653:
993:. This provides instantaneous range measurements of millimeter level precision which can be accumulated to provide accurate orbit parameters, gravity field parameters (from the orbit perturbations), Earth rotation parameters, tidal Earth's deformations, coordinates and velocities of SLR stations, and other substantial geodetic data. Satellite laser ranging is a proven geodetic technique with significant potential for important contributions to scientific studies of the Earth/Atmosphere/Oceans system. It is the most accurate technique currently available to determine the
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above the geoid. With a precise ephemeris available for the satellite, the geocentric position and ellipsoidal height of the satellite are available for any given observation time. It is then possible to compute the geoid height by subtracting the measured altitude from the ellipsoidal height. This allows direct measurement of the geoid, since the ocean surface closely follows the geoid. The difference between the ocean surface and the actual geoid gives
699:
1333:, since it is the derivative of each component of the gravity vector taken in each sensitive axis. Thus, the value of any component of the gravity vector can be known all along the path of the vehicle if gravity gradiometers are included in the system and their outputs are integrated by the system computer. An accurate gravity model will be computed in real-time and a continuous map of normal gravity, elevation, and anomalous gravity will be available.
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whose positions were accurately determined, provided a framework on the photographic plate or film for a determination of precise directions from camera station to satellite. Geodetic positioning work with cameras was usually performed with one camera observing simultaneously with one or more other cameras. Camera systems are weather dependent and that is one major reason why they fell out of use by the 1980s.
1290:, using differences in the phase of the waves returning to the satellite. The technique can potentially measure centimetre-scale changes in deformation over timespans of days to years. It has applications for geophysical monitoring of natural hazards, for example earthquakes, volcanoes and landslides, and also in structural engineering, in particular monitoring of subsidence and structural stability.
2048:
1371:. In this way, low altitude satellites may be observed when they are not accessible to ground stations. In this type of tracking, a signal generated by a tracking station is received by the relay satellite and then retransmitted to a lower altitude satellite. This signal is then returned to the ground station by the same path.
936:
and can be used to ascertain the geometric relationship between multiple observing stations. Optical triangulation with the BC-4, PC-1000, MOTS, or Baker Nunn cameras consisted of photographic observations of a satellite, or flashing light on the satellite, against a background of stars. The stars,
1209:
uses the round-trip flight-time of a microwave pulse between the satellite and the Earth's surface to determine the distance between the spacecraft and the surface. From this distance or height, the local surface effects such as tides, winds and currents are removed to obtain the satellite height
1119:
and the dry air mass of the atmosphere. Combining these data with the precise location of the spacecraft makes it possible to determine sea-surface height to within a few centimeters (about one inch). The strength and shape of the returning signal also provides information on wind speed and the
891:
positioning involves recording the
Doppler shift of a radio signal of stable frequency emitted from a satellite as the satellite approaches and recedes from the observer. The observed frequency depends on the radial velocity of the satellite relative to the observer, which is constrained by
896:. If the observer knows the orbit of the satellite, then recording the Doppler profile determines the observer's position. Conversely, if the observer's position is precisely known, then the orbit of the satellite can be determined and used to study the Earth's gravity. In
1323:
A gravity gradiometer can independently determine the components of the gravity vector on a real-time basis. A gravity gradient is simply the spatial derivative of the gravity vector. The gradient can be thought of as the rate of change of a component of the gravity
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as measured over a small distance. Hence, the gradient can be measured by determining the difference in gravity at two close but distinct points. This principle is embodied in several recent moving-base instruments. The gravity gradient at a point is a
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with information on its own position and a message containing the exact time of transmission. The receiver compares this time of transmission with its own clock at the time of reception and multiplies the difference by the speed of light to obtain a
1005:. Satellite laser ranging contributes to the definition of the international terrestrial reference frames by providing the information about the scale and the origin of the reference frame, the so-called geocenter coordinates.
