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strategy; when food abundance falls below a critical level, kleptoparasitism suddenly becomes advantageous, and aggressive interactions become common. Similarly, when potential victims are rare or widely dispersed, the time needed to find them may not be justified by the food that might be stolen from them, resulting in
147:
to individuals that practise it. Kleptoparasitism costs time and energy which could otherwise be spent directly on feeding, so this cost must be outweighed by the benefit in energy gained from the stolen food. Mathematical modelling suggests that when food is abundant, ordinary feeding is the best
395:
that select hosts that have been parasitized by another female. Kleptoparasitoids may make use of the punctures made by previous parasitoids on their hosts; may follow the trails or traces left by parasitoids to locate hosts; or use hosts already weakened by other parasitoids.
2098:
Smultea, Mari A.; Bacon, Cathy E.; Lomac-MacNair, Kate; Visser, Fleur; Bredvik, Jessica (2014). "Rare Mixed-Species
Associations Between Sperm Whales and Risso's and Northern Right Whale Dolphins Off the Southern California Bight: Kleptoparasitism and Social Parasitism?".
812:
Gulls are both perpetrators and victims of opportunistic kleptoparasitism, particularly during the breeding season. While the victim is most often another member of the same species, other (principally smaller) gulls and terns can also be targeted. In the
535:
relocate large amounts of vertebrate dung, rolling balls of the material to their nests for their larvae to feed on. Several smaller species of dung beetle do not gather dung themselves but take it from the nests of larger species. For example, species of
103:
Kleptoparasitism is a feeding strategy where one animal deliberately steals food from another. This may be intraspecific, involving stealing from members of the same species, or interspecific, from members of other species. The term denotes a form of
407:
885:, in which each species steals the other's kills, is a form of kleptoparasitism. Cheetahs are common targets. Bears, coyotes and wolves are very opportunistic and all have this behavior.
1735:
Shealer, David A.; Spendelow, Jeffrey A.; Hatfield, Jeff S.; Nisbet, Ian C. T. (2005). "The adaptive significance of stealing in a marine bird and its relationship to parental quality".
919:
787:
with food for their young. As the returning birds approach the colony, the frigatebirds, which are fast and agile, swoop in to pursue them vigorously; they sometimes seize
2059:
833:
are skilled kleptoparasites, stealing from other gulls and from raptors. Several species of gull steal food from humans, for example takeaway food at seaside resorts.
2164:
2023:
Schoe, Marjolein; de Iongh, Hans H.; Croes, Barbara M. (6 Jul 2009). "Humans displacing lions and stealing their food in Bénoué National Park, North
Cameroon".
632:
1319:
Dapporto, L.; Cervo, R.; Sledge, M.F.; Turillazzi, S. (2004). "Rank integration in dominance hierarchies of host colonies by the paper wasp social parasite
1273:(1909). "Ăśber den Ursprung der dulotischen, parasitischen und myrmekophilen Ameisen" [On the Origin of Dulotic, Parasitic, and Myrmecophilic Ants].
857:
939:
680:
83:, which states that insect social parasites tend to be closely related to their hosts. The behavior occurs, too, in vertebrates including birds such as
662:
1659:
674:
1502:
1938:
2157:
517:) reportedly shows kleptoparasitic behaviour, laying eggs only in dung balls being interred by one of several co-occurring dung-rolling
839:
1773:
67:
when stealing is less costly than direct feeding, such as when food is scarce or when victims are abundant. Many kleptoparasites are
1292:
Roig-Alsina, A. (1991). "Cladistic analysis of the
Nomadinae s. str. with description of a new genus (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae)".
362:. Numerous other wasp families have genera or larger lineages of which some or all members are kleptoparasitic (e.g., the genus
2150:
581:(water cricket) took prey heavier than 7.9 g, other bugs of the same species joined it and successfully ate parts of the prey.
75:
are specialized kleptoparasites which lay their eggs either on the pollen masses made by other bees, or on the insect hosts of
1192:
1013:
2074:
960:
740:, parent birds involved in kleptoparasitism are more successful in raising broods than non-kleptoparasitic individuals.
