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fashioned out of bovid rib and long bone, but a study found that the use wear did not relate to the same type of musical instrument used at the other MSA sites. Instead, the authors found starchy reside within the teeth of the rasp and suggest that the tool was used for plant processing rather than as an instrument or skin abrader, however this is not proven. A ground bone point dating to 80-65 ka and a charred bone with engraved lines come from
Howiesons Poort contexts. Use-wear analysis found longitudinal striations consistent with longitudinal action (including arrow use); microstriations suggest that the bone point was also hafted within a reed, consistent with ethno-historic accounts of early hunter-gatherers from the region. Alternative interprations that include use as a domestic tool for woodworking or as a javelin point are not consistent with microwear of the bone point leading the authors to conclude that the bone tool was used as an arrowhead. Other bone points have been found at MSA sites including Katanda in the
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and social learning suggests that large brain size is not indicative of higher cognitive function or intelligence. Instead brain size may increase with social learning and increased perceptual and motor abilities. These increased abilities create a positive feedback loop that increases brain size via social learning and its impact on primate and hominin ability to acquire more nutrient rich food sources that favor brain growth. There is a clear relationship between brain size, sociality, and lifespan in primates, but how these influence each other is not yet certain.
587:(USOs), leaves, and fruits, all of which would provide sufficient nutrients for the hominins at the site. By increasing the foraging radius to 35 kilometers away from the site, more nuts, seeds, and grains become available with a total of 281 available edible plant species; these resources were less abundant within the smaller radius and would give reason for an extended foraging journey to acquire varied and less perishable nutrients. A majority of the food plants within these radii can be eaten raw.
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the cave layer by layer, successive excavations focused on different stratigraphic approaches. Deacon's excavations maintained the microstratigraphy of the site. Deacon excavated units one by one, independently of other units in the cave, recording the stratigraphy observed in each individual unit before grouping units together based on their shared stratigraphic patterns. Rather than use culture stratigraphy, Deacon used a hybrid strategy combining Singer and Wymer's culture stratigraphy and
183:(MSA)-associated human habitation beginning approximately 125,000 years ago. Singer and Wymer excavated Caves 1, 1A and 1B, and part of Cave 2; using culture stratigraphy, they determined stages as MSA I, MSA II, Howiesons Poort, MSA III and MSA IV, which allowed comparison across the caves. Critiques of the original excavation include sampling bias due to excavation and screening methods, and combination of stratigraphic layers that obscures the sites' complexity; certain
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techno-complex at
Klasies River Caves because it is recognized as a techno-complex across Southern Africa; further studies may recognize techno-complexes from other culture-stratigraphies as well. Conventionalized artifact manufacture that is passed through generations is argued as symbolic behavior by Sarah Wurz, the current primary investigator at the site. KRM's bone tools represent this symbolic behavior as they exhibit similar modifications and
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fragmentation from marrow collection e.g. the cranial bones are the preferred bones. Another argument suggests a collection bias in which post-cranial long bones were preferred and were not preserved because they were destroyed during marrow collection leaving only the cranial bones, hand and foot bones. However, it is likely an error in excavation and collection from Singer and Wymer that has biased against the collection of human remains.
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one permanent premolar. The majority of remains came from the SAS member (MSA II) and post-HP included two vertebral fragments, five mandibular fragments, seven teeth without associated alveolar bone, one facial bone, one pelvis fragment, one clavicle, 15 cranial fragments, one radius and one ulna fragment, one manual distal phalanx, and three metatarsals. The LBS Member (MSA I) contained 27 cranial fragments and two mandibular fragments.
53:
603:, heated bones and shellfish found together indicating the cooking of multiple food sources. The parenchyma samples came from underground storage organs, but preservation did not allow for determination of plant species. The abundance of plant species available year-round, as discussed in previous sections, would have provided many reliable energy sources for humans; cooking these starchy plants increases energy absorption.
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531:, while the Howiesons Poort lithics were made from a wider variety of materials and were fashioned into smaller blades and artifacts. Tools from MSA III are made from more non-local raw materials than MSA I or II, but less than Howiesons Poort; these tools from MSA III also have a similar core morphology to Howiesons Poort. The MSA IV lithics consist of more flake blades than observed in MSA III.
139:, South Africa. The Klasies River Main (KRM) site consists of 3 main caves and 2 shelters located within a cliff on the southern coast of the Eastern Cape. The site provides evidence for developments in stone tool technology, evolution of modern human anatomy and behavior, and changes in paleoecology and climate in Southern Africa based on evidence from plant remains.
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therefore come from Caves 1 and1A. These caves contain 21 meters of deposits that researchers have struggled to delineate stratigraphically. While sea levels fluctuated over time, during certain occupations, the proximity to the coast and the surrounding grasslands provided marine life and terrestrial animals that were exploited by the caves inhabitants.
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state brain size, social demographics and other factors are the cause of behavioral modernity are undermined by these outside variables. Complex behaviors include language and symbolic objects, which are not easily found in the archaeological record; however exchange networks, alliances, and egalitarianism are also indicators of complex behavior.
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shelter during this period. At later times in the younger strata of the site, a higher density of stone tools and lower density of shellfish at later dates suggest that the site was only used as a tool production site rather than a residential location. This change in mobility at KRM corresponds to a similar change during the same time period at
777:). Researchers have turned to Africa as the birthplace of human behavioral modernity since it is also the place where modern humans evolved. Some researchers have proposed models and trait lists for behavioral modernity that has sparked intense debate among scholars about what constitutes modern human behavior. Evidence of woven grass beds at
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member, and the White Sand (WS) member. Some of these layers are then further subdivided. This system allows researchers to compare deposition patterns and contexts across the site in each cave which may have different dates because of differing deposition processes in each cave environment; some caves may not contain each member listed.
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plant species may have existed during the Middle Stone Age, these findings still demonstrate the longevity of plant knowledge throughout the communities in the area. The study also noted that the use of certain plant types for survival during climate changes, and proposed that humans in the past could have subsisted in similar ways.
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different caves have different depositional characteristics and sediment properties, it has been hard to create a uniform system to group and chronologically group the layers for a site-wide comparison; natural processes such as erosion, and the influence of people at certain areas of the site (anthropogenic deposition of
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The human remains from KRM are mostly fragmentary adult skeletal elements. No human remains were recovered from the WS member (MIS IV). Only one deciduous tooth is attributable to
Howiesons Poort levels (Upper Member). The Upper member (MSA III) contains two parietal fragments, 1 deciduous tooth, and
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During the first excavation in 1967 by Singer and Wymer, a coarse sieve was used for screening causing the loss of smaller bones, shells, and other artifacts; because of this sample sized are biased because long bones (i.e. bone shafts) and small bones (i.e. finger bones) were not collected. However,
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provides insight into the plants that were in proximity to the site. These determinations are also aided by global climate estimates provided by deep sea cores. Plant and animal remains can also be indicative of certain climates as species have certain climatic ranges and preferred biomes. Changes in
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Sarah Wurz began directing excavations at the site in 2013 and continues today with a continued focus on microstratigraphy; her work is mainly within the Cave 1 Witness Baulk, a section that hadn't been excavated previously. The current work is focused on gathering data from the microstratigraphy and
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and faunal remains of bovids. Scientists suggest that the wide availability and variation in food sources were the cause for the anatomically modern humans due to the nutrients required for larger brains and cognitive function. However other research on the relationship between brain size, longevity
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MSA I fauna indicate a mosaic environment that included closed, drier areas with micromammals including moles, and open grasslands that favored grazing ungulates. This period is associated with an interglacial period (MIS 5e) and higher sea levels and warmer temperatures, which is supported by shell
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The site consists of Caves 1 and 2, and the protected overhangs of Cave 1A and 1B, together known as
Klasies River main site. However, Cave 2 was not accessible until later stages after there had been significant deposition and build-up of sediments, and Cave 1B has been under-documented; most finds
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produce a bias towards sites where there is good preservation, skewing results and potentially obscuring the origin of behavioral modernity. Other studies that assert behavioral modernity rely on variables like climate, resource availability, and labor, which also influence behavior. Arguments that
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though time. Deacon chose to organize the site based on soil descriptions; he categorizes the site on this basis with the lowest level being Basal
Gravels, followed by the Light Brown Sand (LBS) Member, the Rubble Brown Sand (RBS) member, the Shell and Sand (SAS) member, the Rockfall (RF) and Upper
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are indicative of symbolic behavior as they change through the sequence from MSA I through MSA III. Each sequence displays a different social convention for construction of stone tools (a techno-complex) that isn't based on raw material availability. However, Howiesons Poort is the only recognized
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Bone tools have been found at KRM during the original excavations by Singer and Wymer coming from MSA II and