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Smith, David E. and
Turcotte, Donald L. (eds.) (1993). Contributions of Space Geodesy to Geodynamics: Crustal Dynamics Vol. 23, Earth Dynamics Vol. 24, Technology Vol. 25, American Geophysical Union Geodynamics Series
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These examples present a few of the possibilities for the application of satellite-to-satellite tracking. Satellite-to-satellite tracking data was first collected and analyzed in a high-low configuration between
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by the United States in the 1980s allowed for precise navigation and positioning and soon became a standard tool in surveying. In the 1980s and 1990s satellite geodesy began to be used for monitoring of
664:
satellite system was used extensively for
Doppler surveying, navigation, and positioning. Observations of satellites in the 1970s by worldwide triangulation networks allowed for the establishment of the
709:
The 1990s were focused on the development of permanent geodetic networks and reference frames. Dedicated satellites were launched to measure Earth's gravity field in the 2000s, such as
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uses the round-trip flight-time of a beam of light at optical or infrared wavelengths to determine the spacecraft's altitude or, conversely, the ground topography.
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Global navigation satellite systems are dedicated radio positioning services, which can locate a receiver to within a few meters. The most prominent system,
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Two low altitude satellites can track one another observing mutual orbital variations caused by gravity field irregularities. A prime example of this is
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Burgmann, R.; Rosen, P.A.; Fielding, E.J. (2000), "Synthetic aperture radar interferometry to measure Earth's surface topography and its deformation",
1103:, the hills and valleys of the sea surface. These instruments send a microwave pulse to the ocean's surface and record the time it takes to return. A
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831:." Four pseudoranges are needed to obtain the precise time and the receiver's position within a few meters. More sophisticated methods, such as
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This technique uses satellites to track other satellites. There are a number of variations which may be used for specific purposes such as
814:, consists of a constellation of 31 satellites (as of December 2013) in high, 12-hour circular orbits, distributed in six planes with 55°
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In satellite laser ranging (SLR) a global network of observation stations measure the round trip time of flight of ultrashort pulses of
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Massonnet, D.; Feigl, K. L. (1998), "Radar interferometry and its application to changes in the earth's surface",
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commonly considered a part of satellite geodesy, although there is considerable overlap between the techniques.
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Introduction to GNSS Geodesy: Foundations of
Precise Positioning Using Global Navigation Satellite Systems
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altimeters to measure the height of the Earth's surface (sea, ice, and terrestrial surfaces) from a
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height of ocean waves. These data are used in ocean models to calculate the speed and direction of
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Determination of the figure of the Earth, positioning, and navigation (geometric satellite geodesy)
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Determination of
Precise Satellite Orbits and Geodetic Parameters using Satellite Laser Ranging
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Determination of
Precise Satellite Orbits and Geodetic Parameters using Satellite Laser Ranging
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Techniques of satellite geodesy may be classified by instrument platform: A satellite may
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The Jason-1 measurement system combines major geodetic measurement techniques, including
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and the amount and location of heat stored in the ocean, which in turn reveals global
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This graph shows the rise in global sea level (in millimeters) measured by the
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In optical triangulation, the satellite can be used as a very high target for
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dynamics. The presence of the GPS signal in space also makes it suitable for
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Satellite geodetic data and methods can be applied to diverse fields such as
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1876:. Bern: Astronomical Institute, University of Bern, Switzerland. p. 6.
1793:. Bern: Astronomical Institute, University of Bern, Switzerland. p. 5.
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field and its temporal variations (dynamical satellite geodesy or satellite
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carry an instrument or sensor as part of its payload to observe the Earth (
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and separation of long-term instrumentation drift from secular changes in
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satellites, may be used to fix the position of a low altitude satellite.
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Several high altitude satellites with accurately known orbits, such as
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Spaceborne radar altimeters have proven to be superb tools for mapping
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of an Earth satellite, allowing for the precise calibration of radar
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1136:"Satellite laser altimetry" redirects here. Not to be confused with
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or use its instruments to track or be tracked by another satellite (
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Soviet military satellites undertook geodesic missions to assist in
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elements (possibly augmented by GPS), enables determination of the
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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Worldwide BC-4 camera geometric satellite triangulation network
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A new look at planet Earth: Satellite geodesy and geosciences
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1851:. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing AG.