1089:
1248:
1976:
1921:
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1821:
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1527:
1122:
1885:
1866:
140:
64:
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149:
2231:
913:, and that the food is then eaten by the Risso's dolphins. The behaviour is rare and may be opportunistic.
2226:
2191:
87:, which persistently chase other seabirds until they disgorge their food, and carnivorous mammals such as
224:
909:, causing them to open their mouths; it has been suggested that the observed harassment results in some
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2002:
1500:
897:. Human hunters may commonly take the remains of fresh kills from other carnivores, such as lions and
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910:
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among insects, including kleptoparasites, tend to be closely related to their hosts. The largest
1966:
2176:
1517:
Sivinski, J., S. Marshall and E. Petersson (1999) Kleptoparasitism and phoresy in the diptera.
1182:
611:, which steal or feed on prey captured by other spiders, are known to occur in five families:
2336:
2201:
1548:
1492:
1181:
Slater, Peter J. B.; Rosenblatt, Jay S.; Snowdon, Charles T.; et al. (30 January 2005).
1055:
71:, especially bees and wasps, but including some true flies, dung beetles, bugs, and spiders.
1452:"Kleptoparasitism as an explanation for paradoxical oviposition decisions of the parasitoid
2291:
2266:
2206:
2032:
1871:
1788:
1624:
1332:
594:
589:
1609:
Erlandsson, Ann (1988). "Food sharing vs monopolising prey: a form of kleptoparasitism in
8:
2221:
1037:
886:
805:, denote this behaviour. However, the amount of food obtained by kleptoparasitism in the
2036:
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1336:
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A few bird species are specialist kleptoparasites, while many others are opportunistic.
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surface and empty the water from their bills, they sometimes have their food stolen by
761:
1490:
ant-mugging flies (Diptera: Milichiidae: Milichiinae) in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
2116:
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1972:
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33:
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Erler, S.; Lattorff, H. M. G. (2010). "The degree of parasitism of the bumblebee (
453:(Diptera) are kleptoparasites; the strategy is especially common in the subfamily
1705:
1615:
1531:
1506:
644:
216:
80:
76:
1080:
Furness, R. W. (1987). "Kleptoparasitism in seabirds". In
Croxall, J. P. (ed.).
2060:"Human Kleptoparasitism on Eurasian Lynx (Lynx Lynx L.) in Slovenia and Norway"
2058:
Krofel, Miha; Kos, Ivan; Linnell, John; Odden, John; Teurlings, Ivonne (2008).
780:
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rely heavily on chasing other seabirds to obtain food. Other species—including
454:
432:
385:
205:
112:, from Greek κλÎπτω (klĂ©ptĹŤ, 'steal'). The strategy has been widely studied in
1428:
1225:
1208:
Kreuter, Kirsten; Bunk, Elfi Bunk (2011). "How the social parasitic bumblebee
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1943:
1352:
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845:
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577:
575:) are kleptoparasitic on their own species. In one study, whenever the bug
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518:
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in which one animal deliberately takes food from another. The strategy is
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1038:"Evolutionarily stable stealing: game theory applied to kleptoparasitism"
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538:
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469:
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437:
377:
339:
335:
220:
197:, for example, parasitises several other species in its genus, including
121:
1305:
1141:
Brockmann, H. Jane; Barnard, C. J. (1979). "Kleptoparasitism in birds".
2312:
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125:
105:
72:
52:
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Marshall, S.A. & Pont, A.C. (2013). The kleptoparasitic habits of
350:
have "cuckoo" species that parasitise related species, as for example
2299:
2284:
2278:
1774:"Kleptoparasitism by Bald Eagles wintering in South-Central Nebraska"
1584:
864:
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442:
421:
381:
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270:
232:
68:
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814:
795:, as well as many of the frigatebirds' colloquial names, including
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926:
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60:
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del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, eds. (1996).
1368:"Coevolution of daily activity timing in a host-parasite system"
2097:
1567:
Hammond, P. M. (September 1976). "Kleptoparasitic
Behaviour of
1008:. Vol. 3. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 145.
