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the manner that man had advanced from the lower animals, a clear precedent of evolutionary thought. Furthermore, he established a detailed theory of how man adaptively acquired language to cope better with his environment and social needs. He argued that the development of language was linked to a procession of events: first developing use of tools, then social structures and finally language. This concept was quite striking for his era, because it departed from the classical religious thinking that man was created instantaneously and language revealed by God. In fact, Monboddo was deeply religious and pointed out that the creation events were probably simply allegories and did not dispute that the universe was created by God. Monboddo was a vigorous opponent of other scientific thinking that philosophically questioned the role of God (see
Monboddo's prolific diatribes on Newton's theories).
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that these people needed to communicate reliably regarding a more limited number of subjects than in modern civilisations, which led to the polysyllabic and redundant nature of many words. He also came up with the idea that these languages are generally vowel-rich and that correspondingly, languages such as German and
English are vowel-starved. According to Burnett, this disparity partially arises from the greater vocabulary of Northern European languages and the decreased need for polysyllabic content.
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562:"He was a minor celebrity in Edinburgh because he was considered to be very eccentric. But he actually came up with the idea that men may have evolved instead of being created by God. His views were dismissed because people thought he was mad, and in those days it was a very controversial view to hold. But he felt it was a logical possibility and it caused him a great deal of consternation. He actually did not want to believe the theory because he was a very religious person."
551:, but Monboddo rejected Buffon's analysis and argued that the anthropoidal ape must be related to the species of man: he sometimes referred to the anthropoidal ape as the "brother of man". Monboddo suffered a setback, in his standing on evolutionary thought, because he stated at one time that men had caudal appendages (tails); some historians failed to take him very seriously after that remark, even though Monboddo was known to bait his critics with preposterous sayings.
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they do and the word of a naval officer trained to give accurate reports was a credible source. Burnett was indeed responsible for changing the classical definition of man as a creature of reason to a creature capable of achieving reason, although he viewed this process as one slow and difficult to achieve.
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Monboddo was a pioneer in regard to many modern ideas and had already in the eighteenth century realized the value of "air-baths" (the familiar term which he invented) to mental and physical health. In his writings
Monboddo argued against clothes as unnatural and undesirable from every point of view
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create lengthy words for rather simple concepts. He reasoned that in early languages there was an imperative for clarity so redundancy was built in and seemingly unnecessary syllables added. He concluded that this form of language evolved when clear communication might be the determinant of avoiding
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The orangutan was at this time a generic term for all types of apes. The
Swedish explorer whose evidence Burnett accepted was a naval officer who had viewed a group of monkeys and thought they were human. Burnett may simply have taken the view that it was reasonable for people to assume the things
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He also elaborates on the advantages created by the adaptive change of primates to their environment and even to the evolving complexity of primate social structures. In 1772 in a letter to James Harris, Monboddo articulated that his theory of language evolution (Harris 1772) was simply a part of
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peoples. He saw the preponderance of polysyllabic words, whereas some of his predecessors had dismissed these languages as a series of monosyllabic grunts. He also observed that in Huron (or
Wyandot) the words for very similar objects are astoundingly different. This fact led Monboddo to perceive
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started to collapse. People rushed out of the building but
Burnett who, at the age of 71, was partially deaf and shortsighted, was the only one not to move. When he was later asked for a reason, he stated that he thought it was "an annual ceremony, with which, as an alien, he had nothing to do".
