1187:. The movie is described thus: "It chronicles how the physician defiantly began his fight for women's reproductive rights in 1967, even serving time in a Quebec prison in 1975 on abortion charges. The story culminates with the Supreme Court of Canada deciding to strike down this country's abortion laws in 1988." In an interview with CTV, Morgentaler explains: "I got involved because this was, for me, a fight for justice, for fundamental justice, and the fact that I could possibly do something to help women in spite of a law which did not allow me to do it." "I was willing to go to jail, I was willing to die for it," he told CTV's Canada AM Wednesday. "So when I look back on it, I look at a life of achievement because I achieved a great deal and I'm very proud of it."
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by
Progressive Conservative Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, introduced Bill C-43, which would punish doctors with prison terms if they performed abortions for women whose health was not at risk. It passed the House of Commons by a close vote of 140â131 in a blaze of publicity. It was not yet law, but within a week a 20-year-old university student bled to death in residence from a self-induced coat hanger abortion. A teenage girl was injured in a botched back-alley abortion. These casualties of unwanted pregnancy received considerable publicity and abortion rights demonstrations were held after the death of the student, protesting Bill C-43. The bill was defeated in the Senate by a tie vote in early 1991 and the casualties of illegal abortion ceased.
432:. There was, however, no requirement for a hospital to set up a committee and only about one-third of hospitals did. This left many areas without legal abortion, forcing women to travel and inducing barriers and delays. Some committees never met. Even if they did, they never saw their "patient" and yet her fate was determined by their subjective opinions. In addition, there was no appeal of a TAC's decision. Morgentaler's abortions remained illegal under the new law because he did not submit them in advance to a TAC for approval; they became legal in 1988, when section 251 of the
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and that he was shirking his responsibility. Eventually, in spite of the risks to himselfâloss of career, a prison term for years or for lifeâhe decided to perform abortions and, at the same time, challenge the law. He knew from other doctors and from newspaper reports that women in
Montreal had died from incompetently performed abortions. He knew that the women were determined to get abortions in spite of the danger to their health and lives. He knew that he could prevent those unnecessary deaths, so he determined to use civil disobedience to change the law.
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has set us apart from the rest of the developed world. Canadian women enjoy the right to safe and legal abortions largely because Henry
Morgentaler fought a long battle on their behalf. For his trouble, the unflappable Dr. Morgentaler stood trial, languished in prison, and received numerous death threats. What drove him to take such risks? "The realization that a terrible injustice was being done to women and the conviction that it was necessary to change the situation to provide help for those who needed it," replies the retired physician via email."
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abortions were illegal. According to
Catherine Dunphy's 1996 biography of Morgentaler, the committee "commented on 'an attitude which is primarily directed to protecting his fees. No really valid interview is held before proceeding with the abortion. This behaviour confers a mercenary character in the doctor-patient relationship. This committee is incapable of reconciling this behaviour with the humanitarian concern that the accused invoked throughout his defence.'"
705:"The decision of a woman to terminate her pregnancy falls within the class of protected decisions profound psychological, economic and social consequences for the pregnant woman ... The right to reproduce or not to reproduce ... is properly perceived as an integral part of modern womanâs struggle to assert her dignity and worth as a human being ... The purpose of is to take the decision away from the woman and give it to a committee."
660:, which directed a new trial. Once again, an appeal court had overturned a jury acquittal. Once again, Morgentaler appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada. This time, Morgentaler challenged the law as unconstitutional on the grounds that it denied women the right to life, liberty, and security of the person. At all levels (jury trial, Court of Appeal, Supreme Court), Morgentaler was represented by Ontario constitutional lawyer Morris Manning.
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since all scheduled abortions were carried out in alternative locations. No one was hurt but the building had to be demolished. The Women's
Bookstore next door was also damaged. As a result of the arson, the Ontario government decided to spend $ 420,000 on improved security for abortion clinics. At the time, all four free-standing clinics in Ontario were in Toronto. The government wanted to gather information about activities by
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607:(CARAL) in Ottawa. The aim of CARAL was to support Morgentaler's challenge of the 1969 abortion law requiring approval of a Therapeutic Abortion Committee (TAC) before an abortion could be legally performed (without requiring TACs to be formed or to meet). The organization formed provincial and local chapters across Canada and helped to raise funds for Morgentaler's legal fees. The group also supported Morgentaler's use of
735:, 1989. Nova Scotia then sought an injunction to stop Morgentaler from performing clinic abortions. The injunction was granted on the ground that there was an overwhelming need to ensure that provincial laws are respected. It rejected the argument that the Supreme Court's 1988 decision in R. v. Morgentaler prohibited provinces from passing laws that simply made clinic abortions illegal.
719:, provincial medical regulations, and health insurance restrictions still applied. In particular, provinces could refuse to pay for clinic abortions; but they could not demand that TACs be used to screen the procedures for approval, nor could they forbid abortion outright. Morgentaler has described this as the happiest day of his life.
