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1030:, Christophe and Dessalines. However, he also had a large number of white hostages. To dislodge him the French would have to overcome narrow gorges, impenetrable with thick tropical vegetation and ideal for ambushes. The squadrons under Ganteaume and Linois had arrived, however, with reinforcements and Leclerc still held his joker in the form of his own hostages, Toussaint's sons, both of whom carried a letter from Napoleon promising their father the role of Leclerc's deputy in command of the island if he surrendered.
390:
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849:. Toussaint's two sons were then being educated in France and as proof to Toussaint of the French government's goodwill Napoleon sent them back to their father with their tutor. By October, however, Napoleon's opinion had shifted, as he interpreted Toussaint's July constitution as an unacceptable offense to French imperial authority. Henceforth, Napoleon secretly directed Leclerc to disarm Toussaint's black-controlled government and deport his military officers to France.
1160:, Leclerc ordered the arrest of all remaining black colonial troops in Cap-HaĂŻtien, and executed 1000 of them by tying sacks of flour to their neck and pushing them off the side of ships. The French subsequently sent orders to arrest and imprison all the black troops in the colony still serving within the French forces. This included still-loyal officers such as Maurepas, who was drowned with his family in the harbor of Cap-HaĂŻtien on Leclerc's orders in early November.
361:
306:
25:
1212:. Little more than 7,000 to 8,000 of the 31,000 soldiers sent to Saint-Domingue survived and over 20 French generals died. On 1 January 1804 Dessalines proclaimed the colony of Saint-Domingue to be the second independent state in the Americas, under the name of Haiti, and was first made governor general for life before (on 6 October 1804) being crowned emperor as Jacques I. He massacred the last French colonists left on Haiti at the
1136:
778:
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942:
845:, as head of a military expedition to reassert French authority over Saint-Domingue. Initially, Napoleon planned to confirm the military ranks and lands acquired by Toussaint's officers, offer Toussaint the rĂ´le of lieutenant of France, and guarantee freedom to the former slaves, while re-establishing Paris's authority over the island in the person of its
1095:, with around 15,000 dead in only two months. Toussaint continued corresponding with his leaders, encouraging them to be ever ready, although some of them did not want to restart the war, and warned Leclerc. Sensing danger, in June Leclerc called Toussaint to an interview, arrested him, put him on a ship and sent him to Europe, where he was held at the
766:, a black former slave who had been recognized as Governor by France, re-established peace, fought off Spanish and British attempts to capture the island, and partially re-established prosperity by daring measures. However, he went too far in hunting down governor Don JoaquĂn GarcĂa y Moreno (27 January 1801), who had remained in what had been
1083:
that of
Dessalines and finally of Toussaint. Under house arrest, Toussaint was restored to his rank and properties by Leclerc. At the end of April and start of May order was re-established little by little on the island, trade resumed at the ports and the rebels (seemingly reconciled to their situation) held onto their lands and ranks.
985:(head of the western département) and Laplume (head of the southern département) to obey the squadrons' summons to a parley, to insist on a parley if none was offered, and (if a landing should occur) to threaten to destroy the towns and massacre the white inhabitants before retreating into the mountains.
1082:
Running out of resources, the area controlled by the rebel forces became more and more restricted and the rebels more and more disheartened. Christophe offered to lay down his arms in exchange for being given the same lenient treatment as had been given
Laplume and Maurepas and his surrender led to
1187:
Cap-HaĂŻtien seemed to be the last bastion of the anti-rebel forces and, when the rebels reached it, Christophe had already relieved one of the forts. Rochambeau recaptured it but at the height of the battle some 1,200 blacks being held prisoner on a ship in the bay threw its crew overboard. On 18
1131:
was ordered to embark for the United States of
America. In the south of the island, where mulattoes were most numerous, they were equally offended and allied themselves with the blacks. The wind of revolt, blowing especially through the north, was also spreading in the south.
1175:
As the senior officer on the expedition, Rochambeau took over from
Leclerc as supreme commander and tried in vain to suppress the new revolt. Rochambeau ordered 600 pit bulls from Cuba, and forbade anyone to feed them. The pit bulls were to live by eating only "negro meat"
1015:
1171:
had accompanied her husband to the island and, though she had not previously been a model of fidelity, his death threw her into despair – she cut off her hair, put it in her husband's coffin, put his heart in an urn and had the rest of his remains repatriated to France.