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in
Boswell's selection of a mate. Monboddo has stated in his own works that degenerative qualities can be inherited by successive generations and that by selective choice of mates, creatures can improve the next generation in a biological sense. This suggests that Monboddo understood the role of
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and continuing to evolve in early humans (Monboddo, 1773). He wrote about how the language capability has altered over time in the form not only of skills but physical form of the sound producing organs (mouth, vocal cords, tongue, throat), suggesting he had formed the concept of evolutionary
444:, in which he was proficient. He argued that Greek is the most perfect language ever established because of its complex structure and tonality, rendering it capable of expressing a wide gamut of nuances. Monboddo was the first to formulate what is now known as the
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At one time he said that humans must have all been born with tails, which were removed by midwives at birth. His contemporaries ridiculed his views, and by 1773 he had retracted this opinion (Pringle 1773). Some later commentators have seen him as anticipating
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regarding man's relationship to other primates. Charles Darwin did not mention
Monboddo, but commented on Buffon: "the first author who in modern times has treated in a scientific spirit was Buffon". Buffon thought that man was a species unrelated to lower
697:, Burnett claimed that man is gradually elevating himself from the animal condition to a state in which mind acts independently of the body. He was a strong supporter of Aristotle in his concepts of Prime Mover. Much effort was devoted to crediting
388:, originally published in six volumes from 1774 to 1792, Burnett analysed the structure of languages and argued that humans had evolved language skills in response to changing environments and social structures. Burnett was the first to note that
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was conspicuously absent from such socialising; while Kames and
Monboddo served on the high court at the same time and had numerous interactions, they were staunch intellectual rivals. Monboddo rode to London on horseback each year and visited
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and was the only thinker of his day to accept them as human rather than monsters. He viewed in these children the ability to achieve reason. He identified the orangutan as human, as his sources indicated it was capable of experiencing shame.
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with brilliant discoveries in the Laws of Motion, while defending the power of the mind as outlined by
Aristotle. His analysis was further complicated by his recurring need to assure that Newton did not obviate the presence of God.
234:, and took on the form of a mystery novel of the era, with a complex web of events spanning Scotland, France and England. Burnett, as the solicitor for the young Douglas heir, was victorious after years of legal battle and appeals.
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who was a principal actor in one of the plays. He had actually met Hume earlier when Monboddo was a curator of the Advocates Library and David Hume served as keeper of that library for several years while he wrote his history.
647:"He regarded humans (including savages and apes) as quite distinct from the rest of the animal kingdom. The first suggestion that the human species was descended via the apes from the lower animals did not come until
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notes Monboddo's work in his publications (Darwin 1803). Later writers consider Monboddo's analysis as precursive to the theory of Evolution. Whether Charles Darwin read Monboddo is not certain. Monboddo debated with
448:, the theory that all human origin was from a single region of the earth; he reached this conclusion by reasoning from linguistic evolution (Jones, 1789). This theory is evidence of his thinking on the topic of the
743:. Another time after a decision went against him regarding the value of a horse, he refused to sit with the other judges and assumed a seat below the bench with the court clerks. When Burnett was visiting the
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Theatre. He clearly enjoyed this endeavour even when some of his fellow judges pointed out that the activity might cast a shadow over his sombre image as jurist. Here he had occasion to further associate with
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and got caught in the crowds, witnessing the lynching of Captain John Porteous on his first night in the city. He took examination in Civil Law at Edinburgh University in 1737 and was admitted to the
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516:, one of Monboddo's successors on the high court of Scotland, believed that proper credit was not given to Monboddo in evolutionary theory development. Neaves wrote in verse:
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states that "Charles Darwin was to some degree influenced by the theories of Monboddo, who deserves the title of Evolutionist more than that of Eccentric." Henderson says:
626:. He believed that contemporary people suffered many diseases because they were removed from the environmental state of being unclothed and exposed to extreme swings in
440:'s 17th-century theory of a "Skythian" proto-language, traced the evolution of modern European languages and gave particularly great effort to understanding the ancient
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names the head of the mysterious Institute Lord Monboddo. He makes the connection explicit in a marginal note, adding that it is not a literal depiction.
496:"Monboddo: Scottish jurist and pioneer anthropologist who explored the origins of language and society and anticipated principles of Darwinian evolution."
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Georg Christoph Lichtenberg's vermischte Schriften, mit dem Portrait, Facsimile und einer Ansicht des Geburtshauses des Verfassers: Vernischte Schriften
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In the era after Monboddo was appointed to Justice of the high court, he organised "learned suppers" at his house on 13 St John Street, off the
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Monboddo struggled with how to "get man from an animal" without divine intervention. This is typical of the kind of thinking which is called
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Burnett wrote of numerous cultures (mostly based upon accounts of explorers); for example, he described "insensibles" and "wood eaters" in
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in Edinburgh's Old Town, where he discussed and lectured about his theories. Local intellectuals were invited to attend attic repasts.
