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after
Inutoqqat Nunaat. The site holds 14 ruins including well-built midpassages ruins and 10 stone-build caches. Included in the ruins are some well-preserved midpassages with boulder tent ring and midpassages with round boulders. Some of the ruins in this site had the qualities of winter dwellings. This conclusion was drawn as result of a field team finding clear distinction between dwellings at this site. Some of the dwellings were large more solidly built dwellings which were theorised as being used as winter dwellings. The tent rings that were found were theorised as being used in the summer months as they didnât have as sound construction. The distribution of artefacts along the midpassage indicate that these dwellings could be divided by gender with female seatings in one area and a working area on the other side.
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was theorised to be used for autumn and winter. The existences of larger dwellings in this site suggest they were main settlements during pitch dark winter when the
Independence I people mainly relied on stored supplies. However other researchers have theorised that Deltaterasserne would have been the preferred summer site for Independence I people as they discovered a relatively large amount of bird bones. This site was linked with the Pearylandville site as the microblade ruins discovered at both sites were the same therefore showing these sites were most likely inhabited by the same people. This site has evidence of both Independence I and Independence II culture however the formers settlement was more intense than the latter.
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how long this site was used for as there is great difficulty in separating old remains from new ones. It has also been suggested the reason for the large number of ruins at
Inutoqqat Nunaat is because it was used as a place for gathering for Independence I people. Inutoqqat Nunaat is considered one of the largest Independence I sites and the most extensively investigated. Knuth led major excavations there in 1964,1966, 1968 and 1969, wherein he was able to successfully recover 820 lithic tools, 5312 flakes and a total of 2274 animal bones. Inutoqqat Nunaat was renamed from "Pearylandville" in 2022 by members of the Greenland National Museum, which translates to Land of the Ancient People.
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131:, which is considered to be one of the most extreme environments. Once Greenland was reached by human inhabitants, they spread into other regions of Greenland quite quickly and Greenland was settled through a short series of migrations. Archaeologists estimate the initial migration occurred around 2500BC and they continued to migrate to Greenland through to around 2000BC/1900BC. They migrated mainly to the northernmost part of Greenland, around Peary Land.
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180:. In the High Arctic the sun remains above the horizon for around two to four months each year. The coldest months of the year are lit by twilight, the aurora, and the circling moon. The warmest month of the year is only slightly above freezing, and the coldest month has an average temperature of below 30 degrees.
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goose (2.25%), and ringed seal (1.3%) This is in line with other areas apart from the high amount of arctic fox which is unusual. However, it is likely arctic fox hunting was conducted in winter, and that their diet mainly consisted of muskox which is typical for
Independence I culture. Muskoxen were
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hides were potentially used to cover the floor. Another kind of dwelling linked to
Independence I culture which wasnât part of Knuthâs original research was discovered at Adam C. Knuth site. This kind of dwelling had a central fireplace with four sides. Three of the sides were surrounded by a kind of
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way of life and therefore their dwellings needed to be relatively light so they could be transported easily. Independence I dwellings like other Palaeo-Eskimo dwellings during the same era generally have an emphasis on an axial element. Their dwellings were often a tent rather than house construction
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and fauna refuse meaning they were probably used as winter dwellings for several months however most of the ruins have less than 100 tools associated with it concluding that they probably were used for short periods of time. Researchers and archaeologists have noted that it is difficult to determine
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cultures, and it was concluded that what he had discovered was a pre-Inuit culture. Knuth named it
Independence culture after Independence fjord which was a significant landmark in the Peary Land. Later, Knuth divided Independence culture into Independence I and Independence II based on results from
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Deltaterasserne is one of the larger sites discovered by Eigil Knuth. The artefacts and ruins discovered at
Deltaterasserne aided Knuth in discovering the existence of Independence I and Independence II culture in Greenland. The site has several ruins of dwellings and open-air hearths and therefore
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Adam C. Knuth is a large open site with many different ruins including dwellings and lithic workshops. It was discovered on one of the last days of Knuthâs expeditions in 1980 who came across it accidentally and discovered a site littered with debitage and artefacts. It is the second biggest site