1073:
were attacked in the rear by
Dessalines then by Toussaint as they attempted to bring relief to the besieged, but the fort was finally forced to surrender and inside it were found large amounts of arms and munitions as well as many assassinated white residents. At
852:
Napoleon foresaw that
Toussaint would probably put up resistance and so took all necessary measures to defeat him should that occur – Toussaint had over 16,000 men available, so Leclerc was put in command of 30,000 men drawn from nearly all units of the
1057:
993:
Villaret arrived before Cap-HaĂŻtien on 3 February and an attack by land and sea began on 5 February. Christophe carried out his orders, setting light to the town and slitting the throats of part of the white population. On 6 February
1241:
when he demanded of 150 million gold francs from the young republic in return for France recognising its independence. This debt to France was reduced to 90 million in 1838 and was finally paid off by the mid-20th century.
1069:, also on fire and filled with the blood of the throats cut on the orders of Dessalines, who managed to escape the trap. Maurepas and his 2,000 troops continued to resist but finally had to surrender to Humbert. The French forces
1155:
all deserted the French forces as well. The French forces, now numbering only 8,000 to 10,000 men and only just able to serve, were overwhelmed. After the recently defected
Christophe massacred several hundred Polish soldiers at
1228:
but was still aimed at maintaining sugar industry profits by force. Dessalines was assassinated on 17 October 1806 and the country split into a kingdom in the north under
Christophe as Henri I and a republic in the south under
836:
Napoleon (now First Consul) could thus concentrate on internal problems within France and its empire. His troops were idle and his officers eager for a chance for glory. In early 1801, Napoleon decided to appoint his sister
1078:
the French forces found a horrible spectacle. No longer able to follow the rebel forces' march, 800 men, women, children and old people had been killed, and the rebels there had also killed any prisoners they took.
1002:. Putting out the fires and putting up defensive works, Leclerc set up his main headquarters at Cap-Haïtien before sending ships towards North America to resupply. During this time Latouche-Tréville and Boudet took
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On 17 February
Leclerc launched a simultaneous assault with the divisions he had formed. Rochambeau on the left set out from Fort-Dauphin towards Saint-Michel, whilst Hardy marched on Marmelade and Desfourneaux on
1010:
and obtained
Laplume's surrender. Landing at Santo Domingo with 2,000 men, General Kergerseau took possession of a large part of the Spanish area of the island, then headed by Toussaint's brother Paul Louverture.
961:. Without waiting for Ganteaume and Linois, these two admirals divided up their combined fleets to arrive at different ports in order to surprise Toussaint. General Kergerseau was to land at
1091:
In retirement under house arrest at Ennery, Toussaint contemplated his revenge and saw the French forces (especially those who had only just arrived on the island) ravaged by his best ally,
907:
on 17 February with 2,400 troops. In the following months even more ships left France with fresh troops, including over 4,000 men from the artillerie de marine, a Dutch division and the
573:
513:
1180:). That led to larger revolts against the French, as a submissive slave diligently working in the fields would suddenly be devoured by dozens of hungry pit bulls. Today, the saying
528:
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by the rebel general Jean-Jacques Dessalines and at the end of December the last French soldiers left the island. On their voyage back to France, Rochambeau was captured at the
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774:. Toussaint had also challenged French imperial interests by promulgating a self-rule constitution on 12 July 1801, which declared himself governor for life.
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would finally be signed on 25 March 1802) when on 14 December 1801 a French fleet of 21 frigates and 35 ships of the line (with one 120 gun ship) left
628:
1422:
Philippe R. Girard, "Liberte, Egalite, Esclavage : French Revolutionary Ideals and the Failure of the Leclerc Expedition to Saint-Domingue,"
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By August 1802, Leclerc's forces had begun to suffer from mass defections of black and mulatto troops. In October, the former rebel leaders
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reached Saint-Domingue and revolt threatened again. Leclerc judged it wisest to disarm the blacks, but this just made them more angry. At
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In the first ten days the French occupied the island's ports, towns and a large part of the cultivated land. Taking refuge in the
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68:
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and the departure of French troops in December 1803. The defeat forever ended Napoleon's dreams of a French empire in the West.
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5 000 in the north of the island, 4,000 in the west, 4,000 in the south and 3,000 in the Spanish province –
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and there encircle him. Despite the difficulties of the terrain and Maurepas's resistance, the plan worked well.