933:(and eaten part of it), creating a target for kleptoparasitism.
930:
894:
745:
608:
556:
264:
257:
236:
176:
95:. Other species opportunistically indulge in kleptoparasitism.
1867:"The diet of the Magnificent Frigatebird during chick rearing"
1734:
1660:"Observations on the behaviour of the kleptoparasitic spider,
1571:
Peringuey (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) and Other Dung-Beetles".
1318:
890:
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109:
56:
1886:
10.1650/0010-5422(2000)102[0569:tdotmf]2.0.co;2
1708:; Dobkin, David S.; Wheye, Darryl; Pimm, Stuart L. (1994).
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882:
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729:
725:
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705:
347:
129:
113:
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84:
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Nishimura, K. (2010). "Kleptoparasitism and
Cannibalism".
1968:
The Safari
Companion: A Guide to Watching African Mammals
1939:"Stare seagulls out to save your snacks, researcher says"
1658:
Coyl, F. A.; O'Shields, T. C.; Perlmutter, D. G. (1991).
1098:
736:—do so opportunistically. Among opportunists such as the
504:
490:
450:
239:), which comprises several hundred species in 35 genera.
188:
187:, all of which lay their eggs in the nest cells of other
21:
1136:
1134:
1907:
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Wild, A.L. & Brake, I. 2009. Field observations on
1082:
Seabirds: feeding ecology and role in marine ecosystems
1864:
1728:
1704:
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1174:
1172:
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species engage in this behavior when they can, as do
990:
Fleas, Flukes and
Cuckoos. A study of bird parasites
1865:Calixto-Albarrán, Itzia; Osorno, José-Luis (2000).
1169:
1027:
1025:
889:have also exhibited kleptoparasitic behaviors. All
136:, it occurs in more than a quarter of the species.
2091:
2022:
1909:
829:, which lurk nearby and grab escaping food items.
744:have been seen attacking smaller raptors, such as
507:and are often found beside their foraging trails.
139:Such a strategy should only be followed if it is
2328:
1140:
1022:
1811:
1771:
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1004:Proffitt, M., ed. (1997). "kleptoparasitism".
983:
783:, waiting for parent birds to return to their
2158:
1604:
1602:
1398:
1365:
461:. There are also some kleptoparasites in the
338:(Chrysididae) lay their eggs in the nests of
949:have driven off the cheetah and are feeding.
472:. Some adult milichiids, for example, visit
391:Others are dubbed kleptoparasitoids, namely
1930:
1842:The Sibley Guide to Bird Life and Behaviour
1700:
1698:
1449:
1294:Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society
1291:
1207:
1070:
1031:
1006:Oxford English Dictionary. Additions Series
867:has taken a fish from the one in the water.
480:. Others are associated with robber flies (
2165:
2151:
1608:
1599:
1263:
1916:. Vol. 3. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.
1884:
1756:
1471:
1383:
1372:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
1104:
1084:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
905:have been observed charging "head-on" at
779:nesting seasons, frigatebirds soar above
424:) of a spider (video, 1 m 44 s)
155:
1695:
1359:
1312:
1246:
1056:10.1111/j.1469-1809.1998.ahg625_0453_5.x
1003:
588:
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403:
169:
20:
1901:
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356:, which parasitises a related species,
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2000:
1936:
1836:
1830:
756:have been recorded stealing food from
503:) steal food and pupae transported by
2146:
2016:
1994:
1964:
1546:Wiedemann, 1830 (Diptera: Muscidae).
1392:
1269:
219:, named for the Italian entomologist
1812:Harris, Tony; Franklin, Kim (2000).
1212:sneaks into power of reproduction".
791:by their long tail plumes. The name
764:have been recorded stealing smashed
2003:"People steal meat from wild lions"
1714:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1214:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
961:Evolutionary models of food sharing
231:lineage of kleptoparasitic bees is
13:
1115:10.1016/b978-0-08-045337-8.00279-5
993:. New York: Macmillan. p. 10.