Howiesons Poort strata. Three denticulated bone tools originating from an MSA II context resemble musical rasps found at other Middle Stone Age sites in Southern Africa. The bone rasps were
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The
Howiesons Poort (HP) environment shifts from the closed environment of the later MSA II into a more open environment featuring more grazing animals. The earlier levels of HP contain more evidence of browsers which indicate a more closed environment while later periods increase in grazing fauna
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MSA II shows a shift from MSA I. This period is associated with MIS 5d-a, with the early part of this phase associated with warmer temperatures shifting towards cooler temperatures later. During this time the coastline was likely never more than 10 km away from the site. The number of grazers
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Paleoenvironment reconstruction uses multiple analytical foci to help determine a proximate estimate of the climate of a site during a given time frame. These reconstructions are aided through archaeological excavations and finds. Analysis of faunal remains can indicate what species existed across
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began work in Caves 1, 1A and 1B from 1984-1995 focusing on the arbitrary delineation (the "Witness Baulk") that Singer and Wymer used to differentiate Cave 1A from Cave 1, as these caves are actually continuous. While the Singer and Wymer excavation used units that were excavated uniformly across
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and faunal assemblages. The study took an inventory of plants within 5 km of the modern
Klasies site and discovered 268 species. Over 50% of these plants were medicinal and 43% were edible or had other uses as demonstrated from interviews with Khoi and San communities. While not all of these
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A majority of the remains are cranial fragments, and these outnumber the post-cranial elements. This pattern has been argued to represent a pattern that is also observed in the faunal remains record. One argument proposes that the preferred elements are taken to the site and are preserved due to
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Finger bones (manual distal phalanges) dating to 90-100 ka were also recovered from the
Witness Baulk in Cave 1. These bones are from an adult individual and appear smaller in size than modern human populations; they are also not comparable to Neanderthal phalanges. These phalanges are however
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Earlier layers from the site dating to MIS 5d-e have a density of shellfish and debitage from stone tool production. This dense accumulation of animal remains, shell middens, and the remains from stone tool production indicate that the caves were used as a home base rather than an intermittent
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that have compressed under the successive layers on top of them. Researchers have used microstratigraphic techniques to analyze and interpret the complex timeline of sediment deposition and post-depositional activities within the caves. Because the cave system has so many varied layers and the
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The association of animal and plant remains with hearths provides evidence that hominins at the site used fire to cook. Bones with cut marks and percussion marks from hammer stones indicate that meat and bone marrow were consumed. Cooked foods provide quickly digestible energy and would have
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An argument for cannibalism has been posed by some researchers. The fragmented human cranial fragments exhibit cut marks and charring similar to that of the faunal remains from the site. This treatment has led to the conclusion that the inhabitants participated in episodic
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is sometimes interpreted as symbolic behavior, however it also has practical purposes for paint or as an element of an adhesive. At KRM higher concentrations of red ochre are found in the MSA I and
Howiesons Poort levels which may be evidence of ritual or symbolic use.
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The hominins at KRM were hunter-gatherers, and the presence of faunal remains, shellfish, and plant residues shows the wide variety of food sources available near the site. Food consumption at the site consisted of marine and terrestrial animals, evidenced by
526:
artifacts do show variation through the various occupation stages of KRM. Howiesons Poort interrupts the relative uniformity seen in MSA I and MSA II: in the latter, large and long quartzite points and blades were the goal end products and were usually not
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associated with more open environments. This period is associated with MIS 4, a glacial period with cooler temperatures and lower sea levels. Shellfish that appear in tide pools are more common in HP which suggests a further coastline. Data from
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Site occupation patterns based on faunal, food source remains, and lithic evidence suggest that hominins were more mobile during the MSA I than in MSA II as indicated by use-wear analysis on stone tools and interpretation of shell middens.
155:. Klasies River main site is located on a sandstone cliff less than 1 kilometer from the Klasies River mouth and on the coast of the Indian Ocean. The district receives approximately 500–700 mm (20–28 in) of rainfall annually.
650:. Two individuals appear to be deposited around the same time in one stratigraphic layer, but correlating a site-wide cannibalism event requires a finer-scale understanding of the lithostratigraphy that is not possible at present.
461:. The faunal remains are variable and consist of wetland species, open environment grassland grazers, and Cape dune mole rats that prefer sand dunes. This period corresponds to MIS 3, a cooler environment with short warm periods.
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remains, but the individuals at Klasies remain the oldest case of hypercementosis in Sub-Saharan Africa (ca. 119 ka). This find is significant because it demonstrates continuity of the condition through the hominin lineage.
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throughout time. Over 50 human remains have been found, a majority of them from Singer and Wymer's original excavation in 1967-68, and a majority of these excavated in Cave 1. The human remains come from early
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indicate that free hand stone percussion was the primary method of tool production at Cave 1, and the prevalence of consistent and nearly uniform points suggest that these tools were the desired end product.
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have all been interpreted as complex behaviors. The debate about the origin of modern human behavior originally began as an assumption that modern anatomy and modern behavior came as a package during the
147:
Klasies River Cave is located on the border of the Tsitsikamma mountain range on the southeastern coast of Africa. The site sits within the Greater Cape Floristic region, characterized by the
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Singer and Wymer's stages at KRM began at the base, MSA I, followed by MSA II, Howiesons Poort, MSA III, and MSA IV. These groupings are based on changes on stratigraphy and/or changes in
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Reynard, Jerome P.; Wurz, Sarah (June 2020). "The palaeoecology of Klasies River, South Africa: An analysis of the large mammal remains from the 1984–1995 excavations of Cave 1 and 1A".
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There is little data available to describe the paleoecology of the MSA IV. It does not contain many archaeological features such as hearths or material culture other than lithics.
1961:"Further evidence for bow hunting and its implications more than 60 000 years ago: Results of a use-trace analysis of the bone point from Klasies River Main site, South Africa"
362:*in Cave 1A, the MSA II dates from 80-28 kya based on Uranium-Thorium and OSL dating within the same layer. This correlates with the Rockfall (RF) Member described by Deacon.
247:, hearths, etc.) have further complicated the interpretation of the stratigraphy. A lithostratigraphic and culture stratigraphic approach are both used at KRM today.
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rely on findings of hominin remains at prehistoric sites; this allows material culture and inferred behaviors to be correlated with the discovered remains. However,
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Esteban, Irene; Stratford, Dominic; Sievers, Christine; Peña, Paloma de la; Mauran, Guilhem; Backwell, Lucinda; d’Errico, Francesco; Wadley, Lyn (15 January 2023).
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207:. He developed a descriptive naming pattern for the observed soils instead of Singer and Wymer's classification system, however both systems are still used today.
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Wurz, Sarah; Bentsen, Silje Evjenth; Reynard, Jerome; Van Pletzen-Vos, Liezl; Brenner, Mareike; Mentzer, Susan; Pickering, Robyn; Green, Helen (November 2018).
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decreased while mixed-feeders and browsers increased; this correlates with a decrease in shrubland and expanding grasslands. Terrestrial fauna include
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2078:"Method for generating foodplant fitness landscapes: With a foodplant checklist for southern Africa and its application to Klasies River Main Site"
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2550:"The context, form and significance of the MSA engraved ostrich eggshell collection from Diepkloof Rock Shelter, Western Cape, South Africa"
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2336:"Plants, people and fire: Phytolith and FTIR analyses of the post-Howiesons Poort occupations at Border Cave (KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa)"
235:(MIS) are used to compare large-scale global temporal comparisons; each stage in the Klasies River Caves site correlates with a MIS stage.
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Texier, Pierre-Jean; Porraz, Guillaume; Parkington, John; Rigaud, Jean-Philippe; Poggenpoel, Cedric; Tribolo, Chantal (1 September 2013).
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Grine, Frederick E.; Mongle, Carrie S.; Kollmer, William; Romanos, Georgios; du Plessis, Anton; Maureille, Bruno; Braga, José (May 2023).
798:, but the previously discussed evidence situates the debate in the Middle Stone Age as an early adaptation that accrued slowly over time.
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cobbles appear to be the preferred material for stone tool production based on the recovery of raw materials at the site. Analysis of
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714:) originated in Africa and trace a lineage back to non-human primate ancestors there. For further discussion on human evolution, see
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that assigns closely related specimens to the same or similar groups; this is usually visualized as branches on a phylogenetic tree.
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Wildebeest, members of the Alcelaphinae family, would have been available during some periods of occupation at Klasies River Caves.
1453:"Human manual distal phalanges from the Middle Stone Age deposits of Klasies River Main Site, Western Cape Province, South Africa"
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the location of the sea shore and in the grassy or wetland areas surrounding the cave have been determined using these methods.
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Deacon, H.J.; Wurz, S. (2005). "A Late Pleistocene Archive of Life at the Coast, Klasies River". In Stahl, Ann Brower (ed.).
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Grine, Frederick E.; Mongle, Carrie S.; Smith, Shelley L.; Black, Wendy; du Plessis, Anton; Braga, José (1 September 2020).