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coefficients of the geopotential, the general shape of the
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1286:(SAR) images to generate maps of surface deformation or
835:(RTK) can yield positions to within a few millimeters.
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may act as a relay from ground tracking stations to a
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Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) is a
1936:
598:. The 1960s saw the launch of the Doppler satellite
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Satellite geodesy began shortly after the launch of
838:In geodesy, GNSS is used as an economical tool for
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594:in 1958 allowed for an accurate determination of
2064:(Report). United States Air Force. Archived from
1080:in January 2016. That measurement, coupled with
458:, the location of objects on its surface and the
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1260:Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR)
454:—the measurement of the form and dimensions of
1901:, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 441–500,
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1469:
613:. The first dedicated geodetic satellite was
1939:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
1839:
1837:
644:targeting in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
424:
693:
648:Toward the World Geodetic System (1970–1990)
780:Earth-to-space methods (satellite tracking)
757:be observed with ground-based instruments (
2089:François Barlier; Michel Lefebvre (2001),
1834:
637:, and linked the world's geodetic datums.
577:
431:
417:
398:Spatial Reference System Identifier (SRID)
393:International Terrestrial Reference System
1914:
1307:
1282:. This geodetic method uses two or more
1107:corrects any delay that may be caused by
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818:. The principle of location is based on
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477:The main goals of satellite geodesy are:
16:Measurement of the Earth using satellites
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1741:
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1735:
1733:
1731:
1729:
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1266:Interferometric synthetic aperture radar
1044:(on the left) and its follow-on mission
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939:
921:
784:For broader coverage of this topic, see
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651:
18:
1966:
1871:
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530:. Satellite geodesy relies heavily on
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1747:
1312:
1048:. Image credit: University of Colorado
944:ANNA 1B track on photography taken by
822:. Each satellite transmits a precise
2024:"International Laser Ranging Service"
1992:"International Laser Ranging Service"
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862:and satellite-to-satellite tracking.
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1142:
1060:(1992-2006) used advanced dual-band
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952:) MOTS station on November 11, 1962
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403:Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
365:European Terrestrial Ref. Sys. 1989
13:
2082:
1941:, vol. 28, pp. 169–209,
1830:(Report). United States Air Force.
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275:Ordnance Survey Great Britain 1936
241:Discrete Global Grid and Geocoding
132:Horizontal position representation
14:
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2115:
846:. It is also used for monitoring
617:, a collaborative effort between
23:Wettzell Laser Ranging System, a
2046:
2026:. Ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2012-09-17
1994:. Ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2012-09-17
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191:Global Nav. Sat. Systems (GNSSs)
41:
2057:Defense Mapping Agency (1983).
2016:
2005:
1823:Defense Mapping Agency (1983).
1347:Satellite-to-satellite tracking
355:N. American Vertical Datum 1988
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1984:
1960:
1955:10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.169
1930:
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385:Internet link to a point 2010
315:Geodetic Reference System 1980
233:Quasi-Zenith Sat. Sys. (QZSS)
1:
1717:
1574:Experimental Geodetic Payload
375:Chinese obfuscated datum 2002
2098:, Kluwer Academic Publishers
1023:
989:to satellites equipped with
325:Geographic point coord. 1983
7:
1872:Sosnica, Krzysztof (2014).
1789:Sosnica, Krzysztof (2014).
1700:
1470:List of geodetic satellites
285:Systema Koordinat 1942 goda
10:
2168:
1967:Hanssen, Ramon F. (2001),
1482:List of passive satellites
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586:in 1957. Observations of
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345:World Geodetic System 1984
1355:field investigations and
694:Modern era (1990–present)
335:North American Datum 1983
305:South American Datum 1969
1284:synthetic aperture radar
1212:ocean surface topography
1101:ocean-surface topography
1040:ocean altimeter mission
1003:ocean surface topography
196:Global Pos. System (GPS)
163:Spatial reference system
1748:Seeber, Gunter (2003).