476:where they scavenge on half-eaten
14:
2348:
2138:
1991:Estes, op. cit., 281–295, 339–346
1240:
1184:Advances in the Study of Behavior
748:, to steal fish from them. Among
165:
2045:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2008.00975.x
1473:10.1046/j.1420-9101.1999.00016.x
1385:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.01139.x
1366:Ortolani, I.; Cervo, R. (2009).
938:
918:
856:
838:
191:, often within the same family.
2051:
1985:
1958:
1858:
1805:
1772:Jorde, D.G.; Lingle, G (1998).
1765:
1651:
1560:
1536:
1511:
1480:
1460:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
1443:
1285:
1187:. Academic Press. p. 365.
1107:Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior
524:
18:Type of animal feeding strategy
1971:. Chelsea Green. p. 294.
1912:Handbook of Birds of the World
1345:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2003.11.012
1201:
1109:. Elsevier. pp. 253–258.
997:
977:
694:
420:sp. feeding on captured prey (
388:rather than kleptoparasites.
243:Some bees and their parasites
1:
2001:Walker, Matt (24 July 2009).
1937:Sample, Ian (7 August 2019).
1331:(2–3). Elsevier BV: 217–223.
971:
380:). Some of these species are
160:
150:frequency-dependent selection
1844:. London: Christopher Helm.
1816:. London: Christopher Helm.
1787:(2): 183–188. Archived from
1781:Journal of Field Ornithology
1325:Journal of Insect Physiology
1251:. Nature Education Knowledge
1155:10.1016/0003-3472(79)90185-4
551:
7:
1450:Kraaijeveld, A. R. (1999).
1249:"Social Parasitism in Ants"
954:
183:There are many lineages of
143:, meaning that it offers a
98:
10:
2353:
2242:Behavior-altering parasite
2025:African Journal of Ecology
1965:Estes, Richard D. (1999).
1814:Shrikes & Bush-Shrikes
1711:The Birdwatcher's Handbook
1573:The Coleopterists Bulletin
1323:(Hymenoptera, Vespidae)".
1247:Deslippe, Richard (2010).
872:
584:
174:Cuckoo bee from the genus
79:. They are an instance of
2252:Host–parasite coevolution
2187:
1429:10.1007/s00040-010-0093-2
1275:Biologisches Centralblatt
1226:10.1007/s00265-011-1294-z
877:The relationship between
548:beetles are making them.
441:) is a kleptoparasite of
346:wasps. Other families of
215:. These are instances of
2073:: 93–103. Archived from
1403:) by cuckoo bumblebees (
1043:Annals of Human Genetics
831:Great black-backed gulls
708:(including jaegers) and
699:
399:
116:; in four families, all
2177:biological interactions
2101:Northwestern Naturalist
1677:: 62–66. Archived from
807:magnificent frigatebird
571:Many semiaquatic bugs (
542:enter dung-balls while
1671:Journal of Arachnology
1664:(Araneae, Mysmenidae)"
604:
568:
446:
425:
223:, which asserts that
180:
156:Taxonomic distribution
41:
2031:(3). Blackwell: 445.
1758:10.1093/beheco/ari008
1749:10.1093/beheco/ari008
1569:Onthophagus suturalis
1549:African Invertebrates
1493:African Invertebrates
592:
559:
493:. Flies in the genus
431:
414:
173:
141:evolutionarily stable
65:evolutionarily stable
24:
2267:Parasitic castration
2207:Deception in animals
1519:Florida Entomologist
887:Crab-eating macaques
633:Archaeodictyna ulova
595:Argyrodes flavescens
2037:2009AfJEc..47..445S
1662:Mysmenopsis furtiva
1629:1988Oikos..53..203E
1337:2004JInsP..50..217D
987:; Clay, T. (1957).
762:Eurasian blackbirds
438:Craticulina seriata
244:
145:selective advantage
40:) to steal its food
2306:Cleaning symbiosis
2113:10.1898/nwn13-11.1
1737:Behavioral Ecology
1530:2008-09-10 at the
1505:2009-05-15 at the
605:
569:
447:
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242:
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47:(originally spelt
42:
26:Great frigatebirds
2324:
2323:
1488:Milichia patrizii
1401:Bombus terrestris
1321:Polistes sulcifer
1194:978-0-08-049015-1
1034:Ruxton, Graeme D.