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1401:"Coastal adaptation at Klasies River main site during MIS 5c-d (93,000–110,000 years ago) from a southern Cape perspective"
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refining the process of micro-scale excavations. This data allows comparison of KRM to other sites across the continent.
17:
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Remains from the Klasies site appear to have modern human morphology based on cranial traits. The specimens do not have
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populations. However, comparisons of prehistoric populations to modern populations are debated and may not have merit.
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at Klasies River caves, which is corroborated by similar discoveries from other cave sites on the southern coast.
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are less useful due to carbon contamination. Researchers have resorted to analysis of unstable isotopes, such as
1737:"Cooked starchy food in hearths ca. 120 kya and 65 kya (MIS 5e and MIS 4) from Klasies River Cave, South Africa"
1563:"Cooked starchy food in hearths ca. 120 kya and 65 kya (MIS 5e and MIS 4) from Klasies River Cave, South Africa"
1257:"Cooked starchy food in hearths ca. 120 kya and 65 kya (MIS 5e and MIS 4) from Klasies River Cave, South Africa"
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2014:
Yellen, John E.; Brooks, Alison S.; Cornelissen, Els; Mehlman, Michael J.; Stewart, Kathlyn (28 April 1995).
1183:"A Critical Review of the Stratigraphic Context of the MSA I and II at Klasies River Main Site, South Africa"
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434:. There is also evidence of forest-dwelling bovid and other animals that prefer wetland grasses and reeds (
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and hippopotamus), indicating the environmental diversity of the site during MSA II. Warm-water shellfish (
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Nami, Hugo G.; De la Peña, Paloma; Vásquez, Carlos A.; Feathers, James; Wurz, Sarah (24 November 2016).
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were lumped together making it difficult to differentiate between activities at the site and combining
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biome; however the Klasies River Cave environment is mixed woods and shrubby brushland and maintains a
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1654:"Palaeomagnetic results and new dates of sedimentary deposits from Klasies River Cave 1, South Africa"
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Despite the evidence above, modern human behavioral models are still a contested issue. Arguments for
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2195:"Hypercementosis in Late Pleistocene Homo sapiens fossils from Klasies River Main Site, South Africa"
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Thackeray, J. Francis (2019). "A 40-Year Reflection on Klasies River Research Projects (1977–2017)".
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2125:"Coevolution of cultural intelligence, extended life history, sociality, and brain size in primates"
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Larbey, Cynthia; Mentzer, Susan M.; Ligouis, Bertrand; Wurz, Sarah; Jones, Martin K. (1 June 2019).
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Larbey, Cynthia; Mentzer, Susan M.; Ligouis, Bertrand; Wurz, Sarah; Jones, Martin K. (1 June 2019).
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Larbey, Cynthia; Mentzer, Susan M.; Ligouis, Bertrand; Wurz, Sarah; Jones, Martin K. (1 June 2019).
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MSA III is marked by a declining temperatures and receding coastline that would have exposed the
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761:—differences in the size or robustness of the bone between sexes. Other anatomically modern
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1335:"Connections, culture and environments around 100 000 years ago at Klasies River main site"
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The Emergence of Modern Human Behaviour: The Pleistocene Occupation Sites of South Africa
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2281:"The Origin of Modern Human Behavior: Critique of the Models and Their Test Implications"
1911:"The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior"
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Wijk, Yvette Ethne Van; Rust, Renee; Uithaler, Eldrid M.; Wurz, Sarah (9 November 2019).
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These initial findings prompted successive excavations to examine the varied and complex
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2456:"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa"
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Street, Sally E.; Navarrete, Ana F.; Reader, Simon M.; Laland, Kevin N. (25 July 2017).
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were present at the cave as groups were able to exploit marine food sources as well.
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1859:"A Functional Assessment of the Notched Bone Artefacts From Klasies River Main Site"
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2016:"A Middle Stone Age Worked Bone Industry from Katanda, Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire"
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contributed to a higher quality diet which could lead to an evolutionary change in
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show that the climate during HP was variable and unstable with periods of drought.
394:
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220:
180:
3907:
3863:
1669:
1531:
1416:
1334:
5048:
5021:
4919:
4877:
4489:
4296:
4266:
4028:
3956:
3934:
3892:
3787:
3757:
3622:
3617:
3268:
3151:
2722:
2424:
1959:
Bradfield, Justin; Lombard, Marlize; Reynard, Jerome; Wurz, Sarah (15 May 2020).
1760:
1653:
1586:
1476:
1358:
1280:
1121:
1096:
715:
691:
654:
653:
Of the remains recovered, two mandibles display the idiopathic dental anomaly of
2401:"Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa"
1182:
765:
specimens from the MSA are found at sites in East Africa and in the Levant (see
5478:
4868:
4572:
4558:
4497:
4405:
4332:
4154:
4119:
4050:
3939:
3811:
3519:
3104:
3094:
2915:
2896:
2077:
1206:
857:
536:
451:
443:
223:
and dating of biological materials. Because the site exceeds 50,000 years old,
2573:
2556:. The Middle Stone Age at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, Western Cape, South Africa.
2479:
2101:
5524:
5036:
4889:
4579:
4291:
4276:
4222:
4200:
4097:
4085:
4001:
3870:
3752:
3713:
3701:
3689:
3401:
3312:
3241:
2982:
2925:
2903:
2812:
2744:
2739:
2717:
2581:
2526:
2487:
2432:
2377:
2304:
2158:
2109:
2047:
2015:
1992:
1874:
1832:
1768:
1721:
1687:
1594:
1539:
1484:
1424:
1366:
1288:
1214:
1130:
1040:
802:
699:
695:
584:
580:
555:
544:
199:
105:
92:
2832:
2399:
Henshilwood, Christopher S.; d'Errico, Francesco; Watts, Ian (1 July 2009).
2149:
2039:
1706:"Ethnobotanical research at Klasies River linking past, present, and future"
968:
757:
specimens. The differences in some of the skull fragments are attributed to
5042:
5030:
4972:
4846:
4794:
4759:
4684:
4591:
4210:
4166:
4147:
4102:
3902:
3826:
3583:
3578:
3534:
3161:
3043:
3007:
2987:
2839:
2817:
2729:
2440:
2312:
2218:
2176:
1942:
1934:
1776:
1602:
1492:
1296:
1138:
867:
863:
841:
782:
548:
514:
472:
431:
195:
136:
77:
4259:
2055:
5504:
5483:
4926:
4853:
4825:
4818:
4766:
4249:
4239:
4195:
4190:
4142:
4080:
4043:
4016:
3917:
3887:
3762:
3684:
3605:
3593:
3354:
3339:
3329:
3300:
3258:
3173:
3141:
3089:
3022:
2859:
2734:
2591:
845:
837:
786:
778:
579:
radius of the caves would have included 161 native species from a mix of
468:
439:
419:
69:
2503:"Implications of the Marked Artifacts of the Middle Stone Age of Africa"
1882:
1858:
1840:
1816:
4911:
4832:
4393:
4286:
4244:
4060:
4023:
3986:
3882:
3469:
3381:
3208:
3109:
3082:
3002:
2800:
2754:
2665:
2633:
2368:
1678:
1097:"The Middle Stone Age human fossil record from Klasies River Main Site"
1095:
Grine, Frederick E.; Wurz, Sarah; Marean, Curtis W. (1 February 2017).
853:
774:
770:
750:
667:
600:
523:
415:
176:
132:
73:
4978:
4883:
4301:
4070:
4055:
3653:
3638:
3563:
3546:
3464:
3349:
3290:
3280:
3275:
3198:
3077:
2965:
2891:
2658:
2648:
1516:"Those marvellous millennia: the Middle Stone Age of Southern Africa"
823:
707:
510:
505:
Examples of backed stone tools of the Howiesons Poort techno-complex.
127:
are a series of caves located east of the Klasies River Mouth on the
2244:"Trait Evolution on a Phylogenetic Tree | Learn Science at Scitable"
948:
616:
the bones that were analyzed show anatomical differentiation within
4839:
4804:
4781:
4502:
4075:
4011:
3858:
3816:
3551:
3459:
3334:
3156:
3119:
3099:
2518:
2454:
Backwell, Lucinda; d'Errico, Francesco; Wadley, Lyn (1 June 2008).
2296:
746:
703:
576:
518:
239:
238:
The stratigraphy of the site consists of very fine, thin layers of
4458:
1399:
Brenner, Mareike J.; Ryano, Kokeli P.; Wurz, Sarah (7 July 2020).
179:
and Ronald Singer conducted excavations that revealed evidence of
5499:
4989:
4565:
4137:
3929:
3875:
3821:
3643:
3449:
3359:
3213:
3114:
3072:
2935:
2854:
2807:
2795:
1332:
1181:
Morrissey, Peter; Mentzer, Susan M.; Wurz, Sarah (1 March 2022).
