1217:, Francesco Giumelli noted that the UNSC had largely abandoned comprehensive sanctions in favor of targeted sanctions since the mid-1990s, with the controversy over the efficacy and civilian harms attributed to the Iraq sanctions playing a significant role in the change: "The sanctions imposed on Iraq in 1990 covered all goods entering or leaving the entire country, whereas those imposed today are most often directed against individuals or non-state entities, and are more limited in scope. ... The widespread view ... that 500,000 Iraqi children died as a result of UN comprehensive sanctions itself rang the death knell for the perceived utility of comprehensive measures." In a similar vein, Albright herself told an interviewer in 2020 that "we learned in many ways that comprehensive sanctions often hurt the people of the country and don't really accomplish what is wanted in order to change the behavior of the country being sanctioned. So we began to look at something called 'smart sanctions' or 'targeted sanctions.'"
550:
1113:, the data 'were rigged to show a huge and sustainedâand largely non-existentârise in child mortality ... to heighten international concern and so get the international sanctions ended.' ... This is not to deny that UN sanctions contributed to hardships in Iraq or to say that my answer to Stahl's question wasn't a mistake. They did, and it was. ... U.S. policy throughout the 1990s was to prevent Iraq from reconstituting its most dangerous weapons programs. Short of another war, UN sanctions were the best means for doing so."
766:(MOU) with the UN in May 1996. Under the OFFP, the UN states that "Iraq was permitted to sell $ 2 billion worth of oil every six months, with two-thirds of that amount to be used to meet Iraq's humanitarian needs. In 1998, the limit on the level of Iraqi oil exports ... was raised to $ 5.26 billion every six months, again with two-thirds of the oil proceeds to be earmarked to meet the humanitarian needs of the Iraqi people." In later iterations of the OFFP (pursuant to the December 1999
1036:
for any negative effects. Likewise, Cortright claimed: "The tens of thousands of excess deaths in the south-center, compared to the similarly sanctioned but UN-administered north, are the result of
Baghdad's failure to accept and properly manage the UN humanitarian relief effort." In the run-up to the Iraq War, some disputed the idea that excess mortality exceeded 500,000, because the Iraqi government had interfered with objective collection of statistics (independent experts were barred).
1094:(referring to the 1995 FAO study) asked her "We have heard that half a million children have died. I mean, that's more children than died in Hiroshima. And, you know, is the price worth it?" and Albright replied "I think this is a very hard choice, but the price, we think the price is worth it." Albright wrote later that Saddam Hussein, not the sanctions, was to blame. She criticized Stahl's segment as "amount to Iraqi propaganda"; said that her question was a
1057:
994:
assumption that the child mortality rate had more than doubled from 56 deaths per 1000 births (during 1984â1989) to 131 deaths per 1000 births (during 1994â1999). Notably, the ICMMS found a steady decline in the child mortality rate after 1992 in areas where data was collected by
Kurdish, rather than Iraqi government, interviewers. Limited child mortality data from Iraq's 1997 census was inconsistent with some ICMMS findings, and, much later, a 2017 study in
4841:
817:, which helped reduce inflation. (Another factor was illegal transactions, as many countries began to simply ignore the sanctions.) While internal and external trade was revitalized, this did not lead to a significant increase in the standard of living for the majority of the population; on the contrary, the government tried to prevent benefits from flowing to Shi'ite areas in southern Iraq to persuade more countries to oppose the sanctions. In 2000, the
4851:
936:
overall the sanctions failed and (indirectly) led to an unprecedented improvement in agriculture, creating a constituency of farmers in central Iraq who had a vested interest in the sanctions remaining in effect. Data from 1990 is also consistent with the observation that destruction wrought by the 1991 Gulf War may be more responsible than the sanctions themselves for reducing Iraq's capacity to increase food production further.
3721:
4861:
47:
4871:
429:'s public condemnation of Iraq's "unjustified and abhorrent" chemical attacks. According to Pell in October 1988: "Agricultural interests objected to the suspension of taxpayer subsidies for agricultural exports to Iraq; the oil industry protested the oil boycottâalthough alternative supplies are readily available. Even a chemical company called to inquire how its products might be impacted."
596:: "Sanctions compelled Iraq to accept inspections and monitoring and won concessions from Baghdad on political issues such as the border dispute with Kuwait. They also drastically reduced the revenue available to Saddam, prevented the rebuilding of Iraqi defenses after the Persian Gulf War, and blocked the import of vital materials and technologies for producing WMD." Saddam told his
778:, and 3% to UN programs related to Iraq. The first shipments of food arrived in March 1997, with medicines following in May 1997. The UN recounts that "Over the life of the Programme, the Security Council expanded its initial emphasis on food and medicines to include infrastructure rehabilitation". The UN, rather than the Iraqi government, administered the OFFP in Iraq's
1044:
smugglers evaded sanctions through the porous
Northern borders. Spagat argued in response that "it is hard to believe that these factors could completely overwhelm the major disadvantages of the Kurdish Zone in which perhaps 20% of the population was internally displaced compared to about 0.3% in the South/Centre" and that the
986:, hypothesizing at the time that "an accurate estimate of child mortality in Iraq probably lies between the two surveys." She later told Michael Spagat: "My guess is that 'some' Iraqi surveyors recorded deaths when they did not take place or the child had died outside the time frame but they specified the opposite."
1009:(MOH) in 2006 and again in 2011âall found that the child mortality rate in the period 1995â2000 was approximately 40 per 1000, which means that there was no major rise in child mortality in Iraq after sanctions were implemented. As a corollary, "there was no major improvement in child mortality" as a result of the
1013:, contrary to claims made by some of its proponents. Despite disproving its 1999 study in 2006 and 2011, UNICEF never formally disavowed the ICMMS results (or released the survey's underlying data to the public); however, the UN revised its official child mortality figures for Iraq to match the corrected data.
2722:
1155:
official. The inquiry noted "The level of child mortality in Iraq estimated by the ICMMS was significantly higher than that estimated by later surveys," citing revised UN "estimates that the underâfive mortality rate in Iraq was 55 per 1,000 in 1989, 46 per 1,000 in 1999, 42 per 1,000 in 2003, and 37
1035:
Some commentators blame Saddam
Hussein for the excess deaths reported during this period. For example, Rubin argued that the Kurdish and the Iraqi governments handled OFFP aid differently, and that therefore the Iraqi government policy, rather than the sanctions themselves, should be held responsible
935:
in 1980 to 45,046 donums in 1990. In turn, irrigation projects were launched to meet the increased demand for water in Iraq's agricultural sector. The increase in agricultural output does not mean that hunger was not widespread; prices of foodstuffs increased dramatically during this period. However,
930:
announced that it would increase loans to farmers by 100 percent, and would subsidize machinery and tools. In
October 1990, the RCC stated it was planning to utilize and exploit "every inch of Iraqi arable land". While official statistics cannot be trusted entirely, they showed massive growth in
981:
interviewers, "many of the deaths were not confirmed in the reinterviews. Moreover, it emerged that some miscarriages and stillbirths had been wrongly classified as child deaths in 1995." The child mortality rate suggested by Zaidi's 1996 survey (38 per 1000) was less than one-fifth that of the 1995
1043:
and
Anthony Arnove, argue that the differences in results noted by authors such as Rubin may have been because the sanctions were not the same in the two parts of Iraq, due to several regional differences: in the per capita money, in war damage to infrastructure and in the relative ease with which
993:
study called the "Iraq Child and
Maternal Mortality Survey" (ICMMS), using survey data from nearly 40,000 households again collated by Iraqi government field workers (except in the autonomous Kurdistan Region), calculated that roughly 500,000 children had died as a result of sanctions, based on the
951:
Estimates of excess deaths during the sanctions vary widely, use different methodologies and cover different time frames. The figure of 500,000 child deaths was for a long period widely cited, but recent research has suggested that that figure was the result of survey data manipulated by the Saddam
925:
The RCC introduced Decree No. 367 in 1990, which stated that all lands which were not under production by their owners would be taken over by the state; if the owner could not use all of the land he owned, he would lose it. However, the RCC's policy was not "all stick and no carrot". The government
902:
Throughout the Ba'ath Party's rule over Iraq, the agricultural sector had been under-performing. Those in the U.S. who supported sanctions believed that low agricultural production in Iraq (coupled with sanctions) would lead to "a hungry population", and "a hungry population was an unruly one". The
1000:
described "the rigging of the 1999 Unicef survey" as "an especially masterful fraud". The three comprehensive surveys (using full birth histories) that have been conducted since 2003ânamely, the 2004 Iraq Living
Conditions Survey (ILCS), which was initially discounted by the Volcker Committee for
851:
criticized Nagy for "selective" use of sources and argued that "the documentary evidence eviscerates Nagy's conclusions," opining that "if Saddam
Hussein's government has managed to spend more than $ 2 billion for new presidential palaces since the end of the Persian Gulf War, and offer to donate
1026:
Scholar Ramon Das, in the Human Rights
Research Journal of the New Zealand Center for Public Law, examined each of the "most widely accepted ethical frameworks" in the context of violations of Iraqi human rights under the sanctions, finding that "primary responsibility rests with the UNSC" under
878:
Courier journalist, reports that "some legal experts are skeptical about or even against using such terminology" and quotes Mario Bettati for the view that "People who talk like that don't know anything about law. The embargo has certainly affected the Iraqi people badly, but that's not at all a
1027:
these frameworks, including rights-utilitarianism, moral Kantianism, and consequentialism. By contrast, some academics, American and UN officials, and Iraqi citizens contend that this ignores the consequences of allowing Saddam to continue his policies with no deterrence and unlimited capacity.