1015:978-0-19-860027-5
848:in pursuit of an
809:may be marginal.
803:pirate of the sea
681:Kilifia inquilina
658:Symphytognathidae
601:Argiope pulchella
412:
353:Polistes sulcifer
332:
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49:clepto-parasitism
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2247:Brood parasitism
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1613:(Heteroptera)".
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823:Heermann's gulls
781:seabird colonies
663:Curimagua bayano
607:Kleptoparasitic
413:
245:
241:
235:(a subfamily of
225:social parasites
194:Bombus bohemicus
77:parasitoid wasps
59:") is a form of
45:Kleptoparasitism
34:red-footed booby
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852:
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798:man-o'-war bird
702:
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554:
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404:
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386:brood parasites
251:Parasite genus
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2139:External links
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2090:
2067:Varstvo Narave
2050:
2015:
1993:
1984:
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1929:
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1879:(3): 569–576.
1857:
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1743:(2): 371–376.
1727:
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1623:(2): 203–206.
1598:
1579:(3): 245–249.
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1454:Asobara tabida
1442:
1423:(4): 371–377.
1391:
1378:(2): 399–405.
1358:
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1220:(3): 475–486.
1200:
1193:
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1097:
1091:978-0521301787
1090:
1069:
1050:(5): 453–464.
1021:
1014:
996:
985:Rothschild, M.
975:
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969:
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956:
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935:
929:has killed an
924:
917:
879:spotted hyenas
874:
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837:
827:laughing gulls
819:brown pelicans
754:masked shrikes
701:
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693:
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675:Isela okuncana
667:
655:
637:
625:
598:on the web of
586:
583:
553:
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526:
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457:of the family
455:Miltogramminae
401:
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372:and the tribe
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89:spotted hyenas
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1838:Sibley, David
1833:
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1823:0-7136-3861-3
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1794:on 2007-08-10
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30:Fregata minor
27:
23:
16:
2337:Parasitology
2261:
2197:Commensalism
2107:(1): 43–49.
2104:
2100:
2093:
2082:. Retrieved
2075:the original
2070:
2066:
2053:
2028:
2024:
2018:
2007:. Retrieved
1996:
1987:
1967:
1960:
1948:. Retrieved
1944:The Guardian
1942:
1932:
1911:
1903:
1876:
1870:
1860:
1841:
1832:
1813:
1807:
1796:. Retrieved
1789:the original
1784:
1780:
1767:
1740:
1736:
1730:
1710:
1686:. Retrieved
1679:the original
1674:
1670:
1661:
1653:
1620:
1614:
1611:Velia caprai
1610:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1562:
1552:
1547:
1544:Musca albina
1543:
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1324:
1320:
1314:
1300:(1): 23–37.
1297:
1293:
1287:
1278:
1274:
1271:Emery, Carlo
1265:
1253:. Retrieved
1242:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1203:
1183:
1146:
1142:
1106:
1100:
1081:
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1041:
1005:
999:
989:
979:
907:sperm whales
876:
850:elegant tern
846:Western gull
811:
802:
796:
792:
774:
738:roseate tern
710:frigatebirds
703:
685:
679:
673:
661:
649:
643:
642:(species of
631:
619:
606:
599:
593:
578:Velia caprai
576:
570:
561:Velia caprai
560:
543:
537:
533:dung beetles
528:
525:Dung beetles
510:Musca albina
508:
494:
485:
448:
436:
415:
390:
363:
357:
351:
336:cuckoo wasps
333:
324:
317:
308:
301:
292:
286:
279:
269:
263:
256:
229:monophyletic
217:Emery's rule
212:B. cryptarum
210:
204:
198:
192:
182:
175:
138:
102:
81:Emery's rule
48:
44:
43:
37:
32:) chasing a
29:
15:
2232:Synnecrosis
2212:Inquilinism
2202:Competition
1950:1 September
1466:: 129–133.
1149:: 487–514.
