 5109: 5104: 5103: 5098: 5094: 5086: 5082: 5075: 5061: 5057: 5040: 5039: 5035: 5024: 5020: 5003: 5002: 4998: 4987:Telegraph.co.uk 4981: 4980: 4976: 4966:Wayback Machine 4956: 4952: 4943: 4941: 4933: 4932: 4928: 4897: 4893: 4888:Wayback Machine 4879: 4875: 4870:Wayback Machine 4857: 4853: 4836: 4835: 4828: 4789: 4785: 4754: 4750: 4731: 4724: 4715:Wayback Machine 4705: 4701: 4695:Wayback Machine 4685: 4681: 4675:Wayback Machine 4665: 4661: 4616: 4612: 4583: 4579: 4570: 4568: 4556: 4552: 4497: 4493: 4446: 4442: 4381: 4374: 4341: 4337: 4320: 4316: 4285: 4281: 4244: 4240: 4209: 4205: 4178: 4171: 4124: 4117: 4100: 4096: 4091:Wayback Machine 4082: 4078: 4071: 4057: 4056: 4052: 4045: 4023: 4019: 4004:10.2307/2442185 3988: 3984: 3975: 3971: 3962: 3958: 3953: 3946: 3941: 3932: 3927: 3923: 3918: 3914: 3905: 3901: 3872: 3868: 3837: 3833: 3818:10.2307/2261184 3790: 3786: 3781: 3777: 3762:10.2307/1938311 3742: 3738: 3721: 3717: 3694: 3690: 3673: 3672: 3668: 3661: 3645: 3641: 3632: 3628: 3589: 3585: 3546: 3542: 3499: 3495: 3462: 3458: 3449: 3445: 3438: 3416: 3412: 3395: 3394: 3390: 3380: 3378: 3365: 3364: 3360: 3355: 3351: 3338: 3337: 3333: 3326: 3310: 3306: 3297: 3295: 3284: 3283: 3276: 3266: 3261: 3257: 3240: 3239: 3235: 3204: 3200: 3193: 3173: 3169: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3139: 3132: 3123: 3119: 3112: 3098: 3094: 3067: 3063: 3053: 3051: 3047: 3039: 3035: 3025: 3023: 3010: 3003: 2996: 2980: 2976: 2969: 2953: 2949: 2940: 2938: 2936:livescience.com 2928: 2924: 2917: 2901: 2897: 2892: 2887: 2797: 2790: 2783: 2776: 2773: 2742:Book of Genesis 2738: 2651:Herod the Great 2620: 2607:Cottonseed meal 2523:are similar to 2488: 2474:, also contain 2447:strychnine tree 2305: 2299: 2289:or provided as 2200: 2194: 2173: 2171:Seed production 2153: 2135: 2119: 2117:Seed microbiome 2110: 2063: 2055: 1995: 1973:. A plant DNA 1949: 1881: 1873:Main articles: 1871: 1866: 1860: 1669:hard seed coats 1639: 1633: 1491: 1469: 1392: 1332: 1326: 1317: 1281: 1249: 1117: 1111: 1066:non-endospermic 924: 886: 842:obliterate it. 839: 774:The parts of a 768: 653: 652: 645: 637: 620: 567: 560: 475:megagametophyte 461: 352: 346: 301: 292: 287: 276: 271: 252: 230:, October 1897) 172: 33:Photomicrograph 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6552: 6551: 6540: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6507: 6506: 6504: 6503: 6492: 6489: 6488: 6486: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6469: 6468: 6458: 6452: 6450: 6448: 6447: 6446:Related topics 6444: 6440: 6437: 6436: 6434: 6433: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6407: 6405: 6401: 6400: 6398: 6397: 6395:Taxonomic rank 6392: 6387: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6370: 6369: 6368: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6347: 6337: 6336: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6313:Botanical name 6305: 6299: 6297: 6295:Plant taxonomy 6291: 6290: 6288: 6287: 6286: 6285: 6280: 6279: 6278: 6271:Megasporangium 6268: 6267: 6266: 6259:Microsporangia 6251: 6250: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6224: 6219: 6214: 6213: 6212: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6186: 6184: 6182: 6181: 6176: 6170: 6164: 6163: 6161: 6160: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6144: 6143: 6142: 6141: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6120: 6119: 6114: 6104: 6099: 6097:Cushion plants 6088: 6086: 6080: 6079: 6077: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6050: 6049: 6044: 6034: 6032:Plant hormones 6029: 6024: 6023: 6022: 6015:Photosynthesis 6012: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5986: 5984: 5976: 5975: 5972: 5971: 5969: 5968: 5963: 5958: 5953: 5948: 5943: 5938: 5932: 5930: 5926: 5925: 5923: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5901: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5880: 5879: 5878: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5853: 5848: 5847: 5846: 5845: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5833: 5832: 5827: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5796: 5795: 5794: 5793: 5788: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5748: 5747: 5746: 5741: 5736: 5734:Floral formula 5731: 5729:Floral diagram 5726: 5721: 5711: 5710: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5698: 5697: 5692: 5682: 5672: 5667: 5661: 5659: 5658:(incl. Flower) 5651: 5650: 5648: 5647: 5646: 5645: 5640: 5635: 5634: 5633: 5628: 5618: 5608: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5587: 5585: 5581: 5580: 5578: 5577: 5572: 5571: 5570: 5560: 5558:Storage organs 5555: 5550: 5549: 5548: 5538: 5532: 5530: 5524: 5523: 5521: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5494: 5492: 5483: 5481: 5480: 5466: 5460: 5459: 5457: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5444:Spermatophytes 5441: 5436: 5431: 5426: 5421: 5416: 5414:Archaeplastida 5411: 5405: 5403: 5396: 5395: 5393: 5392: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5376: 5375: 5368:Phytogeography 5365: 5363:Phytochemistry 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5324: 5322: 5320:Subdisciplines 5316: 5315: 5313: 5312: 5307: 5301: 5298: 5297: 5290: 5289: 5282: 5275: 5267: 5261: 5260: 5255: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5233: 5227: 5220: 5219:External links 5217: 5215: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5192: 5180: 5175: 5169: 5146: 5126: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5102: 5101: 5092: 5080: 5073: 5055: 5052:on 2010-12-19. 