977:(FAO) survey conducted in Baghdad with Iraqi government interviewers that found a child mortality rate of around 200 deaths per 1000 birthsâseveral times larger than the previously reported rate. When Sarah Zaidi, one of the study's coauthors, carried out follow-up surveys in 1996 and 1997 with
870:, Iraq as of 1 September 1997, at the Assistant Secretary-General level. In October 1998 he resigned after a 34-year career with the UN in order to have the freedom to criticise the sanctions regime, saying "I don't want to administer a programme that satisfies the definition of
785:
While the OFFP is credited with improving the conditions of the population, it was not free from controversy. The U.S. State Department criticized the Iraqi government for inadequately spending the money. In 2004â2005, the OFFP became the subject of major media attention over
903:
Iraqi government, which understood the serious effects the sanctions could have on Iraq, was able to increase agricultural output by 24 percent from 1990 to 1991. During the sanction years, the agricultural sector witnessed "a boom of unprecedented proportions". Iraq's
341:
has shown that commonly cited data were doctored by the Saddam Hussein regime and that "there was no major rise in child mortality in Iraq after 1990 and during the period of the sanctions". Nevertheless, sanctions contributed to a significant reduction in Iraq's
2203:
Statement of the International Progress Organization before the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, Sub-Commission on Prevention Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, on UN sanctions against Iraq and human rights, 13 August
325:
for illegal transactions, while some neighboring countries began to ignore the sanctions entirely, contributing to a modest economic recovery. By reducing food imports, the sanctions appear to have played a role in encouraging Iraq to become more
1207:
cited the sanctions against Iraq as a justification for attacks against Americans. Bin Laden stated that the sanctions had caused the deaths of 1.5 million Iraqi children in an effort "to destroy Iraq, the most powerful neighboring Arab state."
346:, especially prior to the introduction of the OFFP. Most UNSC sanctions since the 1990s have been targeted rather than comprehensive, a change partially motivated by concerns that the Iraq sanctions had inflicted disproportionate civilian harm.
614:
As the humanitarian impact of the sanctions became a matter of international concern, several UN resolutions were introduced that allowed Iraq to trade its oil for approved goods such as food and medicine. The earliest of these,
309:.) The sanctions regime was continually modified in response to growing international concern over civilian harms attributed to the sanctions; eventually, all limitations on the quantity of Iraqi oil exports were removed (per
833:
High rates of malnutrition, lack of medical supplies, and diseases from lack of clean water were reported during the sanctions. In 2001, the chairman of the Iraqi Medical Association's scientific committee sent a plea to
265:
and financial resources with both Iraq and occupied Kuwait except for medicine and "in humanitarian circumstances" foodstuffs, the import of which was tightly regulated. In April 1991, following Iraq's defeat in the
1151:(DFID) to the effect that the ICMMS was of questionable reliability because it had been "conducted with the Iraqi regime's 'help' and relied on some Iraqi figures" was not communicated to Blair by a
3233:
1238:
171:
1068:, accepted a large estimate of casualties due to sanctions, but argued that invading Iraq was better than continuing the sanctions regime, since "Each year of containment is a new Gulf War."
183:
623:
in September 1991. The UN states that "The Government of Iraq declined these offers". As a result, Iraq was effectively barred from exporting oil to the world market for several years.
541:, which established a "Goods Review List" for dual-purpose items. From then on, all other Iraqi purchases were automatically approved, while the listed items were reviewed separately.
790:, as allegations surfaced that Iraq had systematically sold oil vouchers at below-market prices in return for some of the proceeds from the resale outside the scope of the programme;
3290:
1671:
943:
to mitigate the effects of sanctions and war, suggesting that Iraq's government was not wholly lacking in competence or efficiency despite being portrayed as such by critics.
847:
magazine that U.S. government intelligence and actions in the previous ten years demonstrates that the U.S. government had acted to intentionally destroy Iraq's water supply.
4103:
359:
95:
770:), there were no restrictions on Iraq's oil exports and the share of revenue allocated to humanitarian relief increased to 72%; 25% of the proceeds (which were held in
4930:
1172:. In December 2010, the UNSC "voted to return control of Iraq's oil and natural gas revenue to the government on 30 June and to end all remaining activities of the ".
2220:
633:
213:
533:
of the UNSC) to individually approve its purchases, with "foodstuffs and certain medical, health and agricultural materials exempt from review" according to the
1325:
1357:
530:
302:
3036:
333:
The effects of the sanctions on the civilian population of Iraq have been disputed. Whereas it was widely believed that the sanctions more than doubled the
246:
to Kuwait. The original stated purposes of the sanctions were to compel Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait, to pay reparations, and to disclose and eliminate any
2793:
4132:
3378:
4402:
2246:
1136:
that "today, 135 out of every 1,000 Iraqi children die before the age of five". The inquiry found that the figure in question was provided to Blair by
565:
was organized and led by the U.S. to intercept, inspect and possibly impound vessels, cargoes and crews suspected of carrying freight to or from Iraq.
3411:
568:
The legal side of sanctions included enforcement through actions brought by individual governments. In the U.S., legal enforcement was handled by the
274:
lifted the prohibition on foodstuffs, but sanctions remained in effect with revisions, including linkage to removal of weapons of mass destruction.
4016:
2087:
1137:
952:
Hussein regime and that there was no major rise in child mortality after 1990 during the period that Iraq was under sanctions. Political scientist
537:. (Additionally, some of the revenue was redirected for other purposes, notably reparations to Kuwait.) In May 2002 the process was streamlined by
1745:
1535:
1098:; wrote "I had fallen into a trap and said something I did not mean"; and regretted coming "across as cold-blooded and cruel". The segment won an
1180:
1169:
767:
538:
314:
310:
3472:
3091:
2123:
907:(RCC) introduced several decrees during this period to increase agricultural performance. These decrees may be separated into three categories:
584:
There is a general consensus that the sanctions achieved the express goals of limiting Iraqi arms. For example, U.S. Under Secretary of Defense
449:. These sanctions included strict limits both on the items that could be imported into Iraq and on those that could be exported. UN Resolutions
759:
620:
616:
558:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
286:
282:
278:
271:
258:
813:
increased from US$ 10.8 billion in 1996 to US$ 30.8 billion in 2000. The OFFP was the major factor in this growth, as it led to the inflow of
818:
629:
343:
3553:
2731:
2054:
1144:
576:$ 20,000 for gifting medicine and other humanitarian supplies to Iraqis without prior acquisition of an export license as required by law.
206:
3525:"Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2107 (2013), Security Council Removes Iraq from Chapter VII Obligations over Return of Kuwaiti Nationals"
2818:
1946:
4925:
1543:
1168:, the sanctions regime was largely ended on May 22, 2003 (with certain exceptions related to arms and to oil revenue) by paragraph 10 of
165:
297:
was finally reached in 1996, the resulting OFFP allowed Iraq to resume oil exports in controlled quantities, but the funds were held in
3167:
1109:
were duped. Subsequent research has shown that Iraqi propagandists deceived international observers ... Per a 2017 article in the
1048:(IFHS) suggests a higher (albeit declining) child mortality rate in the Kurdistan Region than elsewhere in Iraq during the mid-1990s.
4020:
1176:
4910:
4392:
3011:
1148:
890:, subsequently also resigned in protest, calling the effects of the sanctions a "true human tragedy". Jutta Burghardt, head of the
2890:
199:
3476:
3251:
775:
415:
306:
17:
3708:
2705:
2672:
2639:
2606:
2573:
2034:
1725:
1263:
1102:. Albright's "non-denial" was taken by sanctions opponents as confirmation of a high number of sanctions related casualties.