412:"I hadn't expected the avalanche of requests and didn't realize the magnitude of the problem in immediate, human terms. I answered, 'I sympathize with you. I know your problem, but the law won't let me help you. If I do help you, I'll go to jail, I lose my practiceâI have a wife and two children. I'm sorry, but I just can't!'"
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Dr. Morgentaler used both his professional status and personal skills to fight for womenâs rights, while placing himself at risk. His actions have brought about fundamental changes in
Canadian law and to the health care system and in so doing dramatically affected for the better the lives of Canadians from coast to coast.
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on July 1, 2008; he was recognized "for his commitment to increased health care options for women, his determined efforts to influence
Canadian public policy and his leadership in humanist and civil liberties organizations." Abortion-rights activists applauded the decision, saying Morgentaler put his
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In 1976, the
Disciplinary Committee of the Professional Corporation of Physicians of Quebec suspended Morgentaler's medical licence for a year as a result of his conviction for having performed an illegal abortion. As he operated outside hospitals and without a Therapeutic Abortion Committee, all his
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While no precise figures exist, it is estimated that approximately 4,000 to 6,000 Canadian women died from illegal abortions between 1926 and 1947. This lesson was reinforced in 1990 by the
Progressive Conservative government's attempt to recriminalize abortion. A conservative federal government, led
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The five justices wrote three different opinions striking down the law for different reasons: that
Section 251 imposed unnecessary procedures and restrictions, restricted access to hospitals, and caused delays; resulted in physical, psychological and emotional risk to the woman; and forced some women
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raided Morgentaler's clinic and laid several charges of performing illegal abortions. The first case did not come to trial until 1973; in the meantime, women's groups organized in support of Morgentaler and he continued to perform abortions. In 1973, the doctor stated that he had performed 5,000 safe
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In 1968, Morgentaler gave up his family practice and began performing abortions in his private clinic. He devoted his clinic to performing abortions on women as well as providing birth control and contraceptives, though it was illegal at the time. At the time, abortion was illegal except for cases in
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For a time he was able to refer the women to two other doctors who did abortions, but they became unavailable. There was no one to whom he could send them, and some of them were ending up in the emergency department after amateur abortions. He has said that he felt like a coward for sending them away
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In August 2011, Morgentaler attended the funeral of Opposition Leader Jack Layton, leader of the New Democratic Party. In the 1980s, Layton attended clinic defences of the Morgentaler clinics, when abortion rights supporters guarded the entrance of a clinic to keep abortion opponents from blockading
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On this occasion, Morgentaler said, "We must remain vigilant in defence of a woman's right to choose because there are still too many legislators and health care providers out there who are not pro-choice and too many women who continue to have their health put at risk because they are denied access
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wrote the decision, which agreed that these abortion regulations were not a valid provincial regulation of hospitals and medicine, but an invalid criminal law: only the federal government can make criminal law. As a result, all of the regulations were struck down, including the ones not dealing with
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award as a person who has "made a difference by immeasurably improving the lives of others." The news item says, "In Canada, a woman can have an abortion without fear of prosecution or imprisonment â for the simple reason that there is no abortion law. For more than 20 years, that state of affairs
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The womenâs movement of the 1960s found in Dr. Morgentaler a person who understood that womenâs equality could not be achieved within the existing restrictions on medical services for reproductive choice. In offering women access to necessary services that faced considerable restriction elsewhere,
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as well as the 1988 Supreme Court Morgentaler Decision. The province argued that Morgentaler could not have standing because only a woman who needed to use the clinic had the right to challenge abortion policy. The New Brunswick Court of Queen's Bench ruled that Morgentaler had standing to proceed
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Have all these people forgotten that women used to die in our countries from self-induced or quack abortions, that unwanted children were given away to institutions where they suffered enormous trauma that took the joy of life away from them and made them into anxious, depressed individuals with a
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took one day to pass a law that banned abortions and some other procedures such as liposuction outside hospitals, making all clinic abortions illegal or at least unfunded. Morgentaler opened a clinic, supposedly to interview clients for abortions outside the province. Then he announced that he had
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1988 (1 S.C.R. 30). The court ruled 5â2 that the administrative procedures were cumbersome and unjustifiably interfered with the body integrity of women." On January 28, the law was found to violate Section 7 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms because it infringes upon a woman's right to "life,
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in 1974, who substituted a conviction. The doctor appealed his conviction to the Supreme Court of Canada, but the court upheld his conviction in a 6â3 decision, stating that the danger to women was not immediate. He was sentenced to 18 months in prison and began serving his sentence in March 1975.