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gorge, and Boudet move up from south to north. The aim was to surprise the enemy, force him to retreat to
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82:
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922:. In total 31,131 troops were landed on Saint-Domingue, including some non-white figures such as
383:
35:
1284:
Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015
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more than blacks, succeeded to Boudet's post on Saint-Domingue. Toussaint's old enemy and rival
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in ships under Latouche-Tréville and Leclerc; Villaret de Joyeuse and Gravina sailed towards to
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The expedition resulted with France losing more troops in Saint-Domingue than during the later
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On 23 February Desfourneaux's division entered GonaĂŻves, then on fire. General Boudet occupied
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Histoire de l'expédition des Français à Saint-Domingue sous le consulat de Napoléon Bonaparte
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Histoire de l'expédition des Français à Saint-Domingue sous le consulat de Napoléon Bonaparte
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Histoire de l'expédition des Français à Saint-Domingue sous le consulat de Napoléon Bonaparte
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722:, and curtail the measures of independence and abolition of slaves taken by the former slave
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222:
196:
142:
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Mémoires du général Toussaint L'Ouverture, écrits par lui-même ... précédés d'une étude...
1107:
confirmed that slavery would be continued there. News of the reestablishment of slavery on
763:
726:. It departed in December 1801 and, after initial success, ended in a French defeat at the
723:
618:
355:
1689:
Histoire du consulat et de l'empire, faisant suite à l'Histoire de la révolution française
1579:
Histoire du consulat et de l'empire, faisant suite à l'Histoire de la révolution française
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Histoire du consulat et de l'empire, faisant suite à l'Histoire de la révolution française
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8:
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151:
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led to serious social upheavals on Saint-Domingue, of which the most important was the
703:
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459:
134:
1704:
1639:
1601:
1503:
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in an attempt to avoid yellow fever, Leclerc died of it on 1 November 1802. His wife
838:
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790:
786:
739:
1628:
MĂ©heut, Constant; Porter, Catherine; Gebrekidan, Selam; Apuzzo, Matt (20 May 2022).
1427:
1148:
1027:
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978:
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934:(after the Saint-Domingue expedition's failure, Rigaud would be imprisoned at the
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930:, both of whom Toussaint had expelled from the colony two years earlier in the
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977:. When Toussaint discovered the French ships in the Bay of Samaná he ordered
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carrying 7,000–8,000 troops. This fleet was followed by the squadron under
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317:
1398:"European Explorations and the Louisiana Purchase | Digital Collections"
1051:
1343:"The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804): A Different Route to Emancipation"
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by the British and then interned in Britain for nearly nine years as a
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1066:
957:, which Villaret de Joyeuse reached on 29 January, closely followed by
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758:, in a decision endorsed and spread to all the French colonies by the
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finally concluded a secret peace with Bonaparte on 10 October 1801.
24:
1135:
1115:
on Guadeloupe, yellow fever had also broken out and on 3 September
1026:
massif, Toussaint was only left with a few brigades under generals
918:
as well as a great deal of financial and material aid coming from
914:. Also included were a Spanish fleet of seven ships under Admiral
904:
899:
on 14 February with 4,200 troops then by that under contre-amiral
714:
in an attempt to regain French control of the Caribbean colony of
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1597:
Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution
1499:
Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution
1446:
Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution
1188:
November 1803, near the Cap, the French were defeated at the
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Peace had not yet been conclusively signed with Britain (the
178:
1627:
1014:
941:
805:
then signed a peace treaty with the French at Florence and
1372:"Other Revolution: VI. TOUSSAINT LOUVERTURE (1797-1801)"
813:
distanced itself from the coalition, with his successor
1103:
was returned to France by the Treaty of Amiens and the
938:
by Napoleon, a few cells away from Toussaint himself).
1263:
Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution
762:
6 months later, including Haiti on August 29, 1793.
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1719:
1682:, Toussaint Louverture, Joseph Saint-RĂ©my, 1853
1630:"Demanding Reparations, and Ending Up in Exile"
1600:. Harvard University Press. pp. 287–289.
1502:. Harvard University Press. pp. 256–260.
1184:still resounds deeply in Haiti and the world.
998:landed in the bay of Mancenille and captured
981:(head of the island's northern département),
702:was a large French military invasion sent by
443:
965:in the Spanish part of the island, General
1768:Campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars
1390:
785:On 9 February 1801, after their defeat at
450:
436:
1546:Histoire du Consulat et du Premier Empire
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
1366:
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1061:French cuirassiers attack Haitian rebels
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947:Louis-René Levassor de Latouche-Tréville
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1119:died of it, to be replaced by Boudet.
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953:The ships were due to join up in the
431:
1071:besieging fort de la CrĂŞte-Ă -Pierrot
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
1778:French colonization of the Americas
857:as well as the disciplinary corps.