1081:
159:
3686:
1384:
4144:
4051:
3664:
1130:
904:
370:
4046:
2842:
385:
2175:
1443:
301:
and the majority of Iraq's purchases had to be individually approved by the "Iraq Sanctions Committee," composed of the
4397:
4313:
4036:
4001:
1258:
1002:
982:
figure (206 per 1000). Zaidi remained concerned about humanitarian conditions in Iraq, but forthrightly acknowledged a
4441:
3456:
3388:
3358:
2975:
2894:
1898:
1864:
1804:
1332:
1196:
974:
534:
419:
327:
3502:
3314:
2794:"Ineffective, Immoral, Politically Convenient: America's Overreliance on Economic Sanctions and What to Do about It"
1282:
557:
Enforcement of the sanctions was primarily by means of military force and legal sanctions. Following the passage of
4905:
4529:
4514:
4110:
4098:
3044:
569:
423:
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and did not become law. Several U.S. commercial interests with ties to Iraq lobbied against sanctions, as did the
4920:
4900:
4895:
4387:
4373:
4125:
3775:
1753:
1612:"Changing views on child mortality and economic sanctions in Iraq: a history of lies, damned lies and statistics"
1213:
597:
442:
231:
3991:
1709:
927:
840:
to help it raise awareness of the disastrous effects the sanctions were having on the Iraqi healthcare system.
3348:
791:
3473:"The Report of the Iraq Inquiry: Report of a Committee of Privy Counsellors: SECTION 17: CIVILIAN CASUALTIES"
3223:
1860:
911:
They introduced severe penalties on farmers (or landowners) unable to produce at full capacity on their land.
1986:
809:
By the late 1990s, the Iraqi economy showed signs of modest growth, which would continue until 2003: Iraq's
4137:
3421:
1349:
914:
Government programs made it cheaper (and therefore more profitable for farmers and landowners) to produce.
4915:
4686:
4451:
4414:
4346:
4115:
1243:
763:
355:
294:
247:
129:
3021:
2989:
2526:
1179:
obligations "concerning the return of Kuwaiti and third-State nationals" were rescinded in June 2013 by
4864:
4539:
4519:
4361:
4351:
4341:
4041:
4031:
3810:
3625:
3300:
2740:
2693:
2660:
2627:
2594:
2557:
2171:
1547:
83:
65:
3125:
2097:
4491:
4336:
3906:
3701:
3007:
2127:
1531:
1496:
1045:
1006:
848:
506:
3073:
2949:
1568:
414:. Although the ensuing legislation passed in the U.S. Senate, it faced strong opposition within the
4578:
4549:
4193:
3322:
863:
446:
445:(UNSC) Resolution 661 imposed comprehensive sanctions on Iraq following that country's August 1990
227:
105:
2274:"Department of State Washington File: Fact Sheet: U.S. Department of State on Iraqi Underspending"
4806:
4554:
4218:
3951:
1762:
1483:
1253:
880:
407:
135:
33:
2437:
2058:
4940:
4935:
4509:
4368:
4238:
4213:
4083:
3835:
2508:
1248:
810:
795:
755:
619:
of 15 August 1991, allowed the sale of Iraqi oil in exchange for food, which was reaffirmed by
609:
522:
290:
2026:
1717:
1713:
1475:
856:, there is no reason to blame sanctions for any degradation in water and sanitation systems."
4874:
4613:
4481:
4093:
3966:
3945:
3865:
3825:
3716:
3480:
3193:
3060:
2936:
2697:
2664:
2631:
2598:
2565:
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1555:
1224:
announced that it had paid off its entire debt of $ 52 billion in war reparations to Kuwait.
1187:
announced that it had paid off its entire debt of $ 52 billion in war reparations to Kuwait.
1165:
1010:
338:
177:
2438:"The Secret Behind the Sanctions: How the U.S. Intentionally Destroyed Iraq's Water Supply,"
549:
4708:
4590:
4524:
4486:
4382:
4308:
4303:
4228:
4076:
3694:
1221:
1184:
787:
393:
293:(OFFP), which effectively barred Iraqi oil from the world market for several years. When a
153:
147:
123:
3582:
2149:
1835:
1105:
Albright addressed the controversy at length in a 2020 memoir: "In fact, the producers of
8:
4650:
4608:
4534:
4409:
4331:
3860:
3830:
3815:
3295:
2180:
1894:
1796:
1676:
1065:
411:
318:
141:
2324:
1307:
806:, personally accepted $ 147,184 in bribes from Saddam's government, which Sevan denied.
501:
expressed the goals of eliminating weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and extended-range
4781:
4776:
4761:
4723:
4698:
4635:
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3875:
3790:
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2415:
2402:
2380:
2354:
2251:
1644:
1611:
1508:
1077:
983:
926:
made it easier for farmers and landowners to receive credit. On 30 September 1990, the
891:
821:
was estimated to be US$ 1,000âless than half of what it had been in 1990, according to
525:(OFFP) allowed Iraq to resume exporting oil in 1996, the resulting revenue was held in
404:
378:
254:
77:
71:
59:
4623:
2898:
2860:
2273:
1923:
1672:"Saddam Hussein said sanctions killed 500,000 children. That was 'a spectacular lie.'"
4850:
4801:
4766:
4603:
4544:
4446:
4356:
4326:
4321:
4188:
4183:
4167:
4056:
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3649:
3452:
3384:
3354:
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3228:
3087:
2971:
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2756:
2701:
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2569:
2489:
2420:
2346:
2295:
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2030:
1964:
1800:
1792:
1721:
1649:
1631:
1512:
1504:
1152:
502:
366:
362:
235:
89:
2921:
2876:
2358:
2216:
960:
that the âcorrectedâ numbers still imply a death toll in the hundreds of thousands"
600:(FBI) interrogator that Iraq's armaments "had been eliminated by the UN sanctions."
392:
minority after the end of the war with Iran, in September 1988 United States (U.S.)
4693:
4628:
4618:
4292:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4203:
4178:
3629:
3016:
2856:
2770:
2744:
2410:
2394:
2336:
2016:
2012:
1766:
1639:
1623:
1500:
887:
779:
585:
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3765:
3752:
3740:
3152:
2119:
2083:
2050:
1784:
1492:
1388:
1204:
1147:(FCO) based on the 1999 ICMMS study, but an internal caveat from the FCO and the
1095:
970:
953:
853:
593:
589:
510:
374:
334:
243:
2963:
2398:
1060:
Protesters in Washington DC against sanctions and invasion of Iraq, 2002 or 2003
4771:
4746:
4026:
3956:
3616:
3528:
3524:
1990:
957:
859:
438:
410:
against Iraq, including an oil embargo and severe limitations on the export of
396:
239:
2748:
1947:"U.N. Plans Soon to Streamline Application of Iraq Sanctions (Published 2002)"
1627:
4889:
4844:
4796:
4786:
4751:
4703:
4680:
4655:
4419:
4248:
4243:
4120:
3921:
3770:
3448:
3318:
3219:
2462:
2022:
1701:
1635:
822:
814:
426:
322:
1770:
792:
investigations implicated individuals and companies from dozens of countries
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4436:
4233:
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3936:
3926:
3760:
3607:
2868:
2458:
2424:
2350:
1653:
1427:
1126:
1122:
1091:
799:
2341:
588:
says that the sanctions diminished Iraq militarily. According to scholars
4854:
4816:
4665:
4501:
4426:
4223:
3785:
3633:
3247:
3171:
2455:
2202:
2018:
War and Decision: Inside the Pentagon at the Dawn of the War on Terrorism
1140:
1099:
918:
803:
573:
400:
3641:
3611:
2406:
1987:"Voices in the Wilderness Ordered to Pay $ 20K for Bringing Aid to Iraq"
1746:"Understanding United Nations targeted sanctions: an empirical analysis"
1056:
3931:
3286:
3121:
2847:
2092:
1239:
Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002
1133:
1086:
1040:
965:
2891:"UNICEFâResults of the 1999 Iraq Child and Maternal Mortality Surveys"
2217:"National AccountsâAnalysis of Main Aggregates (AMA): Country Profile"
1789:
The Outlaw State: Saddam Hussein's Quest for Power and the Gulf Crisis
4741:
4713:
4660:
4198:
3890:
3850:
3256:
2967:
1233:
1156:
per 1,000 in 2010 (when Mr Blair gave his evidence to the Inquiry)."