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In 1969, Morgentaler opened an abortion clinic in Montreal. He said that he applied for status as a model abortion clinic and proposed to the federal and provincial governments that abortions could be safely done outside hospitals. He recounts that neither the provincial nor the federal government
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as an independent, finishing fourth with 1,509 votes. In 1999, Morgentaler said that a decline in youth crime rates could be credited to the legalization of abortion nearly twenty years earlier, leading to fewer neglected and angry children and more mothers surviving to nurture their children. In
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In May 1992, the Morgentaler Clinic on Harbord Street in Toronto was firebombed during the night by two people (caught on security camera) using gasoline as fuel and a firework to set off the explosion. The next day, clinic management announced that the firebombing failed to prevent any abortions
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Encouraged by public support for his struggle and concern about women's access to abortion in other provinces, in 1983 Morgentaler decided to challenge the law in other provinces. He spent the next 15 years opening and running abortion clinics across Canada, in clear violation of the law. In each
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Each charge was brought to trial separately. At the trial of the first charge in 1973, Morgentaler was defended by Claude-Armand Sheppard. Sheppard presented the "defence of necessity"âas a doctor, Morgentaler had a duty to safeguard the life and health of the women who came to him for abortions,
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that it was time Morgentaler was honoured for his long battle; she said "Dr. Morgentaler is a hero to millions of women in the country," she said. "He risked his life to struggle for women's rights ⊠He's a huge figure in Canadian history and the fact that he hasn't got until now is a scandal."
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Morgentaler was the first president of the Humanist Association of Canada (HAC) from 1968 to 1999. He remained the organization's honorary president until his death in 2013. The HAC bestowed on him its Lifetime Achievement Award on August 3, 2008, in Toronto, Ontario, during its 40th-anniversary
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The courts also reviewed various attempts by provinces and municipalities to use laws about medical services to restrict or hamper the ability of pregnant women to exercise a right of choice. All such attempts were denied by the courts. Anti-abortion forces resorted to political attempts to deny
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laid a second set of charges against him and he was acquitted by another jury. He was, however, already in jail. A political cartoon at the time showed a prison guard pushing Morgentaler's food tray into his cell and saying, "Congratulations, doctor, you've been acquitted again!" The Ministry of
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Between 1973 and 1975, Morgentaler was tried three times in Montreal for defying the abortion law; each time, he raised the defence of necessity, and each time he was acquitted. Each time, the jury took less time to reach their decision to acquit: at the third trial, they took one hour. This is
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at its 74th annual summer conference. The Couchiching Award for Public Policy Leadership is presented annually to a nationally recognised Canadian who has demonstrated public policy leadership that results in a positive impact on Canada or a community within Canada, often in the face of public
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conferred an honorary Doctor of Laws degree upon Morgentaler; this was his first honorary degree. This decision by UWO's senate honorary degrees committee generated opposition from Canadian anti-abortion organizations. 12,000 signatures were acquired on a petition asking the UWO to reverse its
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Judge Paulette Garnett said that Morgentaler should have legal standing to proceed with the lawsuit because the personal nature of abortions â and the fact the procedures are time-sensitive â make it difficult for women to take the government before the courts. After the ruling, the government
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In 2008, the challenge was before the courts. The province originally stated that women could get medically necessary abortions at New Brunswick hospitals. In 2006 however the last hospital in New Brunswick to perform publicly funded abortions, the Dr. Everett Chalmers Hospital in Fredericton,
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BĂ©dard called the anti-abortion law unenforceable. From that point on, Quebec refused to enforce federal law prohibiting abortions by qualified medical personnel. BĂ©dard emphasized that police would continue to identify and charge unqualified, back-street abortionists. Federal Justice Minister
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considering that they might not be able to continue. It's a very bad situation." He said that he would go on performing abortions. Morgentaler believed that the attacker was an American and that the attacks were an unwanted byproduct of the vitriolic, religiously fueled abortion battle in the
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In 1996, Morgentaler wrote "The Moral Case for Abortion." In it, he gives the reasoning that guided his actions from the first abortions in Quebec and fueled his defence of necessity in providing women with abortions. This was, in essence, the reason that Quebec juries would not convict him:
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in Buffalo on October 23, 1998, also by a high-powered rifle, reinforced the threats. Abortion doctors wore bullet-proof vests and pulled their curtains to prevent assassins from shooting into their homes. Morgentaler was quoted as saying, "I know of anecdotal evidence that some doctors are
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In 2008, Morgentaler was awarded the Order of Canada "for his commitment to increased health care options for women, his determined efforts to influence Canadian public policy and his leadership in humanist and civil liberties organizations." Morgentaler died at the age of 90 of a
328:, were required to emigrate. Chava's sister, Henia Reinhartz, in her Memoir, "Bits and Pieces," described the harsh economic conditions while the family, and Henry, lived in Brussels. One picture shows Henia, Chava, and their mother wearing coats made from blankets donated by
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Morgentaler, 85 and frail, accepted the award from the Officers of the Canadian Labour Congress and thanked the unions for standing with him through his many years of struggle to secure for women the right to control their own health and their own bodies. Choice and freedom.