683:
671:
509:
There is evidence for stone tool production at the site. Rounded
480:
427:
184:
2279:
Henshilwood, Christopher S.; Marean, Curtis W. (December 2003).
810:
that suggest they were used and created in the same way. Use of
342:
LU ESR, U-Series, and OSL dating. Dating material from Cave 1A.
4205:
3742:
3720:
3573:
3509:
3454:
2844:
2822:
2790:
2764:
596:
568:
244:
148:
2013:
297:
Dating material from Cave 1 and dates earlier than in Cave 1A.
5064:
4955:
4945:
4271:
3991:
3725:
3679:
3541:
3396:
3344:
2920:
2886:
1651:
811:
483:
use the flora and fauna of the region that was also found in
219:
The dates of the KRM stratigraphy have been obtained through
2547:
2398:
737:
Anatomically modern humans share traits with today's modern
4723:
4217:
4178:
3658:
3514:
3444:
3364:
3236:
2749:
2333:
2122:
1958:
2453:
670:
which the authors suggest are more comparable to Holocene
3529:
3295:
3253:
2192:
1734:
1560:
1254:
657:; this condition has been discovered in Neanderthal and
381:
Amino Acid Racemization (AAR), U-Th, and TL-OSL dating.
479:
found that many hunter-gatherer-pastoralists from the
1909:
Mcbrearty, Sally; Brooks, Alison S. (November 2000).
1450:
263:
Singer and Wymer's Culture-Stratigraphic Association
1703:
1180:
686:
is based on ancestral or derived traits to create a
2076:Lombard, Marlize; van Aardt, Andri (January 2023).
599:within MSA I and Howiesons Poort levels identified
295:(OSL) and infrared stimulated luminescence dating.
4968:(archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans)
561:
2278:
5522:
2075:
1398:
836:Related Southern Africa Middle Stone Age sites:
2129:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1908:
1094:
5443:
4474:
2607:
1856:
1405:The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology
677:
322:(LU ESR) and TL dating. Dating material from
231:(U-Th) to provide more accurate date ranges.
950:African archaeology: a critical introduction
554:Researchers have also confirmed evidence of
5561:Pleistocene paleontological sites of Africa
4953:
1010:
706:, and other genetic factors that can steer
52:
5450:
5436:
4481:
4467:
2621:
2614:
2600:
953:. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 130–149.
946:
214:
191:and bones from multiple different strata.
2367:
2166:
2148:
1863:The South African Archaeological Bulletin
1677:
1632:
1520:Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa
1120:
5373:Human evolutionary developmental biology
728:
500:
404:
359:LU-ESR and U-Th shell dating in Cave 1.
293:optically stimulated luminescence dating
157:
2274:
2272:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2264:
2238:
2236:
1904:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1892:
1857:Bradfield, Justin; Wurz, Sarah (2020).
14:
5523:
2188:
2186:
1954:
1952:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1513:
1446:
1444:
1442:
5431:
5158:Evolutionary models of human drug use
4462:
3785:
3424:
2690:
2595:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2065:
1852:
1850:
1710:Ethnobotany Research and Applications
1699:
1697:
1635:South African Archaeological Bulletin
1628:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1078:
1006:
1004:
1002:
1000:
998:
942:
940:
789:, and incised ostrich eggshells from
5536:Archaeological sites in South Africa
5398:
3786:
2500:
2261:
2233:
1889:
1814:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1232:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1060:
1058:
996:
994:
992:
990:
988:
986:
984:
982:
980:
978:
938:
936:
934:
932:
930:
928:
926:
924:
922:
920:
666:similar to phalanges originating in
5566:Protected areas of the Eastern Cape
4488:
2183:
1949:
1817:"Modern Behaviour at Klasies River"
1791:
1439:
733:Evolution of the hominin mandible.
710:in many directions. Modern humans (
496:
442:and other rocky shore species) and
387:
24:
2062:
1847:
1694:
1617:
1381:
1187:Journal of Paleolithic Archaeology
682:Assessment of relatedness between
142:
25:
5597:
3738:Megalithic architectural elements
2554:Journal of Archaeological Science
2460:Journal of Archaeological Science
2211:10.1016/j.archoralbio.2023.105664
2082:Journal of Archaeological Science
1311:
1229:
1145:
1055:
975:
917:
892:List of hominin (hominid) fossils
547:, dating to around 90 ka, and at
162:Klasies River Mouth Cave entrance
5409:
5397:
5386:
5385:
3425:
2501:Cain, Chester R. (August 2006).
1658:South African Journal of Science
862:Sites with fossil Homo sapiens:
830:
610:
51:
44:
4357:Evolutionary origin of religion
2541:
2494:
2447:
2392:
2360:10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107898
2327:
2116:
2007:
1985:10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106295
1728:
1645:
1554:
1033:10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106301
820:origins of behavioral modernity
575:Plants within a 12.5 kilometer
562:Faunal remains and food sources
430:, and members of the subfamily
1507:
900:List of archaeological periods
781:, engraved ochre and beads at
372:Light Brown Sand (LBS) Member
170:
13:
1:
5546:Landforms of the Eastern Cape
3970:Art of the Middle Paleolithic
3500:British megalith architecture
1532:10.1080/0067270X.2015.1039236
1417:10.1080/15564894.2020.1774444
910:
905:List of caves in South Africa
801:At Klasies River, the lithic
3965:Art of the Upper Paleolithic
3505:Nordic megalith architecture
2425:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.01.005
1761:10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.03.015
1587:10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.03.015
1514:Wadley, Lyn (3 April 2015).
1477:10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102849
1359:10.1016/j.quaint.2018.03.039
1281:10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.03.015
1122:10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.12.001
632:
350:Shell and Sand (SAS) Member
318:linear uranium uptake model
7:
5416:Evolutionary biology Portal
1670:10.17159/sajs.2016/20160051
724:timeline of human evolution
491:
275:Dating method and location
266:Deacon's Lithostratigraphy
10:
5602:
5556:Paleoanthropological sites
4113:British Isles and Brittany
4034:Gwion Gwion rock paintings
2405:Journal of Human Evolution
2340:Quaternary Science Reviews
1965:Quaternary Science Reviews
1915:Journal of Human Evolution
1741:Journal of Human Evolution
1567:Journal of Human Evolution
1457:Journal of Human Evolution
1261:Journal of Human Evolution
1207:10.1007/s41982-022-00110-2
1101:Journal of Human Evolution
1013:Quaternary Science Reviews
678:Anatomically modern humans
585:underground storage organs
393:space and time. Likewise,
5492:
5463:
5381:
5361:Evolutionary anthropology
5338:
5312:
5265:
5203:
5122:
5081:
5074:
5020:
4944:
4867:
4792:
4746:
4739:
4722:
4682:
4618:
4589:
4553:
4544:
4511:
4496:
4315:
4128:
3955:
3802:
3798:
3781:
3667:
3631:
3480:
3437:
3433:
3420:
3227:
3058:
3031:
2956:
2882:
2873:
2778:
2703:
2699:
2691:
2686:
2629:
2574:10.1016/j.jas.2013.02.021
2480:10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.006
2102:10.1016/j.jas.2022.105707
627:sexually dimorphic traits
475:of Klasies River and the
395:archaeobotanical analysis
106:34.1081028°S 24.3901389°E
84:
65:
39:
34:
5576:Prehistoric South Africa
2199:Archives of Oral Biology
1339:Quaternary International
753:appear similar to other
481:Khoi and San populations
5267:Origin of modern humans
4345:Evolutionary musicology
3748:Oldest extant buildings
3675:Archaeological features
3194:Prepared-core technique
2150:10.1073/pnas.1620734114
2040:10.1126/science.7725100
785:, bone tool culture at
625:and the fragments show
471:research exploring the
320:electron spin resonance
283:White Sand (WS) Member
215:Stratigraphy and dating
111:-34.1081028; 24.3901389
5474:Diepkloof Rock Shelter
4307:Unchambered long cairn
4155:Mound Builders culture
3488:Neolithic architecture
2623:Prehistoric technology
1935:10.1006/jhev.2000.0435
850:Diepkloof Rock Shelter
791:Diepkloof rock shelter
734:
506:
410:
163:
80:Province, South Africa
5541:Caves of South Africa
5275:Recent African origin
4513:Last common ancestors
3982:List of Stone Age art
3184:Microblade technology
3132:Langdale axe industry
2730:Ard / plough
887:(with link directory)
732:
720:evolutionary genetics
504:
408:
272:Marine isotope stage
233:Marine isotope stages
161:
137:Eastern Cape Province
5586:Homo sapiens fossils
5290:Behavioral modernity
5280:Multiregional origin
5060:archaic Homo sapiens
5055:Homo heidelbergensis
5000:Red Deer Cave people
4389:Prehistoric medicine
4384:Prehistoric counting
4367:Prehistoric religion
4362:Paleolithic religion
4340:Behavioral modernity
3697:Causewayed enclosure
3589:Abri de la Madeleine
2713:Neolithic Revolution
2507:Current Anthropology
2285:Current Anthropology
1815:Wurz, Sarah (2008).