458:'s disagreement, and subsequent correspondence, with Monboddo over details of the "melody and measure of speech" resulted in Steele's
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which is a biographical re-enactment of the life of his ancestor. It received a first run at Aberdeen Arts Centre in September 2010.
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As an agriculturist and horse-breeder, Monboddo was quite aware of the significance of selective breeding and even transferred this
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adapted and changed to survive, and his observations on the progression of primates to man amounted to some kind of concept of
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was a form of man, although some analysts think that some of his presentation was designed to entice his critics into debate.
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Bowler acknowledges his argument that apes might represent the earliest form of humanity (Monboddo 1774), but continues:
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for both mind and body. Monboddo "awaked every morning at four, and then for his health got up and walked in his room
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Against all this, Monboddo's contribution to evolution is today regarded by historians of evolution as being notable.
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The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, Or, The Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life
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An Account of a Savage Girl, Caught Wild in the Woods of Champagne. Translated from the French of Madam H–––t'
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Monboddo's early work in practising law found him in a landmark piece of litigation of his time, known as the
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as well as other intellectuals of the era; the King himself was fond of Monboddo's colourful discussions.
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in Edinburgh along with his daughter Elizabeth where they have unmarked graves in the burial enclosure of
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As such, Burnett adopted an honorary title based on the name of his father's estate and family seat,
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Burnett married Elizabethe Farquharson and they had two daughters and a son. The younger daughter
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909:. Vol. Six volumes. Edinburgh and London: Bell & Bradshute and T. Cadell. 1779–1799.
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was the starting-point for many of the proto-evolutionary thinkers, and for Darwin himself.
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Bailey, Eileen A.; Burnett, James C.A.; Burnett, Charles J.; Croly, Christopher (2005).
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for three years. He returned to Scotland to stay in Edinburgh in 1736 on the day of the
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Burnett was widely known to be an eccentric. Habitually he rode on horseback between
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From 1754 until 1767 Monboddo was one of a number of distinguished proprietors of the
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Monboddo studied languages of peoples colonised by Europeans, including those of the
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899:. Vol. Six volumes. Edinburgh and London: J. Balfour and T. Cadell. 1773–1792.
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in Kincardineshire, Scotland. After his primary education at the parish school of
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early in the twentieth century Monboddo was regarded as a pioneer, and in 1913 a
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Monboddo is considered by some scholars as a precursive thinker in the theory of
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1794:"The New Man" : Body Culture in Imperial Germany and in the Weimar Republic
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Biographical Index of Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002
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The grave of Lord Patrick Grant, Greyfriars Kirkyard – containing Lord Monboddo
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read the works of his grandfather Erasmus and later developed the ideas into a
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Lord Monboddo's descendant, Jamie Burnett of Leys, has sponsored a stage work
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1302:. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 692–693.
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Letters upon the Poetry and Music of the Italian Opera, Addressed to a Friend
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celebrity, known for her beauty and amiability, but who died of consumption (
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Monboddo may be the first person to associate language skills evolving from
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1789:"Der neue Mensch": Körperkultur im Kaiserreich und in der Weimarer Republik
920:(Edinburgh and London, Bell & Bradshute and C. Elliot and T. Kay, 1789)
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122:(baptised 25 October 1714 – 26 May 1799) was a Scottish judge, scholar of
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Fieldwork and Footnotes: Studies in the History of European Anthropology
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was established in Berlin, for the harmonious culture of body and mind.
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The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance
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or case. The matter involved the inheritance standing of a young heir,
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Scottish judge, scholar of linguistic evolution, philosopher and deist
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1721:"Orang Outang and the Definition of Man: The Legacy of Lord Monboddo"
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Account of the Life and Writings of William Robertson, D.D., F.R.S.E
509:, and suggested by implication a general law of evolution." Lovejoy.