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The Ontario Bar Association called him a "giant" in the profession, a man who appeared before the Supreme Court more than 100 times and whose specialties spanned the fields of criminal (both domestic and international), constitutional, privacy and administrative
193:, and to provide birth control pills to unmarried women. He opened his first abortion clinic in 1969 in Montreal, challenging what he saw as an unjust law placing burdensome restrictions on women seeking abortions. He was the first doctor in North America to use
693:"Forcing a woman, by threat of criminal sanction, to carry a fetus to term unless she meets certain criteria unrelated to her own priorities and aspirations, is a profound interference with a woman's body and thus a violation of her security of the person."
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reported that when contacted, Morgentaler stated that earlier model Vacurettes "could occasionally be used more than once", but he insisted that "whether someone uses a Vacurette once or twice has nothing to do with practising good medicine." A 1991
742:. In 1993, the case came before the Supreme Court of Canada. The province argued that it was combating the privatization of health services. The court, however, unanimously struck down that part of the Act that forbade procedures in clinics. Justice
564:, dropped the charges against Morgentaler and other doctors and announced that there would be no further trials for clinic abortions in Quebec. This was just in time to prevent a fourth Morgentaler trial from starting the following Monday.
848:. Death threats against Morgentaler were frequent. In the 1980s, a reporter said that the stack of death threats for a single month was six inches thick. In 1983 a man attacked him with garden shears outside of his Toronto abortion clinic.
272:, the Rosenfarbs and the Morgentalers (Golda and her sons Henry and Abraham) along with two other families hid in a room with the door concealed by a wardrobe. After two days in hiding, on August 23, 1942, they were found and deported to
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announced that it would suspend abortion services as of July 1, citing workload problems. New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island are the only provinces in Canada that refuse to pay for abortions in clinics. This rule violates the
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had stopped doing abortions. "For years, we have been living in the shadow of the doctors being killed", said Morgentaler. "This violence is a sign of frustration, rage and moral bankruptcy in the anti-abortion movement."
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By this point, the tide of public opinion had turned in Morgentaler's favour: A Gallup poll in 1983 showed that 72% of Canadians believed that the decision to abort should rest solely with a pregnant woman and her doctor.
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615:(D&C) that was traditionally performed at hospitals for abortions or after miscarriages. The development of medical abortion has also reduced maternal mortality associated with non-medically assisted abortions.
1116:. Turcotte explained his resignation to the CBC, saying, "I'm worried about how we treat life, from conception to death. I decided to take a stance that clearly reflects my convictions." The others were astronomer
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grudge against society? Have all these people forgotten that an unwanted pregnancy was the biggest health hazard to young fertile women and could result in loss of fertility, long-term illness, injury, and death?
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decision to honour Morgentaler and several protest rallies were held, including one on the day the honorary degree was bestowed. A counter-petition, supporting the UWO's decision, gained over 10,000 signatures.
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In January 1976, a third trial was begun against Morgentaler on the first set of charges. On 18 September 1976, the trial ended in an acquittal by a different jury. This was his third jury acquittal in Quebec.
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said that Quebec had made a just and fair decision that was proper to the provincial authority. Quebec Justice Minister Bedford asked Federal Justice Minister Basford to amend Section 251 of the Criminal Code.
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raided Morgentaler's newly opened clinic and he and his two colleagues were charged with providing illegal miscarriages. Once again Morgentaler used the defence of necessity and was acquitted by the jury. The
808:, for example, the provincial health care system paid for abortions only if they were performed at authorized hospitals and approved by two physicians. Morgentaler challenged this policy in New Brunswick.
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blocked the attack and Morgentaler remained unharmed. Augusto Dantas was charged with assault and with possession of a weapon dangerous to the public good. On July 29, 1983, protesters attempted to
669:, 1988, was heard by the Supreme Court of Canada. It was a victory for Morgentaler. The court upheld the original jury acquittal. In addition, it declared that the 1969 abortion law violated the
280:, where they both remained until the end of the war. In February 1943, Henry was sent to KL Kaufering (a satellite camp of Dachau concentration camp). By the end of the war, he was in sick bay (
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life and liberty on the line to advance women's rights, while anti-abortion groups strongly criticized the award, saying it debased the Order of Canada. Feminist and author Judy Rebick told
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wrote, "Henry Morgentaler experienced the law's limitations directly in the supplications of desperate women who visited his Montreal office." Morgentaler's initial response was to refuse:
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for not funding abortions in clinics, but instead allowing private billing at provincial abortion clinics. In 1996 Alberta gave in to the financial pressure and agreed to fund the clinics.
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Morgentaler's campaign for women's reproductive health took him across Canada on speaking engagements and fund-raising tours to promote family planning. In 1972, Morgentaler ran in the
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reported in 1974, that according to police evidence, Morgentaler was re-using disposable vacurettes, against the manufacturer's instructions which stated that they "cannot be re-used".
353:, was born. Their second child was a son, Abraham. Henry was, by his own admission, a proud womanizer. Their marriage ended in divorce in the mid-1970s. Chava died on January 30, 2011.