1365:high altitude satellite
1138:Satellite laser ranging
981:Satellite laser ranging
702:Artist's conception of
578:First steps (1957–1970)
25:satellite laser ranging
2059:Geodesy for the Layman
1825:Geodesy for the Layman
1369:low altitude satellite
1308:Space-to-space methods
1049:
1019:Space-to-Earth methods
953:
773:space-to-space methods
766:space-to-Earth methods
759:Earth-to-space-methods
750:
725:Measurement techniques
706:
669:. The development of
657:
501:geodynamical phenomena
28:
1766:10.1515/9783110200089
1480:Further information:
1031:
943:
928:Stellar triangulation
926:Further information:
922:Optical triangulation
804:Further information:
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701:
667:World Geodetic System
655:
452:artificial satellites
91:Geographical distance
22:
1712:Satellite gravimetry
1679:Starlette and Stella
1503:adding missing items
1105:microwave radiometer
1088:. The two different
468:astronomical geodesy
265:Sea Level Datum 1929
117:Geodetic coordinates
2152:Geodetic satellites
1971:, Kluwer Academic,
1947:2000AREPS..28..169B
1907:1998RvGeo..36..441M
1756:. Berlin New York:
1476:Geodetic satellites
1319:Gravity gradiometry
1313:Gravity gradiometry
1052:Satellites such as
995:geocentric position
860:orbit determination
833:real-time kinematic
678:phenomena, such as
460:figure of the Earth
295:European Datum 1950
253:Standards (history)
153:Reference ellipsoid
101:Figure of the Earth
1707:Geodetic astronomy
1501:; you can help by
1435:. You can help by
1274:technique used in
1158:. You can help by
1126:climate variations
1050:
954:
884:Doppler techniques
786:Satellite tracking
751:
707:
658:
631:spherical harmonic
604:balloon satellites
596:Earth's flattening
557:. You can help by
173:Vertical positions
29:
1916:10.1029/97RG03139
1858:978-3-030-91821-7
1775:978-3-11-017549-3
1758:Walter de Gruyter
1752:Satellite geodesy
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1518:
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1288:digital elevation
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894:orbital mechanics
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532:orbital mechanics
484:Determination of
444:Satellite geodesy
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168:Spatial relations
158:Satellite geodesy
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1201:Radar altimetry
1180:laser altimeter
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1132:Laser altimetry
1072:began in 2001,
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991:retroreflectors
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553:This section
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209:BeiDou (BDS)
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2073:. Retrieved
2066:the original
2045:
2028:. Retrieved
2018:
2007:
1996:. Retrieved
1986:
1968:
1962:
1938:
1932:
1898:
1892:
1873:
1867:
1848:
1790:
1784:
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1507:
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1437:adding to it
1432:
1403:
1388:
1350:
1337:
1322:
1294:
1269:
1218:
1204:
1186:
1177:
1164:
1160:adding to it
1155:
1098:
1076:in 2008 and
1051:
1009:
984:
964:Project Echo
957:
931:
904:
887:
866:
852:polar motion
837:
816:inclinations
809:
790:
772:
765:
758:
752:
708:
688:polar motion
659:
639:
581:
563:
559:adding to it
554:
524:oceanography
513:
509:polar motion
476:
471:
450:by means of
443:
442:
185:Technologies
157:
140: /
52:Fundamentals
2042:Attribution
1109:water vapor
1090:wavelengths
1056:(1978) and
829:pseudorange
520:hydrography
63:Geodynamics
2075:2021-02-19
2030:2022-08-20
1998:2022-08-20
1718:References
1499:incomplete
1457:Examples:
1301:TerraSAR-X
1219:Examples:
1187:Examples:
1117:ionosphere
1113:atmosphere
1094:ionosphere
1066:spacecraft
1010:Example:
999:altimeters
958:Examples:
905:Examples:
867:Examples:
676:geodynamic
600:Transit-1B
588:Explorer 1
528:geophysics
516:navigation
503:, such as
2109:0277-6669
1510:June 2011
1444:June 2011
1404:Example:
1338:Example:
1295:Example:
1167:June 2011
1024:Altimetry
840:surveying
824:ephemeris
747:altimetry
592:Sputnik 2
566:June 2011
142:Longitude
68:Geomatics
2146:Category
1925:24519422
1847:(2022).