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culture. Remains discovered at
Deltaterrasserne of musk ox and fish bones suggests that Independence I people used the resources of the land and inland waters of Greenland to sustain their livelihood. Their diet was slightly different depending which site they were located at as the population of
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The
Independence I culture lived in Greenland for approximately 500â700 years and disappeared with Independence II culture appearing roughly 600 years later. The extreme temperatures of northern Greenland and the unreliability of their main food source of musk ox, which was prone to overhunting,
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Over six decades, Eigil Knuth recorded over 51 Independence I sites however only a few of these sites insinuate occupation for an extended period of time rather than for a couple of seasons. These sites include
Inutoqqat Nunaat (Pearylandville), Adam C. Knuth site and Deltaterasserne. The small
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The northernmost part of Greenland is characterised by âbarren deserts, permanent sea- ice cover, several months of extremely low temperatures, and winter darknessâ. Independence I people were living in extremely remote and harsh environments and assumedly in isolation. The ecological system in
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Eigil Knuthâs intensive archaeological investigations led to numerous sites being concluded as Independence I which was confirmed by later archaeologists and researchers. However, Inutoqqat Nunaat (formerly Pearylandville), Adam C. Knuth site and Deltaterasserne are considered to be the biggest
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with long straight edges and were made using very specialised techniques. The tools used by Independence I culture was an aspect of the cultureâs discovery. When Knuth was excavating Independence I sites, he discovered tiny, chipped tools which were razor edged microblades that didnât show any
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The earliest known culture in Northern Greenland, Independence I existed from around 2500BC to 1900BC. It coexisted with Saqqaq culture in Southern Greenland which existed from 2500BC to 800BC. Unlike Saqqaq culture, Independence I culture was fairly short lived. After Independence I culture
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Northern Greenland was unstable and was at risk of worsening environmental conditions and overhunting. This has been provided as a reason why Independence I only lasted a few centuries unlike Saqqaq culture which migrated around the same time and lasted for almost 2000 years.
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The Independence I culture disappeared around 1900-1700 BC for unknown reasons. Scientists have considerably debated the reasons for why Independence I and II emerged in the isolated northeastern part of Greenland, as well as how these cultures flourished and disappeared.
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a key part of the Independence I culture as they used all products of the muskox. This included their meat, grease, and marrow as well as long bones for tools and their thick pelts. Therefore, Independence I people used muskoxen for food, clothing, tools, and warmth.
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number of significant sites can be attributed to constant abandoning of sites and moving to new hunting grounds which would provide them with better resources however, this is an unstable pattern and cannot be maintained for long periods of time in human history.
68:, which had a similar geographical extent, and lasted from the 8th century BC, roughly 600 years after the disappearance of Independence I. The Independence I occupation of northern Greenland appears to have been much more extensive than that of Independence II.
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settlements and most likely where the Independence I people spent longer periods of time at. These sites contained ruins of the dwelling that Independence I people resided in giving an insight into how they survived the extreme temperatures of the High Arctic.
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radiocarbon datings and differences in lithic tools. Further archaeological investigations and radiocarbon dates have confirmed Knuthâs discoveries about the age of the Palaeo-Eskimo sites and that there was a division between the two Independence cultures.
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were characterised by mid passages and a central hearth. The tools they used were also distinct from other cultures from the same era especially the use of microblades. The extreme conditions of the region restricted Independence I people's diet to mainly
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Independence I alongside Saqqaq culture are considered to be the earliest known cultures in Greenland. The first Palaeo-Eskimo migrants are thought to have migrated from the Canadian High Arctic and have a connection to the Arctic Small Tool Tradition.
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as no evidence has been found of the use of oil/blubber lamps. Some of the hearths in these dwellings were hearths in a midpassage built within a tent ring and other hearths were box-hearths that were around 40 cm x 40 cm and built of slabs.