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announced that they would be working with the medical profession to ensure that enough doctors were trained and would perform abortions to keep up with the demand from Ontario women.
400:. Morgentaler stated that women should have the right to safe abortion. The reaction to his public testimony surprised him: he began to receive calls from women who wanted abortions.
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After Quebec stopped prosecuting him in 1976, Morgentaler opened an abortion clinic in Ontario. In spite of prosecutions, other provinces followed. In 2003, he was able to close his
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and went on to open twenty clinics and train more than one hundred doctors. Morgentaler twice challenged the constitutionality of the federal abortion law, losing the first time, in
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sympathizers; at the time, law enforcement agencies in Canada did not collect statistics about harassment and violence against abortion providers, their clinics, or their clients.
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said, "Dr. Morgentaler has stood up for a womanâs right to choose for his entire career, often at great personal risk", and asked Canadians to respect and celebrate the decision.
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advocate Henry Morgentaler to the Order of Canada, directly quoting from the Compendium of Social Doctrine. Moreover, the bishops generally advocate pro-life views through the
560:. They realized that the abortion law could not be enforced if juries would not convict, so they dropped the remaining charges. On December 11, 1976, the new Justice Minister,
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In 2006, Morgentaler had to stop performing abortions after undergoing a heart bypass surgery. He continued, however, to oversee the operation of his six private clinics.
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Hern, Warren M. and Andikopoulos, Bonnie. "Abortion in the Seventies: proceedings of the Western Regional Conference on Abortion, Denver, Colorado, February 27â29, 1976"
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said he would rather see the country's then highest civilian award "be something that really unifies" and "brings Canadians together", while Liberal Party leader
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advocate who fought numerous legal battles aimed at expanding abortion rights in Canada. As a Jewish youth during World War II, Morgentaler was imprisoned at the
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for abortions, by gaining recognition that a well-regulated specialist clinic provides a service equivalent to that offered in a hospital. In New Brunswick and
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Later in 1976, the Attorney General for Quebec announced that thenceforward abortions performed by doctors in free-standing clinics were legal in the province.
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In 1995, provincial and federal rulings forced Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to allow private abortion clinics. The Alberta government was penalized under the
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284:), whence he was finally liberated by the U.S. Army on April 29, 1945. After his release at age 22 Henry weighed just 32 kilograms (71 lb). He entered a
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Bernard St-Laurent, "Veteran reporter recalls historic Morgentaler decision: The day that settled the abortion issue in Quebec," CBC News, May 30, 2013.
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the doorways to stop patients from entering. The NDP has been a supporter of abortion rights, making them part of its political platform for many years.
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After the war, Morgentaler migrated to Canada and entered medical practice, becoming one of the first Canadian doctors to perform vasectomies, to insert
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233:, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) southwest of Warsaw, to Josef and Golda Morgentaler. Before World War II, Morgentaler's father was active in the
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with a lawsuit against the government. That leaves the Morgentaler clinic in Fredericton, where women can obtain abortions by paying up to $ 750.
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as an essential medical service, meaning that it must be covered by health insurance. Nevertheless, some provinces do not cover clinic abortions.
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was interested. Each said it was the other's responsibility. No one came to inspect the clinic. Instead, they sent the police. On June 1, 1970,
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527:. The Quebec government set aside their first conviction and ordered a new trial on the first charge. Morgentaler was released to await trial.
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Thus the court concurred with Morgentaler's reasoning. The Supreme Court ruling essentially ended all criminal restrictions that singled out
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891:. He stated, "In Canada, you have fewer religious fanatics, there is much less violence in Canada and it's a much more tolerant society."
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879:, abortion providers in Canada were aware that their own lives could be in danger from anti-abortion assassins with high-powered rifles.
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Morgentaler was not released on parole after serving one-third of his sentence, six months. In total, he served ten months, suffering a
276:. The boys never saw their mother again: Golda was murdered at Auschwitz. On August 27, Henry and Abraham were shipped to KL Landsberg,
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Morgentaler v. Her Majesty the Queen and the Attorney General of Canada (1988): Decriminalizing Abortion in Canada: A Case Law Analysis
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In June 1991, the Ontario government announced that all abortions in the province, including clinic abortions, would be covered by the
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Justice appealed this second acquittal but this time, the Quebec Court of Appeal unanimously upheld the acquittal (January 19, 1976).
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1208:'s prediction that "the Montreal Olympics can no more have a deficit, than a man can have a baby." After the financially disastrous
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recognized him on May 28, 2008, with its highest honour, the Award for Outstanding Service to Humanity. The CLC's description reads
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with 164,000 others. His sister had left for Warsaw with her husband before the start of the war. She was incarcerated there at the
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365:, graduating in 1953. After receiving his Canadian citizenship, he practiced medicine in the east end of Montreal. He started as a
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abortion, which the court called a smokescreen for the province's true purpose of stopping women from having abortions. (See
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1097:. Also in 2008, Canadian bishops unanimously stated that they were opposed to the appointment of the abortion provider and
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ordered him to pay $ 354,799 in unpaid income taxes. Morgentaler settled out of court a few years later, paying $ 101,000.