1701:See also
1640:ICESat-2
1635:ICESat-1
1590:Geo-IK-2
1576:"Ajisai"
1416:tracking
946:Santiago
602:and the
321:ISO 6709
219:(Europe)
217:Galileo
203:(Russia)
201:GLONASS
138:Latitude
127:Geodesic
85:Concepts
2012:H2A-LRE
1943:Bibcode
1903:Bibcode
1694:WESTPAC
1689:TRANSIT
1615:GLONASS
1585:Galileo
1554:Envisat
1544:Diadème
1524:ANNA-1B
1353:gravity
1276:geodesy
1249:Envisat
1245:Jason-2
1241:Jason-1
1111:in the
1086:terrain
1082:orbital
1078:Jason-3
1074:Jason-2
1070:Jason-1
1046:Jason-1
968:ANNA 1B
907:Transit
889:Doppler
877:Galileo
873:GLONASS
856:crustal
662:Transit
627:US Army
615:ANNA-1B
584:Sputnik
538:History
448:geodesy
381:Geo URI
351:NAVD 88
261:NGVD 29
235:(Japan)
227:(India)
211:(China)
73:History
58:Geodesy
35:Geodesy
27:station
2107:
2055::
1975:
1923:
1880:
1855:
1797:
1772:
1674:Seasat
1669:PAGEOS
1655:Larets
1645:LAGEOS
1600:Geosat
1595:GEOS-3
1569:Etalon
1529:Beidou
1397:GEOS-3
1331:tensor
1326:vector
1297:Seasat
1225:Geosat
1221:Seasat
1189:ICESat
1054:Seasat
1012:LAGEOS
960:PAGEOS
854:, and
745:, and
717:, and
686:, and
621:, the
611:PAGEOS
607:Echo 1
371:GCJ-02
361:ETRS89
341:WGS 84
331:NAD 83
311:GRS 80
271:OSGB36
225:NAVIC
106:radius
2137:Aviso
2132:CHAMP
2127:GRACE
2096:(PDF)
2069:(PDF)
2062:(PDF)
1921:S2CID
1828:(PDF)
1660:H-IIA
1650:LARES
1620:GRACE
1610:GFZ-1
1564:ERS-2
1559:ERS-1
1539:CHAMP
1534:BLITS
1459:CHAMP
1406:GRACE
1393:ATS-6
1376:GRACE
1357:orbit
1272:radar
1237:ERS-2
1233:ERS-1
1062:radar
987:light
950:Chile
915:Argos
911:DORIS
898:DORIS
735:DORIS
715:GRACE
711:CHAMP
704:GRACE
635:geoid
486:geoid
456:Earth
301:SAD69
281:SK-42
96:Geoid
2122:GOCE
2105:ISSN
1973:ISBN
1878:ISBN
1853:ISBN
1795:ISBN
1770:ISBN
1625:GOCE
1549:Echo
1463:GOCE
1414:GNSS
1395:and
1340:GOCE
1278:and
1193:MOLA
1038:CNES
1034:NASA
842:and
800:GNSS
719:GOCE
660:The
642:ICBM
619:NASA
590:and
526:and
507:and
291:ED50
108:and
1951:doi
1911:doi
1762:doi
1664:LRE
1630:GPS
1505:.
1439:.
1383:GPS
1162:.
871:,
869:GPS
812:GPS
743:GPS
739:SLR
671:GPS
623:DoD
561:.
472:not
470:is
446:is
2148::
1949:,
1919:,
1909:,
1836:^
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1768:.
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948:(
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568:)
564:(
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432:e
425:t
418:v
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104:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