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A Supplement to The Dictionary of Decisions of the Court of Session
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was first brought into fashion with much enthusiasm in Germany as
715:, with the window open, which he called taking an air bath." When
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313:(within the non-public section known as the Covenanters Prison).
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Engraving of Lord Monboddo by C. Sherwin, 1787 (after John Brown)
1531:(in German). Gottingen: Dieterichschen Buchhandlung. p. 64.
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Rhetoric on the Margins of Modernity: Vico, Condillac, Monboddo
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Hammett, Iain Maxwell (2004). "Burnett, James, Lord Monboddo (
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152:. Some credit him with anticipating in principle the idea of
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Sex in Relation to Society: Studies in The Psychology of Sex
1320:. Vol. CXXV. Fortnightly Review n.s. pp. 112–122.
923:"Reports of Decisions of the Court of Session, 1738–68" in
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The Emperor's Kilt: the two secret histories of Scotland
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Evolution: the remarkable history of a scientific theory
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James Burnett to T. Cadell and J. Davies, 15 May 1796,
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215:) at the age of 24. Burnett's friend the Scottish poet
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that was read by (and acknowledged in the writings of)
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district of Edinburgh on 26 May 1799 and is buried in
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Capital of the Mind: How Edinburgh Changed the World
1723:. In Vermeulen, Han; Roldan, Arturo Alvarez (eds.).
1676:(New ed.). reprinted Oxford: University Press.
856:depicted a slightly fictionalised Monboddo meeting
1707:Scottish Men of Letters in the Eighteenth Century'
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860:, and being presented with a supposed "wild boy".
480:Monboddo analysed man's relation to other species.
232:Archibald James Edward Douglas, 1st Baron Douglas
130:. He is most famous today as a founder of modern
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755:Burnett in his earlier years suggested that the
1796:] (in German). Königshausen & Neumann.
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301:Monboddo died at home 13 St John Street in the
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1437:(Authorised ed.). New York: D. Appleton.
1162:. The Royal Society of Edinburgh. July 2006.
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685:is a relatively modern field of scholarship.
334:The examples and perspective in this article
1965:
1936:
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1765:(online ed.). Oxford University Press.
1625:Lord Monboddo and some of his contemporaries
1482:The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit
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747:in London in 1787, part of the floor of the
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1038:. University of California Press. pp.
981:, 2nd ed., London (1802). Shelf no.1203.f.3
852:In her short story "The Monboddo Ape Boy",
674:was published (1843) years before Darwin's
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1563:. London: Elsevier Science. pp. 65–.
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19:For other people named James Burnett, see
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782:theory. He appeared to argue that animal
662:knew of Monboddo and wrote in his novel,
372:Learn how and when to remove this message
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1695:Nichols, W. L. (1853), "Lord Monboddo",
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1762:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
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896:Of the Origin and Progress of Language
635:Of the Origin and Progress of Language
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1811:Works by James Burnett, Lord Monboddo
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1293:"Monboddo, James Burnett, Lord"
1204:. Vol. Three volumes. Edinburgh.
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601:theory to communications he had with
468:and in the analysis of verse rhythm.
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400:Lord Monboddo's inkwell from c. 1760
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1674:A Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides
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959:Boswell Papers, (C.2041 and C.2042)
520:Though Darwin now proclaims the law
386:The Origin and Progress of Language
137:. In 1767 he became a judge in the
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3146:Senators of the College of Justice
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1496:Rosenhouse, Jason (26 July 2006).
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683:history of the theory of evolution
176:James Burnett was born in 1714 at
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1593:. Reaktion Books. pp. 272–.
1241:(1933). "Monboddo and Rousseau".
1034:Evolution: The History of an Idea
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532:So up and at them, Land of Cakes,
524:The man that first the secret saw
501:"With some wavering, he extended
267:acted as his personal secretary.
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1658:The Essence of the Douglas Cause
1399:(4th ed.). London. p.
881:Le Blanc, Marie-Angélique Memmie
606:natural processes in evolution;
325:
1786:Wedemeyer-Kolwe, Bernd (2004).