5033: 5018: 4996: 4974: 4972:, 22 November. 4950: 4926: 4923:on 2013-01-05. 4911:(2): 470–474. 4891: 4873: 4851: 4826: 4823:on 2012-08-02. 4803:(3): 229–233. 4783: 4764:(3): 259–261. 4758:Am J Emerg Med 4748: 4722: 4699: 4679: 4668:Seed Marketing 4659: 4610: 4577: 4550: 4491: 4450:Plant and Soil 4440: 4372: 4335: 4333:. pp. 175–177. 4314: 4295:(3): 341–351. 4279: 4258:(5): 848–860. 4238: 4219:(3): 511–528. 4203: 4169: 4115: 4109:. pp. 120–121. 4094: 4076: 4069: 4050: 4043: 4017: 3998:(8): 891–895. 3982: 3969: 3956: 3944: 3930: 3921: 3912: 3899: 3866: 3831: 3784: 3775: 3736: 3715: 3688: 3666: 3659: 3639: 3626: 3583: 3540: 3513:(2): 149–156. 3493: 3456: 3443: 3436: 3410: 3388: 3358: 3349: 3331: 3324: 3304: 3274: 3263:Barthlott 1984 3255: 3233: 3198: 3191: 3167: 3153: 3130: 3117: 3110: 3092: 3061: 3033: 3001: 2994: 2974: 2967: 2947: 2922: 2915: 2894: 2893: 2891: 2888: 2886: 2885: 2880: 2878:Soil seed bank 2875: 2870: 2865: 2860: 2855: 2850: 2845: 2840: 2835: 2830: 2825: 2820: 2815: 2810: 2804: 2803: 2802: 2788: 2785:Biology portal 2772: 2769: 2737: 2734: 2733: 2732: 2701: 2690: 2685:. The entire 2675: 2619: 2616: 2615: 2614: 2604: 2594: 2584: 2577: 2487: 2484: 2403:horse-chestnut 2317:seed predators 2311:to discourage 2298: 2295: 2283:seed predation 2242:. The storage 2228:food additives 2193: 2190: 2182:shortleaf pine 2172: 2169: 2152: 2149: 2134: 2131: 2118: 2115: 2109: 2106: 2098:monocotyledons 2062: 2059: 2054: 2051: 2023:Stratification 2016:Microorganisms 1994: 1991: 1948: 1945: 1870: 1867: 1859: 1856: 1840: 1839: 1835:Thermodormancy 1832: 1813: 1812: 1806: 1801:In seeds with 1799: 1798: 1797: 1780: 1736: 1705: 1704: 1697: 1686:Convulvulaceae 1635:Main article: 1632: 1629: 1566: 1565: 1546: 1511: 1490: 1487: 1486: 1485: 1468: 1465: 1464: 1463: 1457: 1447: 1446: 1435: 1428: 1391: 1388: 1330:Seed dispersal 1328:Main article: 1325: 1322: 1316: 1313: 1280: 1277: 1248: 1245: 1110: 1107: 1007:(castor oil), 923: 920: 902:monocotyledons 885: 882: 874:monocotyledons 872:Comparison of 838: 835: 825: 824: 821: 767: 764: 763: 762: 734: 732: 727: 722: 717: 711: 702: 697: 688: 674: 668: 658: 644: 641: 636: 633: 619: 616: 559: 556: 535: 534: 525: 516: 509: 500: 493:Monocotyledons 460: 457: 437:Campylotropous 425: 424: 415: 404: 401:megasporangium 393: 348:Main article: 345: 342: 298: 297: 281: 262: 251: 248: 247: 246: 235:Henry B. Guppy 231: 224: 214: 171: 168: 114:on land, from 96:spermatophytes 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6550: 6549: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6519: 6517: 6502: 6494: 6493: 6490: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6467: 6464: 6463: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6453: 6451: 6445: 6442: 6441: 6438: 6432: 6431:Phytochemical 6429: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6408: 6406: 6402: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6352: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6342: 6341: 6338: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6310: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6300: 6298: 6296: 6292: 6284: 6281: 6277: 6274: 6273: 6272: 6269: 6265: 6262: 6261: 6260: 6257: 6256: 6255: 6252: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6229: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6211: 6208: 6207: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6187: 6185: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6171: 6169: 6165: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6140: 6137: 6136: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6109: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6094: 6093: 6090: 6089: 6087: 6081: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6069:Transpiration 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6039: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6021: 6018: 6017: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5987: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5933: 5931: 5927: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5885: 5884: 5881: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5858: 5857: 5856:Inflorescence 5854: 5852: 5849: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5822: 5821: 5818: 5817: 5816: 5813: 5812: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5783: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5753: 