940:
289:, the UN and the Iraqi government could not agree on the terms of an
2771:"UNICEF: Questions and answers for the Iraq child mortality surveys"
1413:
313:), and a large proportion of Iraqi purchases were pre-approved (per
4258:
4088:
4071:
3845:
3840:
3416:
1200:
871:
553:
An American helicopter shadows the Russian oil tanker Volgoneft-147
267:
111:
38:
3092:"Iraq Won't Let Outside Experts Assess Sanctions' Impact on Lives"
762:, but the resolution could not be implemented until Iraq signed a
238:. The sanctions stayed largely in force until 22 May 2003 (after
4718:
4675:
3855:
3800:
2385:
1326:"United Nations Security Council Resolution 1956 (December 2010)"
1051:
996:
867:
836:
3665:"Madeleine Albright Thinks It's Good When America Gets Involved"
3554:"Iraq pays final instalment of $ 52bn war reparations to Kuwait"
3043:. Institute For the Study of Genocide Newsletter. Archived from
330:, although malnutrition among Iraqis was nevertheless reported.
46:
4598:
4253:
3612:"Review: Al-Qaeda as an Adversary: Do We Understand Our Enemy?"
3583:"Iraq completes fifty-two billion dollar reparations to Kuwait"
2459:
New Statesman - John Pilger on why we ignored Iraq in the 1990s
2381:"Iraqi doctors appeal for help from doctors in other countries"
1446:
990:
978:
875:
828:
771:
526:
298:
242:'s being forced from power), and persisted in part, including
4811:
3795:
3503:"Resolution 1483 - UN Security Council - Global Policy Forum"
2247:"Divided U.N. Council Approves New Iraq Arms Inspection Plan"
2176:"Saddam Hussein Said WMD Talk Helped Him Look Strong to Iran"
1926:. Office of the Iraq Oil-For-Food Programme. 21 November 2003
1838:. Office of the Iraq Oil-For-Food Programme. 21 November 2003
1605:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1283:"Resolution 1483 - UN Security Council - Global Policy Forum"
932:
389:
262:
2725:
The Ba'thification of Iraq: Saddam Hussein's Totalitarianism
2690:
Economic Sanctions as Instruments of American Foreign Policy
2657:
Economic Sanctions as Instruments of American Foreign Policy
2624:
Economic Sanctions as Instruments of American Foreign Policy
2591:
Economic Sanctions as Instruments of American Foreign Policy
2554:
Economic Sanctions as Instruments of American Foreign Policy
529:; Iraq had to ask the "Iraq Sanctions Committee" (i.e., the
4006:
3983:
3726:
3720:
1581:
Dyson, T. (2009). New evidence on child mortality in Iraq.
1350:"U.N. council brings Iraq closer to end of 1990s sanctions"
381:
1588:
939:
Joseph Sassoon commented on Iraq's successful use of food
2300:
1030:
3149:
Iraq Under Siege: The Deadly Impact of Sanctions and War
2221:
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
321:. In later years, Iraq manipulated the OFFP to generate
2819:"Lewiston Morning Tribune - Google News Archive Search"
946:
3548:
3546:
1706:
Regime Change: U.S. Strategy through the Prism of 9/11
1001:
finding far fewer child deaths than expected, and the
2490:"BBC News - MIDDLE EAST - UN sanctions rebel resigns"
1536:"Sanctions on Iraq: A Valid Anti-American Grievance?"
2970:. Penang (Malaysia): Just World Trust (JUST), 1995.
3543:
3445:Hell and Other Destinations: A 21st-Century Memoir
3443:Albright, Madeleine (2020). "Advise and Dissent".
3194:"Deadlier Than War - Council on Foreign Relations"
1830:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1428:"UN Security Council Resolutions relating to Iraq"
917:Programs were initiated to increase the amount of
843:Thomas Nagy argued in the September 2001 issue of
4931:United Nations Security Council sanctions regimes
3126:"Reason Magazine - The Politics of Dead Children"
2968:Ethical Aspects of Sanctions in International Law
989:A more detailed and seemingly more credible 1999
4887:
2223:, Statistics Division, National Accounts Section
1889:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1881:
1855:
1853:
1739:
1737:
1414:"United Nations Security Council Resolution 687"
1138:Secretary of State for International Development
2325:"Impact of sanctions on the population of Iraq"
1813:
349:
3380:The mighty and the Almighty ... - Google Books
3291:"U.S., U.N. not to blame for deaths of Iraqis"
2378:
1610:Dyson, Tim; Cetorelli, Valeria (1 July 2017).
1609:
1052:Arguments about the sanctions and the Iraq War
259:United Nations Security Council Resolution 661
3702:
2922:"Human Rights and Economic Sanctions in Iraq"
2836:
2834:
2832:
1878:
1850:
1734:
207:
3281:
3279:
3116:
3114:
2732:International Journal of Middle East Studies
2714:
2078:
2076:
829:Effects on the Iraqi people during sanctions
305:of the UNSC. (Additionally, some funds were
3224:"Leftists Turn Blind Eye to Iraqis' Plight"
1918:
1916:
1665:
1663:
1544:Middle East Review of International Affairs
1302:
1300:
1129:examined a February 2003 statement by then-
544:
3709:
3695:
3170:United Press International. Archived from
3037:"Saddam is the Cause of Iraqis' Suffering"
3034:
2829:
2477:Embargo against Iraq: Crime and punishment
2322:
1444:Iraq surveys show 'humanitarian emergency'
1439:
1437:
261:in August 1990. Resolution 661 banned all
214:
200:
4017:Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party â Iraq Region
3276:
3111:
3086:
2883:
2414:
2340:
2241:
2118:
2082:
2073:
2049:
1944:
1696:
1694:
1643:
1476:"Truth and death in Iraq under sanctions"
973:at 567,000, based on a small sample size
625:
603:
516:
317:), with the exception of those involving
234:(UNSC) placed a comprehensive embargo on
3841:Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire
3662:
3577:
3575:
3442:
3373:
3343:
3337:
2990:"Were Sanctions Right? (Published 2003)"
1965:"Maritime Interception Operations (MIO)"
1913:
1783:
1743:
1660:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1297:
1149:Department for International Development
1111:British Medical Journal of Global Health
1055:
1005:(MICS) carried out by UNICEF and Iraq's
971:deaths of children under the age of five
897:
572:(OFAC). For example, in 2005 OFAC fined
548:
3218:
3212:
2791:
2720:
2170:
1434:
1308:"UN lifts sanctions against Iraq (BBC)"
1159:
14:
4888:
3477:The National Archives (United Kingdom)
3246:
3236:from the original on 17 November 2002.
3165:
3146:
3140:
3080:
3028:
2931:. Human Rights Research Journal: 8â14.
2687:
2654:
2621:
2588:
2551:
2506:
1700:
1691:
1473:
1408:
1406:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1031:Controversy about regional differences
226:On 6 August 1990, four days after the
4576:
4468:
4290:
4165:
3738:
3690:
3606:
3572:
3285:
3120:
3006:
3000:
2987:
2840:
2792:Hanania, Richard (18 February 2020).
2011:
1744:Giumelli, Francesco (November 2015).
1530:
1519:
1452:
1360:from the original on 27 November 2015
1264:United States sanctions against China
1082:U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations
1071:
802:found that the director of the OFFP,
4870:
4812:Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)
3353:. Miramax Books. pp. 274, 275.
2507:Neilan, Terence (16 February 2000).
2329:Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal
1385:"UN Security Council Resolution 661"
947:Estimates of deaths due to sanctions
4860:
3012:"Sulaymaniyah Dispatch: Food Fight"
2919:
2126:. Fourthfreedom.org. Archived from
2124:"Containing Iraq: Sanctions Worked"
2057:. Fourthfreedom.org. Archived from
2055:"Containing Iraq: Sanctions Worked"
1669:
1403:
1372:
24:
4926:Causes and prelude of the Iraq War
2296:"Oil-for-food chief 'took bribes'"
1474:Spagat, Michael (September 2010).
1259:United States embargo against Cuba
1003:Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys
969:estimate put the number of excess
852:nearly $ 1 billion to support the
758:(OFFP) was formally created under
257:on Iraq by adopting and enforcing
25:
4952:
3663:Marchese, David (25 April 2020).
2895:Federation of American Scientists
2721:Sassoon, Joseph (February 2017).