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Pierson, Ruth Roach and Cohen, Marjorie Griffin. Canadian Women's Issues, Vol. 2, p. 100â102. "The Politics of the Body."
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In response to the stabbing of Garson Romalis in 2000, Morgentaler said that some doctors in Ontario, New Brunswick, and
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Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (1990), Baranowski, Dobroszycki, Wiesenthal, Yad Vashem Timeline of the Holocaust, others.
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On August 5, 2005, Morgentaler received the Couchiching Award for Public Policy Leadership for his efforts on behalf of
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clinics because a doctor that he trained was now performing abortions at a local hospital, QEII Health Sciences Centre.
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The couple settled in Montréal, where Chava resumed her vocation as a writer. Several months later their first child,
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to safe abortion services in a supportive environment â twenty years after Canadaâs abortion laws were struck down."
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which outweighed his duty to obey the law. After hearing some of those women as witnesses, the jury acquitted him.
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In 1976, Morgentaler went to the Supreme Court of Canada in an attempt to overturn the country's abortion law in
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On June 1, 2009, three members did leave the order in protest against Morgentaler's admission, including the
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against Morgentaler, his staff, his patients, and his colleagues. Anti-abortion violence is described by the
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also resigned his membership in protest. About a dozen people picketed outside the ceremony in Quebec City.
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In 1973, on the basis of Morgentaler's public statements that he had performed thousands of abortions, the
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To fight the charges and the injunction, Morgentaler challenged the constitutionality of the Nova Scotia
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550:, was deeply involved and interested in prosecuting Morgentaler until he was removed from the portfolio.
546:, after which he was released to hospital. It was reported that the Liberal Justice Minister for Quebec,
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Singh, K; Ratnam, S.S (December 1998). "The influence of abortion legislation on maternal mortality".
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761:. Women would not have to pay out of pocket for clinic abortions, as they did in other provinces. The
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article reports that he now denied having re-used vacurettes, but it also reported that according to
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for special treatment, leaving it to be governed by Canada's laws concerning medical practice. The
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province, he announced in advance that he would open a clinic. That year, he opened clinics in
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The province appealed the acquittal. The jury's acquittal was overturned by five judges on the
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258:
723:
funding to private abortion clinics and to ban the establishment of clinics within provinces.
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which continuing a pregnancy threatened the life of the pregnant woman. On August 26, 1969,
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was created and Jews were not allowed to leave it. Morgentaler's father was killed by the
8:
994:
190:
2725:
1420:
974:, the highest honour of the Planned Parenthood Federation, in tribute to their founder,
515:, the Canadian Parliament changed the law so that an appeals court could not overturn a
242:
179:
2517:
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so that women who live there do not have to travel vast distances to obtain abortions.
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abortions outside hospitals, demonstrating that a hospital setting was not necessary.
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performed abortions there. The government laid a charge of violating the Nova Scotia
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608:
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1766:
1338:
1216:
1212:, he drew a cartoon of a pregnant Drapeau placing a telephone call to Morgentaler.
1192:
665:
653:
1059:
3305:
R. v. Morgentaler, 1988, University of Alberta, Centre for Constitutional Studies
3114:
3071:
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2642:
2618:
2478:
2459:
Special Report: "Where Is the Anti-Choice Movement Headed?" Violence in the 1990s
2416:
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R. v. Morgentaler, 1988, University of Alberta, Centre for Constitutional Studies
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celebration convention, the largest Humanist convention in the nation's history.
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banned abortions in clinics outside hospitals. In 1995 abortion was added to the
520:
397:
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325:
205:
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163:
127:
28:
1755:"Assessment of the structure and function of the therapeutic abortion committee"
1074:
316:
In 1946, Abraham emigrated to the United States. In 1947, Henry made his way to
2494:
1969:
1183:
produced a television movie documenting Morgentaler's life and practice called
1070:
1055:
924:
872:
512:
3310:
3125:
2994:
Molestation of young girl by priest just an accident, says Archbishop Turcotte
2855:"Morgentaler 'honoured' by Order of Canada; federal government 'not involved'"
1807:
1117:
3333:
3285:
CBC Digital Archives â Dr. Henry Morgentaler: Fighting Canada's Abortion Laws
3258:
3093:
Peter Kuitenbrouwer: Jack Layton did what ChrĂ©tien couldnât, he united Canada
2501:
1086:
960:
888:
865:
824:
In 2009, Morgentaler was working to open two private abortion clinics in the
769:
698:
686:
254:
3268:
3142:
2781:"Henry Morgentaler fought a long battle to decriminalize abortion in Canada"
2056:
The Montreal Gazette, "Quebec Drops Case Against Morgentaler" by Dave Thomas
428:
legalized abortion in Canada if performed in a hospital after approval of a
2515:"Pro-choice, anti-abortions groups stage rallies at same time in Toronto".