750:in 1793 by the civil commissioners
13:
1673:, Isaac Toussaint Louverture, 1825
1621:
1584:
1313:"Sonthonax proclaims emancipation"
14:
1814:
821:was thus isolated and, after the
1773:Campaigns of the Napoleonic Wars
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833:began to consider making peace.
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829:fell on 13 March 1801, the new
712:Charles Victor Emmanuel Leclerc
34:needs additional citations for
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1436:
1416:
1305:
1290:
1276:
768:the Spanish part of the island
1:
1224:that did not include slavery
1182:"manger la viande des nègres"
1018:The French part of the island
988:
926:and future Haitian president
860:
165:December 1801 – December 1803
1265:, 1st ed. 1938, 2nd ed. 1963
1203:
7:
1252:Reconquista (Santo Domingo)
1245:
1239:Haiti indemnity controversy
1038:. At the same time General
710:, under his brother-in-law
58:"Saint-Domingue expedition"
10:
1819:
1701:Cambridge University Press
1426:Volume 6, 2005, pp. 55–77
1194:Blockade of Saint-Domingue
733:
16:French military expedition
1216:and followed a system of
855:French Revolutionary Army
700:Saint-Domingue expedition
641:Saint-Domingue expedition
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413:
400:
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208:
157:
148:Legioniści na San Domingo
140:
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128:Saint-Domingue expedition
127:
1594:Dubois, Laurent (2005).
1496:Dubois, Laurent (2005).
1451:Harvard University Press
1443:Dubois, Laurent (2005).
1424:French Colonial History,
1349:. University of Kentucky
1297:Roberts, Andrew (2014).
827:William Pitt the Younger
1803:Expeditions from France
1341:Popkin, Jeremy (2003).
1301:. Penguin. p. 378.
1153:Jean-Jacques Dessalines
983:Jean-Jacques Dessalines
384:Jean-Jacques Dessalines
1783:Abolitionism in France
1691:, Adolphe Thiers, 1845
1140:
1139:Henri I, king of Haiti
1062:
1019:
950:
873:
782:
781:The isle of Hispaniola
340:Louis René de Tréville
267:Commanders and leaders
191:Anglo-Haitian victory
1763:Wars involving France
1551:31 March 2008 at the
1432:10.1353/fch.2005.0007
1218:"caporalisme agraire"
1138:
1060:
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944:
868:
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414:Casualties and losses
197:First Empire of Haiti
195:Establishment of the
1798:Military expeditions
1788:Wars involving Haiti
1695:Ferrer, Ada (2014).
1453:. pp. 253–254.
1270:Notes and references
1237:of France began the
841:'s husband, general
764:Toussaint Louverture
748:abolition of slavery
724:Toussaint Louverture
356:Toussaint Louverture
43:improve this article
1402:Library of Congress
1214:1804 Haiti Massacre
1190:Battle of Vertières
886:Villaret de Joyeuse
871:Villaret de Joyeuse
799:Treaty of Lunéville
793:split off from the
770:following the 1795
760:National Convention
728:Battle of Vertières
648:Ravine-Ă -Couleuvres
152:January Suchodolski
1793:Haitian Revolution
1635:The New York Times
1378:. Brown University
1319:. Brown University
1259:The Black Jacobins
1210:Battle of Waterloo
1141:
1105:Law of 20 May 1802
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1048:Les Trois Rivières
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831:Addington ministry
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704:Napoleon Bonaparte
678:MĂ´le-Saint-Nicolas
668:2nd Port-au-Prince
494:1st Port-au-Prince
479:Croix-des-Bouquets
461:Haitian Revolution
135:Haitian Revolution
1758:Conflicts in 1803
1753:Conflicts in 1802
1748:Conflicts in 1801
1404:. Washington, D.C
1178:viande des nègres
1169:Pauline Bonaparte
1163:Taking refuge on
969:was sent to take
959:Latouche-Tréville
847:capitaine général
803:Kingdom of Naples
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1286:. p. 141.