2150:"Saddam Hussein Talks to the FBI"
1899:United States Department of State
1865:United States Department of State
1211:In a 2015 article in the journal
1145:Foreign & Commonwealth Office
1039:Other Western observers, such as
975:Food and Agriculture Organization
956:stated in a 2020 article for the
535:United States Department of State
432:
4869:
4859:
4849:
4840:
4839:
4145:2021â2022 Iraqi political crisis
3719:
1505:10.1111/j.1740-9713.2010.00437.x
1016:
579:
570:Office of Foreign Assets Control
563:Multinational Interception Force
307:withheld for Kuwaiti reparations
45:
4911:United Nations and the Iraq War
4624:Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects
4047:1979â1980 Shia uprising in Iraq
4037:1974â1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes
3776:Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period
3656:
3600:
3517:
3495:
3483:. 6 July 2016. pp. 174â175
3465:
3436:
3404:
3367:
3307:
3240:
3186:
3159:
3147:Arnove, Anthony. (April 2000).
2981:
2956:
2913:
2811:
2785:
2763:
2681:
2648:
2615:
2582:
2545:
2500:
2482:
2469:
2449:
2443:, September 2001, reprinted in
2431:
2372:
2316:
2288:
2266:
2235:
2209:
2195:
2164:
2142:
2112:
2088:"A Hard Look at Iraq Sanctions"
2043:
2005:
1979:
1957:
1945:Schmemann, Serge (9 May 2002).
1938:
1777:
1575:
1116:
874:." However, Sophie Boukhari, a
760:Security Council Resolution 986
598:Federal Bureau of Investigation
559:Security Council Resolution 665
443:United Nations Security Council
232:United Nations Security Council
3907:Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia
3168:"Recent Research Suggests ..."
3166:Murray, Iain (21 March 2003).
1895:"'Goods Review List' for Iraq"
1710:Johns Hopkins University Press
1420:
1342:
1318:
1275:
1021:
505:, prohibiting any support for
386:further Iraqi chemical attacks
328:agriculturally self-sufficient
184:Colin Powell's UN presentation
13:
1:
4166:
2988:Rieff, David (27 July 2003).
2861:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)70470-0
1583:Economic and Political Weekly
1269:
905:Revolutionary Command Council
337:rate, research following the
99:
4403:in ISIL-controlled territory
4291:
384:. In response to reports of
350:Prior calls to sanction Iraq
339:2003 US-led invasion of Iraq
160:U.S. invasion of Afghanistan
7:
4577:
4469:
4314:Council of Representatives
4052:Weapons of mass destruction
3739:
3035:Leitenberg, Milton (2001).
1244:Iraqi no-fly zones conflict
1227:
764:Memorandum of Understanding
295:memorandum of understanding
253:The UNSC imposed stringent
248:weapons of mass destruction
130:Iraqi no-fly zones conflict
10:
4957:
4042:1977 Shia uprising in Iraq
3626:Cambridge University Press
2741:Cambridge University Press
2694:Greenwood Publishing Group
2661:Greenwood Publishing Group
2628:Greenwood Publishing Group
2595:Greenwood Publishing Group
2558:Greenwood Publishing Group
1670:Sly, Liz (4 August 2017).
819:national income per capita
607:
509:, and forcing Iraq to pay
344:per capita national income
277:Despite the provisions of
4835:
4734:
4589:
4585:
4572:
4477:
4464:
4299:
4286:
4174:
4161:
3982:
3899:
3751:
3747:
3734:
3350:Madam Secretary: A Memoir
2962:See also the analysis of
2843:"Child mortality in Iraq"
2749:10.1017/S0020743816001392
2399:10.1136/bmj.323.7303.53/b
1628:10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000311
1546:: 100â115. Archived from
1497:Royal Statistical Society
1387:. Fas.org. Archived from
1190:
1046:Iraq Family Health Survey
931:arable land: from 16,446
403:called for comprehensive
166:Alleged Prague connection
4393:in Saddam Hussein's Iraq
4304:Administrative divisions
2688:Selden, Zachary (1999).
2655:Selden, Zachary (1999).
2622:Selden, Zachary (1999).
2589:Selden, Zachary (1999).
2552:Selden, Zachary (1999).
2323:G.R. Popal (July 2000).
1953:– via NYTimes.com.
1861:"Iraq-Related Sanctions"
1449:Newsline August 12, 1999
894:in Iraq, followed them.
864:Humanitarian Coordinator
776:Kuwaiti reparations fund
574:Voices in the Wilderness
545:Enforcement of sanctions
416:House of Representatives
228:Iraqi invasion of Kuwait
106:Iraqi invasion of Kuwait
4906:International sanctions
3952:Mandate for Mesopotamia
3826:First Babylonian Empire
2379:Adnan Al-Araji (2001).
1771:10.1111/1468-2346.12448
1763:Oxford University Press
1254:Sanctions against Syria
1064:Some analysts, such as
928:Ministry of Agriculture
774:) were redirected to a
136:Iraq disarmament crisis
4921:2003 disestablishments
4901:Modern history of Iraq
4896:Sanctions against Iraq
4111:Insurgency (2011â2013)
4032:IraqiâKurdish conflict
3836:Middle Assyrian Empire
3420:. 1998. Archived from
3321:. 2002. Archived from
3252:"An Immodest Proposal"
3068:Cite journal requires
2944:Cite journal requires
2727:[Book Review]"
1563:Cite journal requires
1249:Sanctions against Iran
1131:British Prime Minister
1061:
984:problem of replication
886:Halliday's successor,
881:crime against humanity
811:gross domestic product
756:Oil-for-Food Programme
610:Oil-for-Food Programme
604:Oil-for-Food Programme
554:
523:Oil-for-Food Programme
517:Limitations on imports
513:and all foreign debt.
291:Oil-for-Food Programme
118:Sanctions against Iraq
66:IraqiâKurdish conflict
18:Sanctions against Iraq
4398:in post-invasion Iraq
4104:U.S. troop withdrawal
3866:Neo-Babylonian Empire
3481:The Stationery Office
3090:(12 September 2000).
2841:Zaidi, Sarah (1997).
2342:10.26719/2000.6.4.791
2122:(11 September 2001).
1793:John Wiley & Sons
1754:International Affairs
1214:International Affairs
1059:
1011:2003 invasion of Iraq
898:Impact on agriculture
552:
356:Reagan administration
178:Wood Green ricin plot
4347:Council of Ministers
4229:Mesopotamian Marshes
3634:10.1353/wp.2004.0002
3315:"Albright's Blunder"
2445:Third World Traveler
2245:(18 December 1999).
2100:on 25 September 2017
2061:on 18 September 2007
1967:. GlobalSecurity.org
1183:. In December 2021,
1170:UNSC Resolution 1483
1160:Lifting of sanctions
854:Palestinian intifada
437:As described by the
154:U.S. anthrax attacks
148:September 11 attacks
4609:Mesopotamian Arabic
4415:Freedom of religion
3861:Neo-Assyrian Empire
3831:Old Assyrian Period
3816:Neo-Sumerian Empire
3558:Middle East Monitor
3424:on 25 November 2005
3375:Albright, Madeleine
3345:Albright, Madeleine
3296:Rocky Mountain News
3250:(7 November 2002).
3222:(7 November 2002).
3198:The Washington Post
2920:Das, Ramon (2003).
2181:The Washington Post
1677:The Washington Post
1550:on 28 October 2012.
1314:. 15 December 2010.
1222:Iraq's central bank
1185:Iraq's central bank
1066:Walter Russell Mead
637:
412:dual-use technology
319:dual-use technology
142:Arms-to-Iraq affair
4916:1990 introductions
4540:Telecommunications
4515:Foreign Investment
4452:Wars and conflicts
4388:in pre-Saddam Iraq
4352:Presidency Council
4138:2019â2021 protests
4067:Invasion of Kuwait
3891:Sassanid Asorestan
3886:Parthian Babylonia
3881:Seleucid Babylonia
3876:Achaemenid Assyria
3791:Jemdet Nasr period
3670:The New York Times
3560:. 23 December 2021
3505:. Globalpolicy.org
3383:. Harper Collins.
3097:The New York Times
3088:Crossette, Barbara
2994:The New York Times
2901:on 25 October 2000
2533:. 17 February 2000
2531:The New York Times
2513:The New York Times
2252:The New York Times
2243:Crossette, Barbara
1951:The New York Times
1338:on 8 January 2010.