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However, with just 12 Greenlandic Dorset sites known from northernmost Greenland (Grønnow and Jensen 2003), the density of the Greenlandic Dorset occupation in this region does not compare to that of the older Independence I occupation of the same
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heads have been recovered in some Canadian sites of Independence I however none have been found in Greenland. The tools used by Independence I people were quite distinct. Chert and âflint-likeâ materials were preferred for example black
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and access to firewood was limited. There are various Independence I dwelling types, one being the âelliptical double platform dwellingâ. A distinct feature in this kind of dwelling is the stone build midpassage with a box
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Greenland did not have human inhabitants until remarkably late because of its geographical position restricting human access. Using traditional means of transport, Greenland could only be accessed through High Arctic
147:, a pre-Inuit archaeological site on Peary Land, during the second summer of a multi-year research expedition. At Deltaterrasserne, Knuth discovered evidence of human occupation and artefacts that were different to
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present in Inutoqqat Nunaat is mainly dominated by musk ox but also consists of arctic fox, hare, and arctic char as well as a few avian fauna consisting of geese and gull. The ruins are rich in both lithic
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and the Canadian Arctic between 2400 and 1900 BC. There has been much debate among scholars on when Independence I culture disappeared, and, therefore, there is a margin of uncertainty with the dates.
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Radiocarbon dates and typologies of dwellings and tools do not allow distinguishing any chronological changes in the Independence I culture over its long existence (Grønnow 2016:728).
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platform and the fourth side was an open space towards the entrance. The dwelling was divided into three sections: a living area on each side, the midpassage and a central hearth.
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Archaeological experiments have shown that it was possible for Independence I people to live in the High Arctic with a degree of comfort. Independence I people lived a
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The topography of the area that the Independence I people resided was extreme and therefore their dwellings reflected this with a focus on keeping warm. Independence I
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resemblance to the tools of the traditional Inuit and, alongside other evidence, he used this to conclude that he had discovered a pre-Inuit culture.
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The Northernmost Ruins of the Globe (Vol. 329): Eigil Knuth's Archaeological Investigations in Peary Land and Adjacent Areas of High Arctic Greenland
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The northernmost ruins of the globe : Eigil Knuth's archaeological investigations in Peary Land and adjacent areas of High Arctic Greenland
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251:. Fragments of broken bone needles were among the artefacts discovered at Independence I sites, which suggests they stitched their garments.
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various hunting animals differed. In the Adam C. Knuth site, it was calculated that the distribution was Arctic fox (45.1%), muskox (31.6%),
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Inutoqqat Nunaat (formerly known as Pearylandville) is the largest Paleo-Eskimo site in the Peary Land as discovered by Eigil Knuth. The
694:
Jensen, Jens F.; Odgaard, Ulla; Funder, Svend; Plumet, Patrick (2017-01-01), Kotlyakov, V. M.; Velichko, A. A.; Vasilâev, S. A. (eds.),
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No clothing has been preserved from the Independence I sites. However, researchers theorise that they used finely tailored skin
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and large knife blades were part of their tool kit. Another marker of Independence I rather than Saqqaq, is coarsely made
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Bjarne Grønnow (2016). "Independence I and Saqqaq: The First Greenlanders". In Max Friesen; Owen Mason (eds.).
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make up a large proportion of the artefacts from Independence I sites. They were narrow slivers of glass-like
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inside two parallel walls. Eigil Knuth theorised these dwellings were most likely winter dwellings and that
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Human colonization of the Arctic : the interaction between early migration and the paleoenvironment
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Human Colonization of the Arctic: The Interaction Between Early Migration and the Paleoenvironment
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881:"Walrus Island â A pivotal place for High Arctic PalaeoâEskimo societies in Northeast Greenland"
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289:
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271:. However, some evidence of tools used by these people have been discovered. A few tangled
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McGhee, Robert (1979). "The Palaeoeskimo Occupations at Port Refuge, High Arctic Canada".