5752: 5749: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5716: 5715: 5712: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5687: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5677: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5662: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5623: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5613: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5592: 5589: 5588: 5586: 5582: 5576: 5573: 5569: 5566: 5565: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5551: 5547: 5544: 5543: 5542: 5541:Ground tissue 5539: 5537: 5534: 5533: 5531: 5529: 5525: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5495: 5493: 5491: 5487: 5484: 5477: 5471: 5468: 5467: 5465: 5464:Plant anatomy 5461: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5397: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5385:Plant ecology 5383: 5381: 5380:Plant anatomy 5378: 5374: 5371: 5370: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5328:Archaeobotany 5326: 5325: 5323: 5321: 5317: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5302: 5299: 5295: 5288: 5283: 5281: 5276: 5274: 5269: 5268: 5265: 5259: 5256: 5253: 5252:The Seed Site 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5237: 5234: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5222: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5202:0-521-20688-X 5199: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5190:0-85199-906-9 5187: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5172: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5157: 5152: 5147: 5143: 5137: 5129: 5127:0-684-15543-5 5123: 5119: 5118: 5112: 5111: 5096: 5089: 5084: 5076: 5070: 5066: 5059: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5037: 5029: 5022: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5000: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4978: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4960: 4954: 4940: 4939:sites.psu.edu 4936: 4930: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4895: 4889: 4885: 4882: 4877: 4871: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4855: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4833: 4831: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4787: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4752: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4729: 4727: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4709: 4703: 4696: 4692: 4689: 4683: 4676: 4672: 4669: 4663: 4655: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4614: 4605: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4581: 4567: 4566: 4561: 4554: 4546: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4519: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4495: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4444: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4411: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4379: 4377: 4368: 4364: 4359: 4358:10.1.1.3.2708 4354: 4350: 4346: 4339: 4332: 4331:0-13-681007-1 4328: 4324: 4318: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4283: 4275: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4242: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4207: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4176: 4174: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4122: 4120: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4098: 4092: 4088: 4085: 4080: 4072: 4070:9780387726557 4066: 4062: 4061: 4054: 4046: 4040: 4036: 4031: 4030: 4021: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3986: 3979: 3973: 3966: 3960: 3951: 3949: 3939: 3937: 3935: 3925: 3916: 3909: 3903: 3894: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3870: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3847:(2): 97–100. 3846: 3842: 3835: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3788: 3779: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3740: 3733: 3732:0-7167-2409-X 3729: 3725: 3719: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3692: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3670: 3662: 3656: 3652: 3651: 3643: 3636: 3630: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3593:Nature Plants 3587: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3556:(1): 95–110. 