1285:. Globalpolicy.org
1220:In December 2021,
1166:2003 U.S. invasion
1078:Madeleine Albright
1072:Albright interview
1062:
1007:Ministry of Health
892:World Food Program
754:In April 1995, an
626:
555:
503:ballistic missiles
447:invasion of Kuwait
424:Secretary of State
255:economic sanctions
84:Ba'ath Party Purge
78:Iranian Revolution
72:17 July Revolution
60:14 July Revolution
4883:
4882:
4831:
4830:
4827:
4826:
4817:Mandaean New Year
4568:
4567:
4460:
4459:
4442:Political parties
4337:Foreign relations
4282:
4281:
4189:Lower Mesopotamia
4184:Upper Mesopotamia
4157:
4156:
4153:
4152:
3917:Abbasid Caliphate
3912:Umayyad Caliphate
3821:Isin-Larsa period
3303:on 14 April 2002.
3289:(15 March 2002).
3229:Los Angeles Times
2723:"Aaron M. Faust,
2707:978-0-275-96387-3
2674:978-0-275-96387-3
2641:978-0-275-96387-3
2608:978-0-275-96387-3
2575:978-0-275-96387-3
2086:(November 2001).
2036:978-0-06-089973-8
2013:Feith, Douglas J.
1727:978-0-8018-8642-3
1616:BMJ Global Health
1534:(December 2001).
1391:on 18 August 2000
1153:10 Downing Street
1090:segment in which
1076:On May 12, 1996,
862:was appointed UN
752:
751:
632:, 1990â2003, per
369:, despite Iraq's
224:
223:
16:(Redirected from
4948:
4873:
4872:
4863:
4862:
4853:
4843:
4842:
4587:
4586:
4574:
4573:
4505:
4466:
4465:
4317:
4288:
4287:
4274:Sinjar Mountains
4264:Zagros Mountains
4204:Hamrin Mountains
4163:
4162:
4126:Mosul liberation
4099:Iraqi insurgency
4021:National Command
4010:
3846:Simurrum culture
3749:
3748:
3736:
3735:
3725:
3724:
3723:
3711:
3704:
3697:
3688:
3687:
3682:
3681:
3679:
3677:
3660:
3654:
3653:
3610:(October 2003).
3608:Byman, Daniel L.
3604:
3598:
3597:
3595:
3593:
3579:
3570:
3569:
3567:
3565:
3550:
3541:
3540:
3538:
3536:
3521:
3515:
3514:
3512:
3510:
3499:
3493:
3492:
3490:
3488:
3469:
3463:
3462:
3440:
3434:
3433:
3431:
3429:
3408:
3402:
3401:
3399:
3397:
3371:
3365:
3364:
3341:
3335:
3334:
3332:
3330:
3311:
3305:
3304:
3299:. Archived from
3283:
3274:
3273:
3271:
3269:
3260:. Archived from
3244:
3238:
3237:
3216:
3210:
3209:
3207:
3205:
3190:
3184:
3183:
3181:
3179:
3174:on 19 March 2005
3163:
3157:
3156:
3144:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3133:
3118:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3104:
3084:
3078:
3077:
3071:
3066:
3064:
3056:
3054:
3052:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3024:on 22 June 2001.
3020:. Archived from
3017:The New Republic
3004:
2998:
2997:
2985:
2979:
2960:
2954:
2953:
2947:
2942:
2940:
2932:
2926:
2917:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2906:
2897:. Archived from
2887:
2881:
2880:
2838:
2827:
2826:
2815:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2804:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2780:
2778:
2767:
2761:
2760:
2718:
2712:
2711:
2685:
2679:
2678:
2652:
2646:
2645:
2619:
2613:
2612:
2586:
2580:
2579:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2538:
2523:
2521:
2519:
2509:"WORLD BRIEFING"
2504:
2498:
2497:
2486:
2480:
2475:Sophie Boukhari
2473:
2467:
2466:, 4 October 2004
2453:
2447:
2435:
2429:
2428:
2418:
2376:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2344:
2320:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2292:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2239:
2233:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2213:
2207:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2146:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2135:
2130:on 10 March 2010
2120:Cortright, David
2116:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2096:. Archived from
2084:Cortright, David
2080:
2071:
2070:
2068:
2066:
2053:(19 June 2004).
2051:Cortright, David
2047:
2041:
2040:
2009:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1993:. 16 August 2005
1983:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1972:
1961:
1955:
1954:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1920:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1906:
1891:
1876:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1857:
1848:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1832:
1811:
1810:
1785:Sciolino, Elaine
1781:
1775:
1774:
1750:
1741:
1732:
1731:
1698:
1689:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1667:
1658:
1657:
1647:
1607:
1586:
1579:
1573:
1572:
1566:
1561:
1559:
1551:
1528:
1517:
1516:
1480:
1471:
1450:
1441:
1432:
1431:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1410:
1401:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1381:
1370:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1356:. 27 June 2013.
1346:
1340:
1339:
1337:
1331:. Archived from
1330:
1322:
1316:
1315:
1304:
1295:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1279:
1084:) appeared on a
888:Hans von Sponeck
794:. In 2005, a UN
780:Kurdistan Region
638:
586:Douglas J. Feith
420:State Department
375:chemical weapons
216:
209:
202:
101:
49:
29:
28:
21:
4956:
4955:
4951:
4950:
4949:
4947:
4946:
4945:
4886:
4885:
4884:
4879:
4823:
4807:Public holidays
4730:
4581:
4564:
4503:
4473:
4456:
4315:
4295:
4278:
4209:Iraqi Kurdistan
4199:Euphrates river
4170:
4149:
4116:War (2014â2017)
4062:Operation Opera
4008:
3978:
3974:Arab Federation
3962:Kingdom of Iraq
3895:
3871:Fall of Babylon
3806:Akkadian Empire
3781:Samarra culture
3766:Hassuna culture
3743:
3730:
3718:
3717:
3715:
3685:
3675:
3673:
3661:
3657:
3605:
3601:
3591:
3589:
3581:
3580:
3573:
3563:
3561:
3552:
3551:
3544:
3534:
3532:
3523:
3522:
3518:
3508:
3506:
3501:
3500:
3496:
3486:
3484:
3471:
3470:
3466:
3459:
3441:
3437:
3427:
3425:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3395:
3393:
3391:
3372:
3368:
3361:
3342:
3338:
3328:
3326:
3313:
3312:
3308:
3284:
3277:
3267:
3265:
3245:
3241:
3217:
3213:
3203:
3201:
3200:. 12 March 2003
3192:
3191:
3187:
3177:
3175:
3164:
3160:
3153:South End Press
3145:
3141:
3131:
3129:
3119:
3112:
3102:
3100:
3085:
3081:
3069:
3067:
3058:
3057:
3050:
3048:
3047:on 26 July 2011
3033:
3029:
3010:(7 June 2001).
3005:
3001:
2986:
2982:
2961:
2957:
2945:
2943:
2934:
2933:
2924:
2918:
2914:
2904:
2902:
2889:
2888:
2884:
2839:
2830:
2817:
2816:
2812:
2802:
2800:
2790:
2786:
2776:
2774:
2769:
2768:
2764:
2719:
2715:
2708:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2653:
2649:
2642:
2620:
2616:
2609:
2587:
2583:
2576:
2550:
2546:
2536:
2534:
2525:
2517:
2515:
2505:
2501:
2488:
2487:
2483:
2479:UNESCO website.
2474:
2470:
2454:
2450:
2441:The Progressive
2436:
2432:
2377:
2373:
2363:
2361:
2321:
2317:
2307:
2305:
2304:. 8 August 2005
2294:
2293:
2289:
2279:
2277:
2272:
2271:
2267:
2257:
2255:
2240:
2236:
2226:
2224:
2215:
2214:
2210:
2200:
2196:
2186:
2184:
2174:(2 July 2009).