2338:
2264:
2127:
1565:"Abortion rights crusader Henry Morgentaler, revered and hated, dead at 90"
1379:
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1197:
1078:
743:
539:
293:
214:
3263:
Doctor and activist Henry Morgentaler describes his fight and perseverance
2495:
Vue Weekly: Edmonton's 100% Independent Weekly : NO ACCESS, NO CHOICE
2325:
Canada. Nova Scotia. Supreme Court (1989). "Nova Scotia v. Morgentaler ".
1352:
226:
68:
3324:'I practically told the jury to find him guilty' says judge Claude Bisson
1780:
1066:
853:
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569:
490:âthe refusal of juries to enforce a law that they perceive to be unjust.
43:
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856:
his clinic; the clinic suffered only minor damage, but the neighbouring
3326:
interview with a jury member from his 1983 trial in Ontario, 2008-07-14
1098:
1065:
Several members of the order said they would return their insigniae to
932:
s lawyers, Morgentaler never took any legal action against that paper.
519:
acquittal, although they could order a new trial. This is known as the
3107:
2896:"Former N.B. lieutenant-governor to return Order of Canada in protest"
1249:
845:
656:'s office appealed the acquittal and the verdict was reversed by the
374:
297:
99:
2993:
2806:
CTV.ca Morgentaler proud to be 'finally' recognized, CTV, 2008-07-02
2251:
Canada. Supreme Court (1988). "R. v. Morgentaler, 28 January 1988".
2535:
Bombing of Toronto abortion clinic raises stakes in bitter debate"
1934:
1437:
1302:
1201:
625:
438:(now known as section 287) was found to be unconstitutional by the
317:
168:
37:
2611:
2324:
1997:"A crusader's legacy: How Henry Morgentaler changed Canada's laws"
2635:
1704:
The real worlds of Canadian politics: cases in process and policy
1327:"Report on 5641 outpatient abortions by vacuum suction curettage"
800:
Morgentaler's final legal battles focused on obtaining universal
629:
396:
Health and Welfare Committee that was investigating the issue of
321:
305:
301:
246:
87:
42:
Henry Morgentaler (right) in August, 2005, with then NDP Leader
268:
When the Germans raided the Ghetto in ĆĂłdĆș with the help of the
1688:
Morgentaler was active in attempting to change the pre-1969 law
1636:"Controversial abortion doctor faced a lifetime of persecution"
1089:, a retired police detective who founded an orphanage; and the
595:. The Charter was relevant to Morgentaler's later court cases.
343:
333:
249:, while Henry lived with his mother and younger brother in the
230:
3225:
2472:
Controversial abortion doctor faced a lifetime of persecution
1366:
Morgentaler H (MayâJune 1989). "Alan F. Guttmacher lecture".
329:
3375:
Independent candidates in the 1972 Canadian federal election
2706:"University honours Morgentaler â Television â CBC Archives"
292:. After a few months there he was moved to a DP Hospital in
3010:"Gov. Gen. accepts three resignations from Order of Canada"
1298:"Abortion rights activist Dr. Henry Morgentaler dies at 90"
611:
under local anesthetic as safer and less invasive than the
516:
388:
On October 17, 1967, he presented a brief on behalf of the
16:
Canadian physician and abortion rights advocate (1923â2013)
2872:
B.C. priest returns Order of Canada in Morgentaler protest
2555:
Sniper attacks on doctors create climate of fear in Canada
1930:"Abortion rights: significant moments in Canadian history"
1507:. Polish Culture Website. November 4, 2007. Archived from
1270:"Henry Morgentaler, 90, Dies; Abortion Defender in Canada"
1105:, the official episcopal agency dedicated to life issues.
951:
In 1973, Morgentaler was one of the signers of the second
603:
In 1974, a group of abortion rights activists founded the
3214:
Mini doc: The life of abortion activist Henry Morgentaler
1896:" by Alicia Ambroziak. The Calgary Herald, 28 April 1977.
3250:
Abortion rights: significant moments in Canada's history
2982:
http://www.cccb.ca/site/content/view/2640/1152/lang,eng/
831:
373:, becoming one of the first Canadian doctors to perform
2843:
CTV.ca | Order of Canada should unite Canadians: Harper
2744:
2660:
The Big Evasion: Abortion, the Issue that Won't Go Away
2612:
Morgentaler re-used instruments despite maker's warning
2177:"Legal giant Morris Manning defended Henry Morgentaler"
605:
Canadian Association for the Repeal of the Abortion Law
2921:
Windsor man to become latest to reject Order of Canada
2423:
Canwest News Service, 2008-11-07 (accessed 2011-08-30)
2250:
1613:"Remembering Dr. Henry Morgentaler, a difficult hero"
1529:
1159:
639:
The Toronto clinic was operated with two colleagues,
3222:, National Film Board of Canada documentary (online)
2108:
International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics
959:
named him the 1975 Humanist of the Year, along with
445:
In 1983, Morgentaler debated former abortion doctor
361:
Morgentaler received his medical education from the
1702:
Campbell, Robert Malcolm and Pal, Leslie Alexander.