1201:Cassell's Old and New Edinburgh
868:
766:Lord Monboddo, a caricature by
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670:. This is significant because
490:history of evolutionary thought
3101:Burials at Greyfriars Kirkyard
1448:Henderson, Jan-Andrew (2000).
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877:de La Condamine, Charles Marie
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528:The architect precedence takes
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21:James Burnett (disambiguation)
1:
3121:Proto-evolutionary biologists
3076:18th-century Scottish writers
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530:Of him that bears the hod, O!
522:And spreads it far abroad, O!
3136:Scottish non-fiction writers
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1968:Liberté, égalité, fraternité
1779:UK public library membership
1590:A Brief History of Nakedness
1523:Lichtenberg, Georg Christoph
1369:. Harvard University Press.
1132:James Burnett, Lord Monboddo
955:, 11 April and 28 May 1777,
120:James Burnett, Lord Monboddo
113:Philosopher, linguist, judge
7:
1937:
1704:Graham, Henry Grey (1901).
1485:. London: Chapman and Hall.
1072:. Aberdeen: Gourdas House.
863:
348:, discuss the issue on the
311:Patrick Grant, Lord Elchies
67:, Kincardineshire, Scotland
10:
3162:
3106:Enlightenment philosophers
1863:
1198:Grant, James (1880–1887).
1144:Kay's Originals vol.1 p.19
534:We'll vindicate Monboddo.
438:Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn
436:Monboddo also popularized
18:
3025:
2979:
2881:
2838:
2817:
2764:
2733:
2717:
2664:
2598:
2550:
2514:
2481:
2400:
2359:
2203:
2092:
2088:
2077:
1982:Methodological skepticism
1873:
1869:
1858:
1746:. Edinburgh: John Murray.
1030:Bowler, Peter J. (1989).
998:Hobbs, Catherine (2002).
705:
109:
91:
72:
49:
37:
30:
3126:Scottish anthropologists
1339:. N.Y.: Modern Library.
1316:Gray, W. Forbes (1929).
1068:Watt, Archibald (1985).
790:. Burnett also examined
676:On the Origin of Species
526:Was honest old Monboddo.
446:single-origin hypothesis
3131:Linguists from Scotland
1628:. London: John Murray.
1299:Encyclopædia Britannica
190:University of Groningen
104:University of Edinburgh
2032:
1966:
1932:Enlightened absolutism
1923:
1742:Buchan, James (2003).
1719:Barnard, Alan (2013).
1498:"Dickens on Evolution"
1318:A Forerunner of Darwin
1100:The Holly and the Horn
973:, A letter bound into
847:Monboddo – The Musical
770:
653:Philosophie Zoologique
590:
586:and Lord Monboddo, by
556:The Holly and the Horn
481:
401:
317:Historical linguistics
291:Henry Home, Lord Kames
282:
247:
135:historical linguistics
100:University of Aberdeen
3141:Scottish philosophers
1898:Counter-Enlightenment
1771:10.1093/ref:odnb/4074
1690:. London: J. Johnson.
1687:The Temple of Nature'
1620:Knight, William Angus
1331:Larson, E.J. (2004).
944:James Burnett to Sir
765:
745:Court of King's Bench
577:
479:
472:Evolutionary theorist
399:
273:
263:From 1769 until 1775
245:
3081:Age of Enlightenment
1852:Age of Enlightenment
1660:. London: J. Wilkie.
1542:Wedemeyer-Kolwe 2004
1130:Cloyd, E.L. (1972).
608:artificial selection
354:create a new article
346:improve this article
336:may not represent a
198:Faculty of Advocates
124:linguistic evolution
2858:Feijóo y Montenegro
2809:Vorontsova-Dashkova
906:Antient Metaphysics
854:Lillian de la Torre
805:Thomas Love Peacock
695:Antient Metaphysics
461:Prosodia Rationalis
307:Greyfriars Kirkyard
1997:Natural philosophy
1239:Lovejoy, Arthur O.
1179:on 24 January 2013
1102:. Banchory: Leys.