3555: 3551: 3544: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3507:Plant Ecology 3504: 3497: 3488: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3469: 3460: 3453: 3447: 3439: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3414: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3392: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3362: 3353: 3345: 3341: 3335: 3327: 3321: 3317: 3316: 3308: 3293: 3289: 3288: 3281: 3279: 3270: 3264: 3259: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3237: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3202: 3194: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3179: 3171: 3156: 3150: 3146: 3145: 3137: 3135: 3127: 3121: 3113: 3107: 3103: 3096: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3065: 3046: 3045: 3037: 3021: 3017: 3016: 3008: 3006: 2997: 2991: 2987: 2986: 2978: 2970: 2964: 2960: 2959: 2951: 2937: 2933: 2926: 2918: 2912: 2908: 2907: 2899: 2895: 2884: 2881: 2879: 2876: 2874: 2871: 2869: 2866: 2864: 2861: 2859: 2856: 2854: 2851: 2849: 2846: 2844: 2841: 2839: 2836: 2834: 2831: 2829: 2826: 2824: 2821: 2819: 2816: 2814: 2811: 2809: 2806: 2805: 2800: 2799:Plants portal 2794: 2789: 2786: 2780: 2775: 2767: 2764: 2758: 2756: 2750: 2745: 2743: 2730: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2716:West Virginia 2713: 2710: 2706: 2703:The earliest 2702: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2673: 2670: 2666: 2665: 2660: 2656: 2653:'s palace on 2652: 2648: 2644: 2641: 2640:oldest viable 2637: 2636: 2633: 2629: 2624: 2612: 2608: 2605: 2602: 2598: 2595: 2592: 2590: 2585: 2582: 2578: 2575: 2571: 2570: 2569: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2543: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2528: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2492: 2483: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2460: 2454: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2387:custard apple 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2355:bitter almond 2352: 2348: 2344: 2339: 2337: 2333: 2328: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2304: 2294: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2279: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2263: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2199: 2189: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2178:loblolly pine 2168: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2145: 2144: 2139: 2130: 2123: 2114: 2105: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2086: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2058: 2053:Sterile seeds 2050: 2048: 2042: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2025: 2024: 2019: 2017: 2013: 2008: 2007: 2006:Scarification 2002: 2000: 1999:seed dormancy 1990: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1967: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1944: 1942: 1936: 1934: 1929: 1926: 1923: 1919: 1914: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1901: 1897: 1890: 1885: 1880: 1876: 1865: 1864:Seed dormancy 1855: 1853: 1848: 1845: 1836: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1824:Photodormancy 1822: 1821: 1820: 1818: 1810: 1807: 1804: 1800: 1795: 1792: 1791: 1789: 1788:Abscisic acid 1784: 1781: 1777: 1776: 1771: 1770: 1765: 1764:Ranunculaceae 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1748:Aquifoliaceae 1745: 1740: 1737: 1734: 1733:Ranunculaceae 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1709: 1708: 1701: 1698: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1678:Anacardiaceae 1674: 1670: 1666: 1663: 1662: 1661: 1658: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1645: 1638: 1637:Seed dormancy 1628: 1626: 1622: 1621: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1607:Argentine ant 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1571: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1492: 1483: 1482: 1477: 1476: 1471: 1470: 1461: 1458: 1455: 1452: 1451: 1450: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1433: 1429: 1426: 1422: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1408: 1401: 1396: 1387: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1331: 1321: 1312: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1276: 1274: 1273: 1267: 1263: 1253: 1244: 1242: 1241: 1235: 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Retrieved 4938: 4929: 4921:the original 4908: 4904: 4894: 4876: 4860: 4854: 4841: 4821:the original 4800: 4796: 4786: 4761: 4757: 4751: 4738: 4718: 4702: 4682: 4662: 4630:(1): 14–26. 4627: 4623: 4613: 4597:(1): 40–45. 4594: 4590: 4580: 4569:. Retrieved 4563: 4553: 4508: 4504: 4494: 4453: 4449: 4443: 4392: 4388: 4348: 4344: 4338: 4322: 4317: 4292: 4288: 4282: 4255: 4251: 4241: 4216: 4212: 4206: 4192:(2): 50–54. 4189: 4185: 4181: 4131: 4127: 4110: 4097: 4079: 4059: 4053: 4028: 4020: 3995: 3991: 3985: 3977: 3972: 3964: 3959: 3924: 3915: 3907: 3902: 3883: 3879: 3869: 3844: 3840: 3834: 3801: 3797: 3787: 3778: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3739: 3723: 3718: 3705: 3701: 3691: 3678: 3669: 3649: 3642: 3634: 3629: 3599:(1): 60–72. 3596: 3592: 3586: 3553: 3549: 3543: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3496: 3477: 3473: 3467: 3459: 3451: 3446: 3419: 3413: 3400: 3391: 3379:. Retrieved 3370: 3361: 3352: 3343: 3334: 3314: 3307: 3296:, retrieved 3286: 3258: 3245: 3242:"Seed shape" 3236: 3211: 3207: 3201: 3177: 3170: 3158:. 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