2169:
2165:
2155:
2153:
2148:
2147:
2143:
2133:
2131:
2117:
2113:
2103:
2101:
2081:
2074:
2064:
2062:
2048:
2044:
2037:
2010:
2006:
1996:
1994:
1985:
1984:
1980:
1970:
1968:
1963:
1962:
1958:
1943:
1939:
1929:
1927:
1922:
1921:
1914:
1904:
1902:
1893:
1892:
1879:
1869:
1867:
1859:
1858:
1851:
1841:
1839:
1834:
1833:
1814:
1807:
1782:
1778:
1748:
1742:
1735:
1728:
1699:
1692:
1682:
1680:
1668:
1661:
1608:
1589:
1580:
1576:
1564:
1562:
1553:
1552:
1529:
1520:
1493:Wiley-Blackwell
1478:
1472:
1453:
1442:
1435:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1412:
1411:
1404:
1394:
1392:
1383:
1382:
1373:
1363:
1361:
1348:
1347:
1343:
1335:
1328:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1306:
1305:
1298:
1288:
1286:
1281:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1230:
1205:Osama bin Laden
1193:
1181:Resolution 2107
1162:
1119:
1096:loaded question
1074:
1054:
1033:
1024:
1019:
954:Richard Hanania
949:
900:
845:The Progressive
831:
768:Resolution 1284
612:
606:
594:David Cortright
590:George A. Lopez
582:
547:
539:Resolution 1409
531:fifteen members
519:
511:war reparations
435:
352:
335:child mortality
315:Resolution 1409
311:Resolution 1284
303:fifteen members
220:
191:
172:Iraq Resolution
124:Iraqi uprisings
36:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4954:
4944:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4928:
4923:
4918:
4913:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4881:
4880:
4878:
4877:
4867:
4857:
4847:
4836:
4833:
4832:
4829:
4828:
4825:
4824:
4822:
4821:
4820:
4819:
4814:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4789:
4784:
4779:
4774:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4738:
4736:
4732:
4731:
4729:
4728:
4727:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4696:
4691:
4690:
4689:
4684:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4633:
4632:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4601:
4595:
4593:
4583:
4582:
4570:
4569:
4566:
4565:
4563:
4562:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4545:Transportation
4542:
4537:
4535:Stock Exchange
4532:
4530:Reconstruction
4527:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4510:Infrastructure
4507:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4484:
4478:
4475:
4474:
4462:
4461:
4458:
4457:
4455:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4423:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4406:
4405:
4395:
4390:
4380:
4379:
4378:
4377:
4376:
4369:Prime Minister
4366:
4365:
4364:
4354:
4349:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4311:
4306:
4300:
4297:
4296:
4284:
4283:
4280:
4279:
4277:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4175:
4172:
4171:
4159:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4151:
4150:
4148:
4147:
4142:
4141:
4140:
4130:
4129:
4128:
4123:
4113:
4108:
4107:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4086:
4081:
4080:
4079:
4077:1991 uprisings
4069:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4027:Saddam Hussein
4024:
4013:
4012:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3988:
3986:
3980:
3979:
3977:
3976:
3971:
3970:
3969:
3959:
3957:Mandatory Iraq
3954:
3949:
3946:Mamluk dynasty
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3903:
3901:
3897:
3896:
3894:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3811:Gutian dynasty
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3757:
3755:
3745:
3744:
3732:
3731:
3714:
3713:
3706:
3699:
3691:
3684:
3683:
3655:
3617:World Politics
3599:
3571:
3542:
3531:. 27 June 2013
3529:United Nations
3516:
3494:
3464:
3457:
3435:
3412:"Lesley Stahl"
3403:
3389:
3377:(2 May 2006).
3366:
3359:
3336:
3325:on 3 June 2003
3306:
3275:
3264:on 3 June 2003
3239:
3220:Vincent, Norah
3211:
3185:
3158:
3139:
3124:(March 2002).
3110:
3079:
3070:|journal=
3027:
3008:Rubin, Michael
2999:
2980:
2955:
2946:|journal=
2912:
2882:
2855:(9084): 1105.
2828:
2810:
2784:
2762:
2713:
2706:
2680:
2673:
2647:
2640:
2614:
2607:
2581:
2574:
2544:
2499:
2481:
2468:
2448:
2430:
2371:
2315:
2287:
2265:
2234:
2208:
2194:
2172:Kessler, Glenn
2163:
2141:
2111:
2072:
2042:
2035:
2004:
1991:Democracy Now!
1978:
1956:
1937:
1912:
1877:
1849:
1812:
1805:
1776:
1733:
1726:
1702:Litwak, Robert
1690:
1659:
1622:(2): e000311.
1587:
1574:
1565:|journal=
1532:Rubin, Michael
1518:
1451:
1433:
1419:
1402:
1371:
1341:
1317:
1296:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1267:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1229:
1226:
1192:
1189:
1164:Following the
1161:
1158:
1118:
1115:
1073:
1070:
1053:
1050:
1032:
1029:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
958:Cato Institute
948:
945:
923:
922:
915:
912:
899:
896:
883:or genocide."
860:Denis Halliday
830:
827:
750:
749:
746:
742:
741:
738:
734:
733:
730:
726:
725:
722:
718:
717:
714:
710:
709:
706:
702:
701:
698:
694:
693:
690:
686:
685:
682:
678:
677:
674:
670:
669:
666:
662:
661:
658:
654:
653:
650:
646:
645:
642:
630:GDP per capita
621:Resolution 712
617:Resolution 706
608:Main article:
605:
602:
581:
578:
546:
543:
518:
515:
439:United Nations
434:
433:Administration
431:
397:Claiborne Pell
351:
348:
287:Resolution 986
283:Resolution 712
279:Resolution 706
272:Resolution 687
240:Saddam Hussein
222:
221:
219:
218:
211:
204:
196:
193:
192:
190:
189:
188:
187:
181:
175:
169:
163:
157:
151:
145:
139:
133:
127:
121:
115:
109:
103:
93:
87:
81:
75:
69:
63:
54:
51:
50:
42:
41:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4953:
4942:
4941:2000s in Iraq
4939:
4937:
4936:1990s in Iraq
4934:
4932:
4929:
4927:
4924:
4922:
4919:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4893:
4891:
4876:
4868:
4866:
4858:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4846:
4838:
4837:
4834:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4809:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4739:
4737:
4733:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4701:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4688:
4685:
4682:
4681:Iraqi Turkmen
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4638:
4637:
4634:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4606:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4596:
4594:
4592:
4588:
4584:
4580:
4575:
4571:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4513:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4479:
4476:
4472:
4467:
4463:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4404:
4401:
4400:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4385:
4384:
4381:
4375:
4372:
4371:
4370:
4367:
4363:
4360:
4359:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4344:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4316:(legislative)
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4301:
4298:
4294:
4289:
4285:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4249:Syrian Desert
4247:
4245:
4244:Shatt al-Arab
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4179:Faw peninsula
4177:
4176:
4173:
4169:
4164:
4160:
4146:
4143:
4139:
4136:
4135:
4134:
4131:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4121:Fall of Mosul
4119:
4118:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4094:U.S. invasion
4092:
4091:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4078:
4075:
4074:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4057:IranâIraq War
4055:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4022:
4018:
4015:
4014:
4011:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3989:
3987:
3985:
3981:
3975:
3972:
3968:
3965:
3964:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3947:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3922:Buyid dynasty
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3904:
3902:
3898:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3771:Halaf culture
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3758:
3756:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3737:
3733:
3728:
3722:
3712:
3707:
3705:
3700:
3698:
3693:
3692:
3689:
3672:
3671:
3666:
3659:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3618:
3613:
3609:
3603:
3588:
3587:www.rudaw.net
3584:
3578:
3576:
3559:
3555:
3549:
3547:
3530:
3526:
3520:
3504:
3498:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3468:
3460:
3458:9780062802286
3454:
3450:
3449:HarperCollins
3446:
3439:
3423:
3419:
3418:
3413:
3407:
3392:
3390:9780060892579
3386:
3382:
3381:
3376:
3370:
3362:
3360:9780786868438
3356:
3352:
3351:
3346:
3340:
3324:
3320:
3319:Irvine Review
3316:
3310:
3302:
3298:
3297:
3292:
3288:
3282:
3280:
3263:
3259:
3258:
3253:
3249:
3243:
3235:
3231:
3230:
3225:
3221:
3215:
3199:
3195:
3189:
3173:
3169:
3162:
3155:. p. 91.
3154:
3150:
3143:
3127:
3123:
3117:
3115:
3099:
3098:
3093:
3089:
3083:
3075:
3062:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3031:
3023:
3019:
3018:
3013:
3009:
3003:
2995:
2991:
2984:
2977:
2976:983-9861-03-4
2973:
2969:
2965:
2959:
2951:
2938:
2930:
2923:
2916:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2886:
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2527:"Corrections"
2514:
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2463:New Statesman
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2023:HarperCollins
2020:
2019:
2014:
2008:
1992:
1988:
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1966:
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1901:. 14 May 2002
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846:
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823:Robert Litwak
820:
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580:Effectiveness
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425:
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379:revolutionary
377:against post-
376:
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371:extensive use
368:
367:IranâIraq War
364:
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4591:Demographics
4525:Oil reserves
4520:Oil Industry
4487:Central Bank
4383:Human rights
4309:Constitution
4254:Tigris river
4234:Persian Gulf
3942:Ottoman Iraq
3927:Qara Qoyunlu
3761:Ubaid period
3674:. Retrieved
3668:
3658:
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3602:
3590:. Retrieved
3586:
3562:. Retrieved
3557:
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3422:the original
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3323:the original
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3266:. Retrieved
3262:the original
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3248:LeVine, Mark
3242:
3227:
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3172:the original
3161:
3148:
3142:
3130:. Retrieved
3128:. Reason.com
3101:. Retrieved
3095:
3082:
3061:cite journal
3049:. Retrieved
3045:the original
3040:
3030:
3022:the original
3015:
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2993:
2983:
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2958:
2937:cite journal
2928:
2915:
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2899:the original
2885:
2852:
2846:
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2813:
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2797:
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2765:
2736:
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2530:
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2512:
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2362:. Retrieved
2335:(4): 791â5.