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990:
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971:Port-au-Prince
862:
859:
823:first ministry
772:Peace of Basel
735:
732:
716:Saint-Domingue
691:
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1743:1803 in Haiti
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1738:1802 in Haiti
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632:
630:
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605:
602:
600:
599:2nd Verrettes
597:
595:
592:
590:
587:
585:
582:
580:
579:1st Verrettes
577:
575:
572:
570:
567:
565:
564:Saint-Raphaël
562:
560:
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421:
419:35,000-40,000
418:
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99:February 2017
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
1696:
1688:
1679:
1670:
1662:Bibliography
1647:. Retrieved
1633:
1623:
1611:. Retrieved
1596:
1578:
1571:
1563:
1559:
1541:
1533:
1525:
1513:. Retrieved
1498:
1491:
1483:
1476:
1464:. Retrieved
1445:
1438:
1423:
1418:
1406:. Retrieved
1401:
1392:
1380:. Retrieved
1375:
1351:. Retrieved
1346:
1321:. Retrieved
1316:
1307:
1298:
1292:
1283:
1278:
1262:
1225:
1217:
1207:
1186:
1181:
1177:
1174:
1162:
1158:Port-de-Paix
1142:
1123:, who hated
1097:Fort de Joux
1093:yellow fever
1090:
1081:
1064:
1046:to climb up
1044:Port-de-Paix
1032:
1021:
1000:Fort-Dauphin
992:
952:
936:Fort de Joux
924:André Rigaud
920:Spanish Cuba
875:
851:
835:
784:
744:slave revolt
737:
708:First Consul
699:
697:
640:
549:2nd Tannerie
534:Les GonaĂŻves
509:Fort-Dauphin
499:Cap-Français
489:1st Tannerie
285:
214:
209:Belligerents
190:
147:
133:Part of the
120:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
1686:(in French)
1677:(in French)
1668:(in French)
1576:(in French)
1531:(in French)
1481:(in French)
1254:, 1808–1809
1113:Basse-Terre
975:Cap-HaĂŻtien
967:Jean Boudet
903:which left
895:which left
815:Alexander I
589:Las Cahobas
574:3rd Tiburon
529:2nd Tiburon
524:La Bombarde
514:1st Tiburon
474:Bois CaĂŻman
318:Jean Boudet
1722:Categories
1566:, page 30.
1536:, page 33.
1408:22 January
1382:22 January
1353:22 January
1323:22 January
1233:. In 1826
1121:Rochambeau
1117:Richepanse
1109:Guadeloupe
1101:Martinique
1067:Saint-Marc
996:Rochambeau
989:Reconquest
861:Expedition
720:Hispaniola
619:Jean-Rabel
609:2nd Dondon
594:Mirebalais
554:Saint-Marc
544:1st Dondon
484:Morne Pelé
301:Rochambeau
299:Vicomte de
69:newspapers
1644:0362-4331
1317:brown.edu
1235:Charles X
1204:Aftermath
1125:mulattoes
1076:Verrettes
1036:Plaisance
893:Ganteaume
791:Austrians
752:Sonthonax
685:Vertières
658:Plaisance
624:2nd Irois
614:1st Irois
504:Marmelade
1581:page 206
1549:Archived
1486:, p. 185
1261: :
1246:See also
1052:GonaĂŻves
1024:Arbonite
945:Admiral
869:Admiral
756:Polverel
401:Strength
170:Location
1613:30 June
1515:30 June
1466:30 June
1347:uky.edu
1222:serfdom
1165:Tortuga
1040:Humbert
1008:Léogâne
839:Pauline
819:Britain
787:Marengo
734:Context
706:, then
653:Kellola
569:Trutier
559:LĂ©ogane
286:†
177:(later
83:scholar
1707:
1649:24 May
1642:
1604:
1506:
1457:
1226:per se
1129:Rigaud
909:Polish
901:Linois
897:Toulon
884:under
811:Paul I
809:under
807:Russia
789:, the
629:Jacmel
422:80,000
409:22,000
406:31,000
358:
303:
282:
223:France
187:Result
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
905:Cádiz
882:Brest
179:Haiti
90:JSTOR
76:books
1705:ISBN
1651:2022
1640:ISSN
1615:2009
1602:ISBN
1517:2009
1504:ISBN
1468:2009
1455:ISBN
1410:2023
1384:2023
1355:2023
1325:2023
1151:and
1006:and
754:and
738:The
698:The
519:Acul
162:Date
62:news
1428:doi
1220:or
825:of
150:by
45:by
1724::
1703:.
1699:.
1638:.
1632:.
1586:^
1449:.
1400:.
1374:.
1363:^
1345:.
1333:^
1315:.
1200:.
1147:,
1099:.
1713:.
1653:.
1617:.
1519:.
1470:.
1430::
1412:.
1386:.
1357:.
1327:.
1176:(
949:.
451:e
444:t
437:v
181:)
112:)
106:(
101:)
97:(
87:·
80:·
73:·
66:·
39:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