966:Kleptomania
863:The flying
793:frigatebird
789:tropicbirds
768:from other
742:Bald eagles
728:, and some
695:Vertebrates
687:Mysmenopsis
616:Theridiidae
573:Heteroptera
539:Onthophagus
474:spider webs
470:Milichiidae
466:Chloropidae
393:parasitoids
378:Crabronidae
359:P. dominula
221:Carlo Emery
185:cuckoo bees
126:Chionididae
73:Cuckoo bees
51:, meaning "
2313:Mycorrhiza
2292:Intraguild
2272:Parasitoid
2237:Parasitism
2227:Neutralism
2192:Amensalism
2084:2022-05-25
2009:2009-08-01
1872:The Condor
1798:2007-08-21
1688:2006-07-11
1281:: 352–362.
972:References
734:shorebirds
670:Mysmenidae
640:Salticidae
628:Dictynidae
567:, Belgium)
478:stink bugs
451:true flies
443:sand wasps
417:Sarcophaga
382:inquilines
370:Pompilidae
344:mud dauber
281:Anthophora
248:Host genus
206:B. lucorum
161:Arthropods
122:Fregatidae
108:involving
106:parasitism
69:arthropods
53:parasitism
2300:Symbiosis
2285:Carnivore
2279:Predation
2222:Mutualism
2121:1051-1733
1409:Psithyrus
865:cormorant
758:wheatears
750:passerine
690:species).
621:Argyrodes
552:True bugs
545:Scarabeus
521:species.
422:Tipulidae
374:Nyssonini
365:Ceropales
326:Coelioxys
319:Megachile
271:Psithyrus
233:Nomadinae
38:Sula sula
2331:Category
2129:86227330
1895:84078011
1840:(2001).
1528:Archived
1503:Archived
1413:vestalis
1353:15019524
1306:25085241
1163:53151684
1064:56407575
1036:(1998).
955:See also
815:Americas
770:thrushes
651:Simaetha
624:species)
565:Ardennes
515:Muscidae
496:Bengalia
482:Asilidae
463:families
303:Amegilla
294:Zacosmia
118:seabirds
99:Strategy
2217:Mimicry
2181:ecology
2033:Bibcode
1645:3566063
1625:Bibcode
1593:3999694
1333:Bibcode
1234:7124725
927:cheetah
895:jackals
873:Mammals
777:seabird
775:During
752:birds,
746:ospreys
714:raptors
609:spiders
585:Spiders
310:Thyreus
288:Melecta
134:Laridae
61:feeding
2127:
2119:
1975:
1920:
1893:
1848:
1820:
1718:
1643:
1591:
1437:853556
1435:
1405:Bombus
1351:
1304:
1255:25 May
1232:
1191:
1161:
1121:
1088:
1062:
1012:
947:hyenas
931:impala
766:snails
760:, and
684:, and
645:Portia
530:Scarab
519:scarab
484:), or
340:potter
265:Bombus
258:Bombus
237:Apidae
209:, and
177:Nomada
132:, and
120:, the
2125:S2CID
2078:(PDF)
2063:(PDF)
1891:S2CID
1792:(PDF)
1777:(PDF)
1682:(PDF)
1667:(PDF)
1641:JSTOR
1616:Oikos
1589:JSTOR
1433:S2CID
1302:JSTOR
1230:S2CID
1159:S2CID
1060:S2CID
891:hyena
883:lions
817:, as
785:nests
730:ducks
726:coots
722:terns
718:gulls
706:Skuas
700:Birds
449:Some
435:fly (
400:Flies
348:wasps
114:birds
110:theft
93:lions
85:skuas
57:theft
2117:ISSN
1973:ISBN
1952:2022
1918:ISBN
1846:ISBN
1818:ISBN
1716:ISBN
1524:(2)
1415:)".
1349:PMID
1257:2022
1189:ISBN
1119:ISBN
1086:ISBN
1010:ISBN
881:and
825:and
801:and
732:and
648:and
505:ants
491:ants
468:and
384:and
342:and
334:The
189:bees
91:and
2179:in
2109:doi
2041:doi
1881:doi
1877:102
1753:hdl
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1633:doi
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1468:doi
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