884:List of fossil sites
824:taphonomic processes
751:supraorbital regions
545:Semliki River Valley
459:Palaeo-Agulhas Plain
27:Cave in South Africa
5510:Klasies River Caves
5466:World Heritage Site
4927:H. neanderthalensis
4847:H. e. tautavelensis
4428:Prehistoric warfare
3174:Magdalenian culture
3137:Levallois technique
3068:Earliest toolmaking
2566:2013JArSc..40.3412T
2472:2008JArSc..35.1566B
2417:2009JHumE..57...27H
2352:2023QSRv..30007898E
2141:2017PNAS..114.7908S
2094:2023JArSc.149j5707L
2032:1995Sci...268..553Y
1977:2020QSRv..23606295B
1927:2000JHumE..39..453M
1753:2019JHumE.131..210L
1579:2019JHumE.131..210L
1469:2020JHumE.14602849G
1351:2018QuInt.495..102W
1273:2019JHumE.131..210L
1199:2022JPalA...5....5M
1113:2017JHumE.103...53G
1025:2020QSRv..23706301R
595:Samples taken from
259:
125:Klasies River Caves
102: /
35:Klasies River Caves
18:Klasies River Mouth
5531:Peopling of Africa
5114:Self-domestication
4905:H. heidelbergensis
4854:H. e. yuanmouensis
4819:H. e. lantianensis
4546:Australopithecines
4379:Origin of language
4372:Spiritual drug use
4282:Rectangular dolmen
4184:Dartmoor kistvaens
3997:Carved stone balls
3709:Circular enclosure
3668:Other architecture
3611:Alp pile dwellings
3199:Solutrean industry
3110:Gravettian culture
2760:Secondary products
735:
507:
424:Cape dune mole rat
411:
258:
164:
5518:
5517:
5425:
5424:
5366:Paleoanthropology
5308:
5307:
5285:Archaic admixture
5163:Stoned ape theory
5099:Endurance running
5016:
5015:
5012:
5011:
5008:
5007:
4863:
4862:
4826:H. e. nankinensis
4782:H. tsaichangensis
4718:
4717:
4456:
4455:
4452:
4451:
4448:
4447:
4401:Prehistoric music
4350:music archaeology
4007:Cup and ring mark
3832:Clothing/textiles
3777:
3776:
3773:
3772:
3416:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3219:Yubetsu technique
3204:Striking platform
3169:Lithic technology
3054:
3053:
3039:Game drive system
2958:Projectile points
2850:Mortar and pestle
2135:(30): 7908–7914.
2026:(5210): 553–556.
808:use-wear patterns
796:Upper Paleolithic
759:sexual dimorphism
743:retromolar spaces
551:dating to 73 ka.
436:African marsh rat
385:
384:
225:radiocarbon dates
221:isotopic analysis
205:lithostratigraphy
153:temperate climate
121:
120:
16:(Redirected from
5593:
5551:Middle Stone Age
5452:
5445:
5438:
5429:
5428:
5413:
5401:
5400:
5389:
5388:
5325:Human prehistory
5300:Recent evolution
5295:Early migrations
5237:Thermoregulation
5138:Expensive tissue
5109:Sexual selection
5079:
5078:
4951:
4950:
4833:H. e. pekinensis
4744:
4743:
4737:
4736:
4652:A. bahrelghazali
4621:Australopithecus
4551:
4550:
4521:Chimpanzee–human
4509:
4508:
4483:
4476:
4469:
4460:
4459:
4416:Divje Babe flute
4323:Archaeoastronomy
4066:Petrosomatoglyph
3800:
3799:
3783:
3782:
3632:Water management
3435:
3434:
3422:
3421:
3325:Denticulate tool
3147:Lithic reduction
2880:
2879:
2701:
2700:
2688:
2687:
2616:
2609:
2602:
2593:
2592:
2586:
2585:
2560:(9): 3412–3431.
2545:
2539:
2538:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2466:(6): 1566–1580.
2451:
2445:
2444:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2371:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2276:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2254:
2240:
2231:
2230:
2190:
2181:
2180:
2170:
2152:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2073:
2060:
2059:
2011:
2005:
2004:
1956:
1947:
1946:
1906:
1887:
1886:
1869:(213): 128–136.
1854:
1845:
1844:
1812:
1789:
1788:
1732:
1726:
1725:
1701:
1692:
1691:
1681:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1630:
1615:
1614:
1558:
1552:
1551:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1448:
1437:
1436:
1396:
1379:
1378:
1330:
1309:
1308:
1252:
1227:
1226:
1178:
1143:
1142:
1124:
1092:
1053:
1052:
1008:
973:
972:
944:
803:techno-complexes
668:Die Kelders cave
497:Material culture
485:archaeobotanical
418:(rock rabbits),
388:Paleoenvironment
330:Howiesons Poort
260:
257:
252:material culture
181:Middle Stone Age
117:
116:
114:
113:
112:
107:
103:
100:
99:
98:
95:
55:
54:
48:
32:
31:
21:
5601:
5600:
5596:
5595:
5594:
5592:
5591:
5590:
5571:Human evolution
5521:
5520:
5519:
5514:
5488:
5459:
5456:
5426:
5421:
5377:
5334:
5320:Human evolution
5304:
5261:
5205:
5199:
5178:Cooperative eye
5123:Specific models
5118:
5070:
5049:Homo antecessor
5004:
4940:
4934:H. rhodesiensis
4898:H. floresiensis
4859:
4840:H. e. soloensis
4812:H. e. georgicus
4788:
4752:H. gautengensis
4727:
4725:
4714:
4678:
4614:
4585:
4540:
4531:Orangutan–human
4500:
4492:
4490:Human evolution
4487:
4457:
4444:
4311:
4297:Stone box grave
4267:Megalithic tomb
4172:Cotswold-Severn
4124:
4029:Guardian stones
3957:Prehistoric art
3951:
3794:
3769:
3758:Timber trackway
3663:
3627:
3623:Wattle and daub
3476:
3455:Standing stones
3429:
3408:
3223:
3050:
3027:
2952:
2869:
2779:Food processing
2774:
2723:New World crops
2695:
2682:
2625:
2620:
2590:
2589:
2546:
2542:
2499:
2495:
2452:
2448:
2397:
2393:
2332:
2328:
2277:
2262:
2252:
2250:
2242:
2241:
2234:
2191:
2184:
2121:
2117:
2074:
2063:
2012:
2008:
1957:
1950:
1907:
1890:
1855:
1848:
1813:
1792:
1733:
1729:
1702:
1695:
1650:
1646:
1631:
1618:
1559:
1555:
1512:
1508:
1449:
1440:
1397:
1382:
1331:
1312:
1253:
1230:
1179:
1146:
1093:
1056:
1009:
976:
961:
945:
918:
913:
833:
716:human evolution
680:
655:hypercementosis
635:
613:
564:
499:
494:
390:
229:Uranium-Thorium
217:
175:From 1967-1968
173:
145:
143:Site exposition
110:
108:
104:
101:
96:
93:
91:
89:
88:
61:
60:
59:
58:
57:
56:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5599:
5589:
5588:
5583:
5578:
5573:
5568:
5563:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5543:
5538:
5533:
5516:
5515:
5513:
5512:
5507:
5502:
5496:
5494:
5490:
5489:
5487:
5486:
5481:
5479:Pinnacle Point
5476:
5470:
5468:
5461:
5460:
5455:
5454:
5447:
5440:
5432:
5423:
5422:
5420:
5419:
5407:
5395:
5382:
5379:
5378:
5376:
5375:
5370:
5369:
5368:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5342:
5340:
5336:
5335:
5333:
5332:
5330:Human timeline
5327:
5322:
5316:
5314:
5310:
5309:
5306:
5305:
5303:
5302:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5282:
5277:
5271:
5269:
5263:
5262:
5260:
5259:
5254:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5208:
5206:
5201:
5200:
5198:
5197:
5196:
5195:
5190:
5182:
5181:
5180:
5175:
5167:
5166:
5165:
5160:
5155:
5153:Drunken monkey
5147:
5146:
5145:
5140:
5135:
5126:
5124:
5120:
5119:
5117:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5091:
5085:
5083:
5082:General models
5076:
5072:
5071:
5069:
5068:
5026:
5024:
5018:
5017:
5014:
5013:
5010:
5009:
5006:
5005:
5003:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4975:
4970:
4961:
4959:
4948:
4942:
4941:
4939:
4938:
4930:
4923:
4916:
4908:
4901:
4894:
4886:
4881:
4873:
4871:
4869:Archaic humans
4865:
4864:
4861:
4860:
4858:
4857:
4850:
4843:
4836:
4829:
4822:
4815:
4808:
4800:
4798:
4790:
4789:
4787:
4786:
4778:
4774:H. rudolfensis
4770:
4763:
4756:
4747:
4741:
4734:
4720:
4719:
4716:
4715:
4713:
4712:
4705:
4698:
4695:P. aethiopicus
4690:
4688:
4680:
4679:
4677:
4676:
4669:
4662:
4655:
4648:
4641:
4634:
4626:
4624:
4616:
4615:
4613:
4612:
4605:
4597:
4595:
4587:
4586:
4584:
4583:
4576:
4573:Sahelanthropus
4569:
4562:
4559:Nakalipithecus
4554:
4548:
4542:
4541:
4539:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4517:
4515:
4506:
4494:
4493:
4486:
4485:
4478:
4471:
4463:
4454:
4453:
4450:
4449:
4446:
4445:
4443:
4442:
4441:
4440:
4430:
4425:
4424:
4423:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4406:Alligator drum
4398:
4397:
4396:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4375:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4354:
4353:
4352:
4342:
4337:
4336:
4335:
4333:lunar calendar
4330:
4319:
4317:
4316:Other cultural
4313:
4312:
4310:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4263:
4262:
4257:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4236:
4235:
4230:
4220:
4215:
4214:
4213:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4187:
4186:
4176:
4175:
4174:
4164:
4163:
4162:
4152:
4151:
4150:
4145:
4134:
4132:
4126:
4125:
4123:
4122:
4120:Venus figurine
4117:
4116:
4115:
4110:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4089:
4088:
4083:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4051:Megalithic art
4048:
4047:
4046:
4041:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4020:
4019:
4009:
4004:
4002:Cave paintings
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3978:
3977:
3967:
3961:
3959:
3953:
3952:
3950:
3949:
3948:
3947:
3942:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3921:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3885:
3880:
3879:
3878:
3868:
3867:
3866:
3861:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3840:
3839:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3808:
3806:
3804:Material goods
3796:
3795:
3779:
3778:
3775:
3774:
3771:
3770:
3768:
3767:
3766:
3765:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3734:
3733:
3723:
3718:
3717:
3716:
3706:
3705:
3704:
3694:
3693:
3692:
3682:
3677:
3671:
3669:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3661:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3635:
3633:
3629:
3628:
3626:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3614:
3613:
3603:
3598:
3597:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3560:
3559:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3538:
3537:
3527:
3522:
3520:Cliff dwelling
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3496:
3495:
3484:
3482:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3474:
3473:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3452:
3447:
3441:
3439:
3431:
3430:
3418:
3417:
3414:
3413:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3406:
3405:
3404:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3378:
3377:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3316:
3315:
3305:
3304:
3303:
3298:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3250:
3249:
3239:
3233:
3231:
3225:
3224:
3222:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3165:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3128:
3127:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3105:Fire hardening
3102:
3097:
3095:Clovis culture
3092:
3087:
3086:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3064:
3062:
3056:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3049:
3048:
3047:
3046:
3035:
3033:
3029:
3028:
3026:
3025:
3020:
3018:Manis Mastodon
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2974:
2973:
2962:
2960:
2954:
2953:
2951:
2950:
2949:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2918:
2913:
2912:
2911:
2901:
2900:
2899:
2897:throwing stick
2889:
2883:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2868:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2836:
2835:
2830:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2804:
2803:
2793:
2788:
2782:
2780:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2726:
2725:
2720:
2709:
2707:
2697:
2696:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2680:
2675:
2674:
2673:
2663:
2662:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2619:
2618:
2611:
2604:
2596:
2588:
2587:
2540:
2519:10.1086/506287
2513:(4): 675–681.
2493:
2446:
2391:
2326:
2297:10.1086/377665
2291:(5): 627–651.
2260:
2248:www.nature.com
2232:
2182:
2115:
2061:
2006:
1948:
1921:(5): 453–563.
1888:
1846:
1821:Goodwin Series
1790:
1727:
1693:
1644:
1616:
1553:
1526:(2): 155–226.
1506:
1438:
1411:(2): 218–245.
1380:
1310:
1228:
1144:
1054:
974:
959:
915:
914:
912:
909:
908:
907:
902:
897:
889:
875:
874:
860:
858:Boomplaas Cave
832:
829:
696:derived traits
679:
676:
634:
631:
612:
609:
563:
560:
537:Pinnacle Point
498:
495:
493:
490:
469:ethnobotanical
452:Pinnacle Point
444:cape fur seals
389:
386:
383:
382:
379:
376:
373:
370:
366:
365:
357:
354:
351:
348:
344:
343:
340:
337:
334:
331:
327:
326:
316:
310:
307:
304:
300:
299:
290:
287:
284:
281:
277:
276:
273:
270:
267:
264:
216:
213:
172:
169:
144:
141:
119:
118:
86:
82:
81:
67:
63:
62:
50:
49:
43:
42:
41:
40:
37:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5598:
5587:
5584:
5582:
5579:
5577:
5574:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5534:
5532:
5529:
5528:
5526:
5511:
5508:
5506:
5503:
5501:
5498:
5497:
5495:
5491:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5471:
5469:
5467:
5464:Parts of the
5462:
5453:
5448:
5446:
5441:
5439:
5434:
5433:
5430:
5418:
5417:
5412:
5408:
5406:
5405:
5396:
5394:
5393:
5384:
5383:
5380:
5374:
5371:
5367:
5364:
5363:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5344:
5343:
5341:
5337:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5317:
5315:
5311:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5273:
5272:
5270:
5268:
5264:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5209:
5207:
5202:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5185:
5184:Life history
5183:
5179:
5176:
5174:
5171:
5170:
5168:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5154:
5151:
5150:
5148:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5130:
5128:
5127:
5125:
5121:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5086:
5084:
5080:
5077:
5073:
5067:
5066:
5061:
5057:
5056:
5051:
5050:
5045:
5044:
5039:
5038:
5037:Homo ergaster
5033:
5032:
5028:
5027:
5025:
5023:
5019:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4980:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4967:
4966:H. s. sapiens
4963:
4962:
4960:
4958:
4957:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4946:Modern humans
4943:
4936:
4935:
4931:
4929:
4928:
4924:
4922:
4921:
4920:H. luzonensis
4917:
4914:
4913:
4909:
4907:
4906:
4902:
4900:
4899:
4895:
4892:
4891:
4887:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4879:
4878:H. antecessor
4875:
4874:
4872:
4870:
4866:
4856:
4855:
4851:
4849:
4848:
4844:
4842:
4841:
4837:
4835:
4834:
4830:
4828:
4827:
4823:
4821:
4820:
4816:
4814:
4813:
4809:
4807:
4806:
4805:H. e. erectus
4802:
4801:
4799:
4797:
4796:
4791:
4784:
4783:
4779:
4776:
4775:
4771:
4769:
4768:
4764:
4762:
4761:
4757:
4754:
4753:
4749:
4748:
4745:
4742:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4731:
4721:
4711:
4710:
4706:
4704:
4703:
4699:
4697:
4696:
4692:
4691:
4689:
4687:
4686:
4681:
4675:
4674:
4670:
4668:
4667:
4663:
4661:
4660:
4659:A. deyiremeda
4656:
4654:
4653:
4649:
4647:
4646:
4642:
4640:
4639:
4635:
4633:
4632:
4628:
4627:
4625:
4623:
4622:
4617:
4611:
4610:
4606:
4604:
4603:
4599:
4598:
4596:
4594:
4593:
4588:
4582:
4581:
4580:Kenyanthropus
4577:
4575:
4574:
4570:
4568:
4567:
4563:
4561:
4560:
4556:
4555:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4543:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4526:Gorilla–human
4524:
4522:
4519:
4518:
4516:
4514:
4510:
4507:
4504:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4484:
4479:
4477:
4472:
4470:
4465:
4464:
4461:
4439:
4436:
4435:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4403:
4402:
4399:
4395:
4392:
4391:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4359:
4358:
4355:
4351:
4348:
4347:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4325:
4324:
4321:
4320:
4318:
4314:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4292:Simple dolmen
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4277:Passage grave
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4252:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4225:
4224:
4223:Gallery grave
4221:
4219:
4216:
4212:
4209:
4208:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4185:
4182:
4181:
4180:
4177:
4173:
4170:
4169:
4168:
4165:
4161:
4158:
4157:
4156:
4153:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4140:
4139:
4138:Burial mounds
4136:
4135:
4133:
4131:
4127:
4121:
4118:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4105:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4098:Statue menhir
4096:
4094:
4091:
4087:
4086:Stone carving
4084:
4082:
4079:
4078:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4036:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4018:
4015:
4014:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3976:
3973:
3972:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3962:
3960:
3958:
3954:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3937:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3925:Sewing needle
3923:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3890:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3877:
3874:
3873:
3872:
3869:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3856:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3838:
3835:
3834:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3809:
3807:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3784:
3780:
3764:
3761:
3760:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3753:Timber circle
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3732:
3729:
3728:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3715:
3712:
3711:
3710:
3707:
3703:
3702:Tor enclosure
3700:
3699:
3698:
3695:
3691:
3690:fulacht fiadh
3688:
3687:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3672:
3670:
3666:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3636:
3634:
3630:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3581:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3536:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3494:
3491:
3490:
3489:
3486:
3485:
3483:
3479:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3442:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3423:
3419:
3403:
3400:
3399:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3376:
3373:
3372:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3314:
3311:
3310:
3309:
3306:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3293:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3248:
3245:
3244:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3234:
3232:
3230:
3226:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3126:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3070:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3063:
3061:
3057:
3045:
3042:
3041:
3040:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3030:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2972:
2969:
2968:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2959:
2955:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2926:spear-thrower
2924:
2923:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2910:
2907:
2906:
2905:
2904:Bow and arrow
2902:
2898:
2895:
2894:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2884:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2872:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2813:Grinding slab
2811:
2809:
2806:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2777:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2745:Domestication
2743:
2741:
2740:Digging stick
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2718:Founder crops
2716:
2715:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2689:
2685:
2679:
2676:
2672:
2669:
2668:
2667:
2664:
2660:
2659:New Stone Age
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2635:
2632:
2631:
2628:
2624:
2617:
2612:
2610:
2605:
2603:
2598:
2597:
2594:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2544:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2497:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2450:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2395:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2330:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2275:
2273:
2271:
2269:
2267:
2265:
2249:
2245:
2239:
2237:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2189:
2187:
2178:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2119:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2072:
2070:
2068:
2066:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2010:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1955:
1953:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1853:
1851:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1731:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1700:
1698:
1689:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1664:(11/12): 12.