941:, 31 December 1772
799:In popular culture
771:
591:
482:
402:
283:
248:
126:, philosopher and
3096:British naturists
3053:
3052:
3021:
3020:
3017:
3016:
2073:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2046:Scientific method
1903:Critical thinking
1803:978-3-8260-2772-7
1777:(Subscription or
1734:978-1-134-84396-1
1697:Notes and Queries
1600:978-1-86189-729-9
1585:Carr-Gomm, Philip
1570:978-1-4832-2373-5
1376:978-0-674-36446-2
1049:978-0-520-06386-0
1011:978-0-8093-2469-9
962:James Burnett to
951:James Burnett to
937:James Burnett to
822:Martin Chuzzlewit
672:Martin Chuzzlewit
571:adaptive change.
382:
381:
374:
356:, as appropriate.
205:Elizabeth Burnett
186:Marischal College
166:scientific theory
154:natural selection
117:
116:
96:Marischal College
3153:
3042:
3041:
2090:
2089:
2079:
2078:
2037:
1971:
1942:
1928:
1871:
1870:
1860:
1859:
1845:
1838:
1831:
1822:
1821:
1807:
1782:
1774:
1747:
1738:
1715:
1700:
1691:
1677:
1661:
1640:
1639:
1616:
1605:
1604:
1581:
1575:
1574:
1551:
1545:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1493:
1487:
1486:
1477:Dickens, Charles
1473:
1464:
1463:
1445:
1439:
1438:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1412:
1404:
1396:Songs and Verses
1387:
1381:
1380:
1357:
1351:
1350:
1338:
1328:
1322:
1321:
1313:
1304:
1303:
1295:
1284:
1275:
1274:
1243:Modern Philology
1235:
1229:
1226:
1220:
1219:
1213:
1205:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1186:
1184:
1178:
1172:. Archived from
1161:
1151:
1145:
1142:
1136:
1135:
1127:
1114:
1113:
1095:
1084:
1083:
1065:
1054:
1053:
1037:
1027:
1016:
1015:
995:
910:
900:
890:
721:Freikörperkultur
377:
370:
366:
363:
357:
329:
328:
321:
280:Court of Session
276:Parliament House
228:Douglas "cause,"
184:, he studied at
139:Court of Session
79:
60:
58:
42:
28:
27:
3161:
3160:
3156:
3155:
3154:
3152:
3151:
3150:
3056:
3055:
3054:
3049:
3048:
3035:
3013:
2975:
2877:
2834:
2813:
2760:
2729:
2725:Carvalho e Melo
2713:
2660:
2594:
2546:
2510:
2477:
2396:
2355:
2199:
2084:
2065:
2051:Spanish America
1925:Encyclopédistes
1888:Civil liberties
1865:
1854:
1849:
1819:
1804:
1776:
1735:
1699:, vol. VII
1682:Darwin, Erasmus
1670:Johnson, Samuel
1648:
1646:Further reading
1643:
1636:
1617:
1608:
1601:
1582:
1578:
1571:
1555:Ellis, Havelock
1552:
1548:
1540:
1536:
1520:
1516:
1506:
1504:
1494:
1490:
1474:
1467:
1460:
1446:
1442:
1429:Darwin, Charles
1426:
1422:
1406:
1405:
1391:Neaves, Charles
1388:
1384:
1377:
1358:
1354:
1347:
1329:
1325:
1314:
1307:
1285:
1278:
1236:
1232:
1227:
1223:
1207:
1206:
1196:
1192:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1170:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1128:
1117:
1110:
1096:
1087:
1080:
1066:
1057:
1050:
1028:
1019:
1012:
996:
992:
988:
957:Yale University
934:
916:to John Brown,
914:"Advertisement"
871:
866:
819:, in his novel
817:Charles Dickens
801:
733:
708:
691:
660:Charles Dickens
578:Left to right:
536:
533:
531:
529:
527:
525:
523:
521:
474:
378:
367:
361:
358:
343:
330:
326:
319:
240:
174:
102:
87:
81:
77:
68:
62:
61:25 October 1714
56:
54:
45:
33:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3159:
3149:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3051:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3028:
3027:
3026:
3023:
3022:
3019:
3018:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2985:
2983:
2977:
2976:
2974:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
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2918:
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2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2887:
2885:
2879:
2878:
2876:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2844:
2842:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2832:
2827:
2821:
2819:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2770:
2768:
2762:
2761:
2759:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2737:
2735:
2731:
2730:
2728:
2727:
2721:
2719:
2715:
2714:
2712:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2670:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2602:
2600:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2556:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2518:
2516:
2512:
2511:
2509:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2487:
2485:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2404:
2402:
2398:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2363:
2361:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2207:
2205:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2197:
2195:Wollstonecraft
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2096:
2094:
2086:
2085:
2075:
2074:
2071:
2070:
2067:
2066:
2064:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1972:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1934:
1929:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1874:
1867:
1866:
1856:
1855:
1848:
1847:
1840:
1833:
1825:
1818:
1817:
1808:
1802:
1783:
1748:
1739:
1733:
1716:
1701:
1692:
1678:
1666:Boswell, James
1662:
1654:Boswell, James
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1641:
1634:
1606:
1599:
1576:
1569:
1546:
1544:, p. 204.