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Independence I, The Greenland Research Centre at the National Museum of Denmark
1077:"The Paleo-Eskimo Culture of Northeast Greenland Elucidated by Three New Sites"
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The northernmost part of Greenland is the most extreme part of the region. The
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817:. Jens Fog Jensen, Christyann Marie Darwent. Copenhagen: Danish Polar Center.
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Areas of Independence I and Independence II cultures around Independence Fjord
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J.F. Jensen (2016). "Greenlandic Dorset". In M. Friesen and O. Mason (ed.).
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Robert Peary's 1903 Northern Greenland map showing the Peary Channel.
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936:. V. M. Kotliď¸ a︥kov, A. A. Velichko, S. A. Vasil'ev. London . 2017.
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Palaeo-Eskimo Migrations into Greenland: The Canadian Connection
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1134:– via Canadian Museum of Civilization, Gatineau, Quebec.
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first recognised the existence of both Independence I and II.
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of southern Greenland. Independence I culture was followed by
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281:
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492:"First people and muskox hunting in northernmost Greenland"
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Jensen, Jens Fog; Gotfredsen, Anne Birgitte (2022-01-02).
60:. The Independence I people lived at the same time as the
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652:. University of British Columbia Press. pp. 73â105.
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Only a few of the Independence I site show evidence of
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The only source of heat in these tents came from the
1053:
Knuth, Eigil (1967). "The ruin of the musk ox way".
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851:Grønnow, Bjarne; Sorensen, Mikkel (2006-01-01),
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998:"Palaeoeskimo dwellings in Greenland: A survey"
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119:disappeared, Independence II culture appeared.
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452:The Oxford Handbook of the Prehistoric Arctic
398:The Oxford Handbook of the Prehistoric Arctic
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964:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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109:Nares Strait 432 pan crop 15 (31649014854)
27:Paleo-Eskimo culture of northern Greenland
1132:Archaeological Survey of Canada Papers 92
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176:only appears one day at midsummer in the
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1169:Bjarne Grønnow; Jens Fog Jensen (2003).
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374:could have contributed to their demise.
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576:"Hearth and home of the Palaeo-Eskimos"
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696:"5.1 - First people in Greenlandâ"
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738:"EIGIL GREVE KNUTH 1903 â 1996"
857:, vol. 10, pp. 59â74
550:. Routledge. pp. 945â948.
56:, which is a fjord located in
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736:Dan Laursen (December 1996).
508:10.1080/08003831.2022.2061763
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650:Ancient People of the Arctic
574:Odgaard, Ulla (2005-07-15).
239:(4.4%), arctic hare (4.4%),
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1243:1st millennium BC in Canada
1238:2nd millennium BC in Canada
1178:. Museum Tusculanum Press.
1075:Knuth, Eigil (April 1954).
52:The culture is named after
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996:Andreasen, Claus (2003).
879:Sørensen, Mikkel (2012).
548:Enclyopedia of the Arctic
284:and black, blue and grey
1233:Prehistory of the Arctic
1228:Archaeology of Greenland
811:Grønnow, Bjarne (2003).
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648:McGhee, Robert (1996).
311:Archaeological findings
66:Independence II culture
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1002:Ătudes/Inuit/Studies
885:Ătudes/Inuit/Studies
580:Ătudes/Inuit/Studies
546:Jensen, J.F (2005).
759:10.14430/arctic1216
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1081:American Antiquity
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114:History and origin
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898:10.7202/1015959ar
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1248:Peary Land
1217:Categories
1155:26 January
1061:: 191â219.
952:1028073756
861:2022-05-27
772:2009-02-19
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378:References
156:Topography
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1028:JSTOR
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766:(PDF)
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520:S2CID
411:area.
339:fauna
304:flint
286:chert
282:agate
263:Tools
241:brent
149:Inuit
1188:ISBN
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1097:ISSN
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