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2318:
2306:. Retrieved
2299:
2290:
2278:. Retrieved
2276:. Usinfo.org
2268:
2256:. Retrieved
2250:
2237:
2225:. Retrieved
2211:
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2185:. Retrieved
2179:
2166:
2154:. Retrieved
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2132:. Retrieved
2128:the original
2114:
2102:. Retrieved
2098:the original
2091:
2063:. Retrieved
2059:the original
2045:
2021:. New York:
2017:
2007:
1995:. Retrieved
1981:
1969:. Retrieved
1959:
1950:
1940:
1928:. Retrieved
1903:. Retrieved
1870:19 September
1868:. Retrieved
1840:. Retrieved
1836:"Fact Sheet"
1788:
1779:
1758:
1752:
1705:
1681:. Retrieved
1675:
1619:
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1582:
1577:
1556:cite journal
1548:the original
1539:
1488:
1484:Significance
1482:
1422:
1393:. Retrieved
1389:the original
1362:. Retrieved
1353:
1344:
1333:the original
1320:
1311:
1287:. Retrieved
1277:
1219:
1212:
1210:
1194:
1174:
1163:
1127:John Chilcot
1123:Iraq Inquiry
1120:
1117:Iraq Inquiry
1110:
1106:
1104:
1092:Lesley Stahl
1085:
1075:
1063:
1038:
1034:
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962:
950:
938:
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835:
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800:Paul Volcker
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562:
556:
520:
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388:against its
353:
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276:
252:
225:
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4865:WikiProject
4666:Marsh Arabs
4651:Circassians
4332:Foreign aid
4224:Mesopotamia
3786:Uruk period
3628:: 144â145.
3592:23 December
3564:31 December
3535:24 November
3396:9 September
3287:Rosen, Mike
3122:Welch, Matt
3051:20 December
2743:: 205â206.
2560:. pp.
2537:24 December
2518:24 December
2456:John Pilger
1712:. pp.
1499:: 116â120.
1177:Chapter VII
1141:Clare Short
1125:led by Sir
1022:Culpability
919:arable land
804:Benon Sevan
401:Jesse Helms
365:during the
244:reparations
4890:Categories
4782:Television
4762:Literature
4724:Irreligion
4699:Secularism
4636:Minorities
4504:(currency)
4497:Corruption
4342:Government
4133:Insurgency
3932:Aq Qoyunlu
3753:Chronology
3103:7 December
2848:The Lancet
2823:google.com
2696:. p.
2663:. p.
2630:. p.
2597:. p.
2093:The Nation
2025:. p.
1924:"In Brief"
1795:. p.
1270:References
1197:1998 fatwÄ
1134:Tony Blair
1107:60 Minutes
1100:Emmy Award
1087:60 Minutes
1041:Matt Welch
966:The Lancet
788:corruption
441:(UN), the
422:, despite
358:generally
34:leading up
4802:Squatting
4767:Education
4714:Mandaeism
4683:/Turkoman
4661:Mandaeans
4646:Assyrians
4641:Armenians
4604:Languages
4492:Companies
4447:Judiciary
4357:President
4327:Elections
4322:Democracy
4168:Geography
4084:Sanctions
4002:2003â2011
3997:1968â2003
3992:1958â1968
3851:Babylonia
3650:154862540
3329:4 January
3257:OC Weekly
3132:6 October
2757:164804585
2524:See also
2494:bbc.co.uk
2152:. Gwu.edu
1636:2059-7908
1513:154415183
1234:ABCD line
979:Jordanian
941:rationing
521:When the
507:terrorism
408:sanctions
360:supported
144:1992â1996
138:1991â2003
132:1991â2003
120:1990â2003
114:1990â1991
92:1980â1988
80:1978â1979
68:1961â1991
4845:Category
4694:Religion
4671:Persians
4555:Railways
4550:Airlines
4432:Military
4293:Politics
4269:Wildlife
4259:Umm Qasr
4089:Iraq War
4072:Gulf War
3984:Republic
3937:Safavids
3900:638â1958
3676:24 March
3642:25054248
3417:CBS News
3347:(2003).
3268:19 April
3234:Archived
2877:46466831
2869:10213580
2425:11464839
2407:25467323
2359:29571181
2351:11794085
2015:(2008).
1787:(1991).
1704:(2007).
1654:29225933
1585:, 56-59.
1358:Archived
1312:BBC News
1228:See also
1201:al-Qaeda
1143:and the
872:genocide
732:$ 1,022
724:$ 1,006
644:$ 1,371
405:economic
394:senators
268:Gulf War
112:Gulf War
96:Iraqgate
39:Iraq War
4875:Commons
4792:Smoking
4757:Culture
4752:Cuisine
4735:General
4719:Yazidis
4676:Solluba
4629:Persian
4619:Kurdish
4614:Aramaic
4579:Society
4560:Tourism
4471:Economy
4219:Islands
4194:Borders
4019: (
4009:present
3944:(incl.
3856:Assyria
3801:Subartu
3741:History
3487:5 March
3204:29 June
2905:5 March
2803:15 July
2777:15 June
2416:1120689
2386:The BMJ
2308:7 March
2280:22 June
2258:8 March
2227:5 March
2104:19 July
1930:7 March
1905:7 March
1842:7 March
1683:5 March
1645:5717930
1395:15 June
1354:Reuters
1203:leader
1175:Iraq's
997:The BMJ
963:A 1995
868:Baghdad
837:The BMJ
798:led by
390:Kurdish
250:(WMD).
37:to the
32:Events
4855:Portal
4797:Sports
4772:Health
4747:Cinema
4599:Iraqis
4502:Dinar
4437:Police
4239:Places
3729:topics
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3509:30 May
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2065:30 May
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1997:8 June
1971:8 June
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1364:1 July
1289:1 June
1191:Legacy
1080:(then
991:UNICEF
933:donums
876:UNESCO
772:escrow
748:$ 903
740:$ 978
716:$ 910
708:$ 538
700:$ 435
692:$ 410
684:$ 241
676:$ 289
668:$ 372
660:$ 537
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628:Iraqi
527:escrow
299:escrow
285:, and
230:, the
4787:Music
4777:Media
4704:Islam
4656:Kurds
4482:Banks
4420:Women
4214:Lakes
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3967:Kings
3796:Sumer
3646:S2CID
3638:JSTOR
3624:(1).
2925:(PDF)
2873:S2CID
2753:S2CID
2739:(1).
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2355:S2CID
1761:(6).
1749:(PDF)
1542:(4).
1509:S2CID
1491:(3).
1479:(PDF)
1336:(PDF)
1329:(PDF)
1195:In a
263:trade
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4687:Jews
4410:LGBT
4374:List
4362:List
3727:Iraq
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3594:2021
3566:2021
3537:2022
3511:2009
3489:2022
3453:ISBN
3430:2011
3398:2010
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3331:2008
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3206:2009
3180:2009
3134:2010
3105:2010
3074:help
3053:2010
2972:ISBN
2950:help
2907:2022
2865:PMID
2805:2024
2798:CATO
2779:2009
2702:ISBN
2669:ISBN
2636:ISBN
2603:ISBN
2570:ISBN
2539:2016
2520:2016
2421:PMID
2366:2011
2347:PMID
2310:2022
2282:2009
2260:2022
2229:2022
2204:1991
2201:See
2189:2009
2158:2009
2136:2009
2106:2010
2067:2009
2031:ISBN
1999:2011
1973:2011
1932:2022
1907:2022
1872:2011
1844:2022
1801:ISBN
1722:ISBN
1685:2022
1650:PMID
1632:ISSN
1569:help
1397:2009
1366:2017
1291:2011
1121:The
745:2003
737:2002
729:2001
721:2000
713:1999
705:1998
697:1997
689:1996
681:1995
673:1994
665:1993
657:1992
649:1991
641:1990
592:and
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497:and
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363:Iraq
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180:2003
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108:1990
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