1534:
1514:
1488:
1465:
1458:
1452:. Mainstream.
1440:
1420:
1382:
1375:
1352:
1345:
1323:
1305:
1290:, ed. (1911).
1288:Chisholm, Hugh
1276:
1255:10.1086/388043
1249:(3): 275–296.
1230:
1221:
1190:
1169:0-902-198-84-X
1168:
1146:
1137:
1115:
1108:
1085:
1078:
1055:
1048:
1017:
1010:
989:
987:
984:
983:
982:
975:Dugald Stewart
971:British Museum
967:
966:, 20 June 1789
960:
949:
948:, 16 June 1773
942:
933:
932:Correspondence
930:
929:
928:
921:
911:
901:
891:
870:
867:
865:
862:
858:Samuel Johnson
807:'s 1817 novel
800:
797:
792:feral children
732:
729:
707:
704:
690:
687:
657:
656:
564:
563:
539:Erasmus Darwin
518:
514:Charles Neaves
511:
510:
498:
497:
473:
470:
442:Greek language
390:some languages
380:
379:
340:of the subject
338:worldwide view
333:
331:
324:
318:
315:
278:, housing the
239:
236:
194:Porteous Riots
178:Monboddo House
173:
170:
162:Charles Darwin
158:Erasmus Darwin
146:Monboddo House
115:
114:
111:
107:
106:
93:
89:
88:
82:
80:(aged 84)
74:
70:
69:
65:Monboddo House
63:
51:
47:
46:
43:
35:
34:
31:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3158:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3063:
3061:
3045:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3032:
3024:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2982:
2981:United States
2978:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
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2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2874:
2871:
2869:
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2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2845:
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2837:
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2828:
2826:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2816:
2810:
2807:
2805:
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2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2771:
2769:
2767:
2763:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2741:Budai-Deleanu
2739:
2738:
2736:
2732:
2726:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2716:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2657:
2654:
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2639:
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2629:
2627:
2624:
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2619:
2617:
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2568:
2566:
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2535:
2533:
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2523:
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2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
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2469:
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2399:
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2209:
2208:
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2196:
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2188:
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2178:
2176:
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2168:
2166:
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2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2105:Ashley-Cooper
2103:
2101:
2098:
2097:
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2036:
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2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2007:Progressivism
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1977:
1973:
1970:
1969:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1956:Individualism
1954:
1952:
1949:
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1944:
1941:
1940:
1935:
1933:
1930:
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1926:
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1919:
1916:
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1911:
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1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1650:
1637:
1635:1-85506-207-0
1631:
1627:
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1615:
1613:
1611:
1602:
1596:
1592:
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2012:Rationality
2002:Objectivity
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1183:16 November
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507:anthropoids
265:John Hunter
238:Later years
172:Early years
132:comparative
76:26 May 1799
3060:Categories
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624:quadrupeds
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418:Algonquian
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1992:Modernity
1913:Democracy
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466:phonetics
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1987:Midlands
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549:primates
503:Rousseau
452:of Man.
430:Tahitian
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