1663:
1659:
1655:
1648:
1641:(210): 86–90.
1640:
1636:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1557:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1510:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1091:
1089:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1079:
1077:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1059:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1007:
1005:
1003:
1001:
999:
997:
995:
993:
991:
989:
987:
985:
983:
981:
979:
970:
966:
962:
960:1-4051-3712-6
956:
952:
951:
943:
941:
939:
937:
935:
933:
931:
929:
927:
925:
923:
921:
916:
906:
903:
901:
898:
896:
895:(with images)
893:
890:
888:
885:
882:
881:
880:
879:
873:
872:Herto remains
869:
865:
861:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
834:
831:Related sites
828:
825:
821:
816:
813:
809:
804:
799:
797:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
739:Homo sapiens.
731:
727:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
700:genetic drift
697:
693:
689:
685:
675:
673:
669:
663:
660:
656:
651:
649:
643:
639:
630:
628:
624:
619:
611:Human remains
608:
604:
602:
598:
594:
593:Homo sapiens.
588:
586:
582:
578:
573:
570:
569:shell middens
559:
557:
552:
550:
546:
540:
538:
532:
530:
525:
520:
516:
512:
503:
489:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
465:
462:
460:
455:
453:
447:
445:
441:
440:brown mussels
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
407:
403:
399:
396:
380:
377:
374:
371:
368:
367:
364:
363:
358:
355:
352:
349:
346:
345:
341:
338:
335:
333:Upper Member
332:
329:
328:
325:
321:
317:
315:
311:
308:
306:Upper Member
305:
302:
301:
298:
294:
291:
288:
285:
282:
279:
278:
274:
271:
268:
265:
262:
261:
256:
253:
248:
246:
245:shell middens
241:
236:
234:
230:
226:
222:
212:
208:
206:
201:
200:Hilary Deacon
197:
192:
190:
186:
182:
178:
168:
160:
156:
154:
150:
140:
138:
134:
131:coast in the
130:
126:
115:
97:24°23′24.50″E
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
68:
64:
47:
38:
33:
30:
19:
5581:Paleoecology
5509:
5414:
5402:
5390:
5257:Gender roles
5252:Intelligence
5065:Homo sapiens
5063:
5059:
5053:
5047:
5043:Homo erectus
5041:
5035:
5031:Homo habilis
5029:
4990:Manot people
4979:H. s. idaltu
4977:
4973:Jebel Irhoud
4965:
4956:Homo sapiens
4954:
4932:
4925:
4918:
4910:
4903:
4896:
4888:
4876:
4852:
4845:
4838:
4831:
4824:
4817:
4810:
4803:
4795:Homo erectus
4793:
4780:
4772:
4765:
4758:
4750:
4740:Proto-humans
4729:
4726:proto-humans
4707:
4700:
4693:
4685:Paranthropus
4683:
4671:
4664:
4657:
4650:
4645:A. anamensis
4643:
4638:A. africanus
4636:
4631:A. afarensis
4629:
4619:
4607:
4600:
4592:Ardipithecus
4590:
4578:
4571:
4564:
4557:
4536:Gibbon–human
4233:wedge-shaped
4218:Funeral pyre
4211:Great dolmen
4167:Chamber tomb
4148:Round barrow
4103:Stone circle
3975:Blombos Cave
3903:Grooved ware
3827:Chalcolithic
3731:Thornborough
3649:Flush toilet
3584:Blombos Cave
3579:Rock shelter
3535:Quiggly hole
3427:Architecture
3402:illustration
3044:Buffalo jump
2865:Storage pits
2828:Aşıklı Höyük
2818:Ground stone
2654:Subdivisions
2557:
2553:
2543:
2510:
2506:
2496:
2463:
2459:
2449:
2411:(1): 27–47.
2408:
2404:
2394:
2343:
2339:
2329:
2288:
2284:
2251:. Retrieved
2247:
2202:
2198:
2132:
2128:
2118:
2085:
2081:
2023:
2019:
2009:
1968:
1964:
1918:
1914:
1866:
1862:
1824:
1820:
1744:
1740:
1730:
1713:
1709:
1661:
1657:
1647:
1638:
1634:
1570:
1566:
1556:
1523:
1519:
1509:
1460:
1456:
1408:
1404:
1342:
1338:
1264:
1260:
1190:
1186:
1104:
1100:
1016:
1012:
949:
894:
886:
877:
876:
864:Jebel Irhoud
842:Blombas Cave
817:
800:
783:Blombos Cave
763:Homo sapiens
762:
755:Homo sapiens
754:
738:
736:
712:Homo sapiens
711:
681:
664:
659:Homo erectus
658:
652:
644:
640:
636:
623:Homo sapiens
622:
618:Homo sapiens
617:
614:
605:
592:
589:
574:
565:
553:
549:Blombos Cave
541:
533:
508:
473:biodiversity
466:
463:
456:
448:
432:Alcelaphinae
412:
400:
391:
361:
360:
323:
313:
296:
269:Date ranges
249:
237:
218:
209:
196:stratigraphy
193:
174:
165:
146:
135:district of
124:
122:
94:34°6′29.17″S
78:Eastern Cape
76:district of
29:
5505:Border Cave
5484:Sibudu Cave
5188:Grandmother
5143:Shore-based
5104:Aquatic ape
4995:Tam Pa Ling
4890:H. ergaster
4709:P. robustus
4255:unchambered
4250:Long barrow
4240:Grave goods
4196:Court cairn
4191:Clava cairn
4143:Bowl barrow
4081:Rock cupule
4024:Golden hats
4017:Hill figure
3918:Unstan ware
3898:Cord-marked
3763:Sweet Track
3685:Burnt mound
3606:Stilt house
3594:Sibudu Cave
3387:Tally stick
3355:Quern-stone
3340:Hammerstone
3330:Fire plough
3301:Pesse canoe
3259:Bannerstone
3229:Other tools
3142:Lithic core
3090:Aurignacian
2978:Bare Island
2860:Quern-stone
2369:10481/78502
1827:: 150–156.
1747:: 210–227.
1679:11336/66314
1573:: 210–227.
1345:: 102–115.
1267:: 210–227.
854:Die Kelders
846:Sibudu Cave
838:Border Cave
787:Sibudu Cave
779:Border Cave
648:cannibalism
556:shell beads
477:Cape region
426:, buffalo,
420:brown hyena
171:Excavations
129:Tsitsikamma
109: /
85:Coordinates
70:Tsitsikamma
5525:Categories
5227:Skin color
5212:Bipedalism
5173:Killer ape
4985:Cro-Magnon
4884:Denisovans
4760:H. habilis
4724:Humans and
4609:A. ramidus
4602:A. kadabba
4394:trepanning
4287:Ring cairn
4245:Jar burial
4228:transepted
4160:U.S. sites
4061:Petroglyph
3987:Bird stone
3945:wine press
3618:Stone roof
3601:Roundhouse
3493:long house
3470:Stonehenge
3438:Ceremonial
3382:Stone tool
3209:Tool stone
3179:Metallurgy
3083:Mousterian
3060:Toolmaking
2998:Cumberland
2971:Transverse
2941:Schöningen
2833:Qesem cave
2801:Earth oven
2755:Irrigation
2666:Technology
2634:Prehistory
2346:: 107898.
2205:: 105664.
2088:: 105707.
1971:: 106295.
1463:: 102849.
1019:: 106301.
911:References
868:Omo Kibish
775:Shkul Cave
771:Mumba Cave
767:Omo Kibish
698:vary with
601:parenchyma
416:rock hyrax
375:110-90 ka
353:104-36 ka
177:John Wymer
133:Humansdorp
74:Humansdorp
5346:Theorists
5313:Timelines
5193:Patriarch
5169:Behavior
5094:Gathering
5022:Ancestors
4767:H. naledi
4702:P. boisei
4673:A. sediba
4438:symbolism
4302:Tor cairn
4260:Grønsalen
4201:Cremation
4093:Sculpture
4071:Pictogram
4056:Petroform
3876:amber use
3844:Cosmetics
3654:Reservoir
3639:Check dam
3569:Pueblitos
3564:Pit-house
3547:Longhouse
3481:Dwellings
3350:Microlith
3281:Bow drill
3276:Bone tool
3269:prismatic
3078:Acheulean
2993:Cresswell
2966:Arrowhead
2892:Boomerang
2808:Granaries
2770:Terracing
2649:Stone Age
2582:0305-4403
2535:143150907
2527:0011-3204
2488:0305-4403
2433:0047-2484
2386:254340359
2378:0277-3791
2305:0011-3204
2227:257266768
2159:0027-8424
2110:0305-4403
2048:0036-8075
2001:218946023
1993:0277-3791
1875:0038-1969
1833:0304-3460
1785:184485363
1769:0047-2484
1722:1547-3465
1688:1996-7489
1611:184485363
1595:0047-2484
1548:162432908
1540:0067-270X
1501:220851839
1485:0047-2484
1433:225776351
1425:1556-4894
1375:135412855
1367:1040-6182
1305:184485363
1289:0047-2484
1223:257089427
1215:2520-8217
1131:0047-2484
1107:: 53–78.
1049:218956114
1041:0277-3791
708:evolution
704:mutations
692:Ancestral
688:phylogeny
633:Inventory
581:geophytes
529:retouched
511:quartzite
402:middens.
378:MIS 5d/e
356:MIS 5d-a
336:65-45 ka
309:60-43 ka
189:artifacts
5392:Category
5247:Language
5217:Skeleton
4912:H. longi
4666:A. garhi
4503:Hominins
4498:Taxonomy
4076:Rock art
4039:painting
4012:Geoglyph
3837:timeline
3817:Beadwork
3557:Mehrgarh
3552:Mudbrick
3460:megalith
3335:Fire-saw
3157:debitage
3152:analysis
3120:Hand axe
3100:Cupstone
2678:Glossary
2639:Timeline
2441:19487016
2321:11081605
2313:14971366
2253:25 April
2219:36889227
2177:28739950
1943:11102266
1883:26978075
1841:40650026
1777:31182202
1716:: 1–24.
1603:31182202
1493:32721654
1297:31182202
1139:28166908
969:60564740
878:General:
749:and the
747:mandible
577:foraging
519:debitage
492:Findings
467:Current
324:Cave 1A.
312:MIS 4 /
303:MSA III
240:sediment
66:Location
5500:Blombos
5404:Commons
5356:Fossils
5222:Muscles
5133:Cooking
5089:Hunting
4566:Orrorin
4433:Symbols
4044:pigment
3930:Weaving
3893:Cardium
3888:Pottery
3883:Mirrors
3871:Jewelry
3812:Baskets
3792:culture
3644:Cistern
3450:Pyramid
3392:Weapons
3370:Scraper
3360:Racloir
3320:Cleaver
3308:Chopper
3214:Uniface
3125:Grooves
3115:Hafting
3073:Oldowan
3032:Systems
2983:Cascade
2946:woomera
2936:harpoon
2909:history
2875:Hunting
2855:Pottery
2796:Cooking
2705:Farming
2671:history
2644:Outline
2562:Bibcode
2468:Bibcode
2413:Bibcode
2348:Bibcode
2168:5544265
2137:Bibcode
2090:Bibcode
2056:7725100
2028:Bibcode
2020:Science
1973:Bibcode
1923:Bibcode
1749:Bibcode
1575:Bibcode
1465:Bibcode
1347:Bibcode
1269:Bibcode
1195:Bibcode
1109:Bibcode
1021:Bibcode
745:in the
684:species
672:Khoesan
597:hearths
347:MSA II
286:70 ka
280:MSA IV
72:coast,
5339:Others
5242:Speech
5204:Topics
5149:Drugs
5075:Models
4411:flutes
4206:Dolmen
4130:Burial
3940:winery
3913:Linear
3743:Midden
3721:Cursus
3714:Goseck
3574:Pueblo
3525:Dugout
3510:Burdei
3189:Mining
3013:Lamoka
3008:Folsom
2988:Clovis
2845:Metate
2823:Hearth
2791:Basket
2765:Sickle
2580:
2533:
2525:
2486:
2439:
2431:
2384:
2376:
2319:
2311:
2303:
2225:
2217:
2175:
2165:
2157:
2108:
2054:
2046:
1999:
1991:
1941:
1881:
1873:
1839:
1831:
1783:
1775:
1767:
1720:
1686:
1609:
1601:
1593:
1546:
1538:
1499:
1491:
1483:
1431:
1423:
1373:
1365:
1303:
1295:
1287:
1221:
1213:
1137:
1129:
1047:
1039:
967:
957:
773:, and
722:, and
524:Lithic
515:flakes
428:equids
369:MSA I
339:MIS 4
314:MIS 3
289:MIS 4
185:strata
149:fynbos
5493:Other
5351:Books
5129:Diet
4328:sites
4272:Mummy
3992:Cairn
3908:JĹŤmon
3859:shoes
3854:Hides
3726:Henge
3680:Broch
3542:Jacal
3397:Wheel
3345:Knife
3291:Canoe
3286:Burin
3264:Blade
3162:flake
3023:Plano
2931:baton
2921:Spear
2887:Arrow
2840:Manos
2693:Tools
2531:S2CID
2382:S2CID
2317:S2CID
2223:S2CID
1997:S2CID
1879:JSTOR
1837:JSTOR
1781:S2CID
1607:S2CID
1544:S2CID
1497:S2CID
1429:S2CID
1371:S2CID
1301:S2CID
1219:S2CID
1193:(1).
1045:S2CID
812:ochre
5232:Hair
5052:) →
4730:Homo
4421:gudi
4179:Cist
4108:list
3935:Wine
3864:Ă–tzi
3849:Glue
3822:Beds
3790:and
3788:Arts
3659:Well
3515:Cave
3445:Kiva
3375:side
3365:Rope
3313:tool
3247:bone
3237:Adze
3003:Eden
2916:Nets
2786:Fire
2750:Goad
2735:Celt
2578:ISSN
2523:ISSN
2484:ISSN
2437:PMID
2429:ISSN
2374:ISSN
2309:PMID
2301:ISSN
2255:2023
2215:PMID
2173:PMID
2155:ISSN
2106:ISSN
2052:PMID
2044:ISSN
1989:ISSN
1939:PMID
1871:ISSN
1829:ISSN
1773:PMID
1765:ISSN
1718:ISSN
1684:ISSN
1599:PMID
1591:ISSN
1536:ISSN
1489:PMID
1481:ISSN
1421:ISSN
1363:ISSN
1293:PMID
1285:ISSN
1211:ISSN
1135:PMID
1127:ISSN
1037:ISSN
965:OCLC
955:ISBN
694:and
517:and
123:The
5046:(→
4937:(?)
4915:(?)
4893:(?)
4785:(?)
4777:(?)
4755:(?)
3530:Hut
3465:row
3296:Oar
3254:Axe
3242:Awl
2570:doi
2515:doi
2476:doi
2421:doi
2364:hdl
2356:doi
2344:300
2293:doi
2207:doi
2203:149
2163:PMC
2145:doi
2133:114
2098:doi
2086:149
2036:doi
2024:268
1981:doi
1969:236
1931:doi
1757:doi
1745:131
1674:hdl
1666:doi
1662:112
1583:doi
1571:131
1528:doi
1473:doi
1461:146
1413:doi
1355:doi
1343:495
1277:doi
1265:131
1203:doi
1117:doi
1105:103
1029:doi
1017:237
5527::
5062:→
5058:→
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5034:→
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2568:.
2558:40
2552:.
2529:.
2521:.
2511:47
2509:.
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