167:(March 19, 1923 â May 29, 2013), was a Polish-born
3307:(Faculties of Law, History, and Political Science)
2961:"Catholic group returns founder's Order of Canada"
2818:"Morgentaler among those named to Order of Canada"
2355:Henry Morgentaler on "The Moral Case for Abortion"
2279:The Twentieth Anniversary of Regina v. Morgentaler
2214:(Faculties of Law, History, and Political Science)
1523:
3241:Abortion crusader deeply divides Canadian society
2594:, Random House of Canada, Toronto, 1996, p. 164.
2438:"N.B. court gives nod to Morgentaler's challenge"
2150:, vol. Spring, pp. 1â14, archived from
1223:used the doctor as the inspiration for its name.
1124:, both from Montreal. In November 2009, engineer
3331:
2662:, Lester & Orpen Dennys, Toronto, page 141.
2410:mulls challenge of Morgentaler abortion decision
2351:
1470:; Cambridge, Massachusetts. pp. 54â55, 62.
1145:2006, Morgentaler retired from active practice.
2940:Order of Canada to be Returned Publicly Tuesday
2726:Couchiching Awards for public policy leadership
2682:. American Humanist Association. Archived from
2039:Morgentaler: The Doctor Who Couldn't Turn Away,
1894:Vindicated, Morgentaler wants to quit abortions
1717:Morgentaler: The Doctor Who Couldn't Turn Away,
1463:Ghettostadt: ĆĂłdĆș and the making of a Nazi city
1324:
2140:
2095:Canadian Abortion Rights Action League history
1433:"Morgentaler proud to be 'finally' recognized"
871:After sniper attacks on other doctors such as
332:. In 1949, Henry and Chava married. They left
3174:Morgentaler has few regrets in abortion fight
3074:, Humanist, March 1999. (Accessed 2011-08-30)
2721:
2719:
1365:
682:to carry a fetus to term against their will.
673:and was thus unconstitutional in the case of
618:
3143:"Democracy on Trial: The Morgentaler Affair"
2778:
2586:
2584:
2431:
2429:
2384:Abortion in Canada: Legal but not accessible
2226:"Significant decisions of the Supreme Court"
2077:
2075:
1824:"Morgentaler closes Halifax abortion clinic"
2760:"Canadian Labour Congress, 2008 Conference"
2754:
2752:
2405:
2403:
2401:
2399:
2318:
2223:
2198:
2105:
1924:
1922:
1421:List of recipients of Order of Canada, 2008
1292:
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1243:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1235:
3220:Democracy on Trial: The Morgentaler Affair
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1904:
1902:
1556:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1170:Democracy on Trial: The Morgentaler Affair
203:in 1975, but winning the second time, in
142: 1945–1975)
36:
3169:
3167:
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2581:
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2298:
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2174:
2072:
2051:
2049:
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2021:
2019:
2017:
1994:
1874:"Part 3 : 'I rose to the challenge'"
1770:
1684:Social Intervention, Theory and Practice,
1633:
1532:"Lodz Ghetto Deportations and Statistics"
1359:
1342:
1103:Catholic Organization for Life and Family
1028:In 2010, Morgentaler was nominated for a
3400:Canadian people of Polish-Jewish descent
3299:CBC: Abortion law ruled unconstitutional
3269:Interview with Henry Morgentaler (video)
3108:New Democratic Party: Fairness for Women
2749:
2564:
2435:
2396:
2088:
1970:'The Morgentaler Effect' by Wayne Summer
1752:
1425:
1287:
1267:
1232:
1156:in a debate 'Humanism vs Christianity'.
1002:opposition. In part, the citation reads
369:in 1955 but increasingly specialized in
3186:"Quebec's Big Owe stadium debt is over"
2769:(Scroll down to "The Award Goes to...")
2745:Couchiching Institute on Public Affairs
2544:
2529:
2527:
2506:
2378:
2376:
2217:
2028:
1975:
1965:
1963:
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1959:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1899:
1888:
1886:
1816:
1748:
1746:
1709:
1698:
1696:
1499:"The Grande Dame of Yiddish Literature"
1459:
1391:
1389:
1254:
999:Couchiching Institute on Public Affairs
902:
671:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
588:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
558:In 1976, the Parti Québécois took power
3420:Auschwitz concentration camp survivors
3332:
3164:
3086:
2291:
2044:
2014:
1676:
1663:
1661:
1610:
1562:
1453:
1416:
1414:
1396:Morgentaler named to Order of Canada,
1164:Morgentaler was the subject of a 1984
1041:Morgentaler was named a Member of the
842:Canadian Security Intelligence Service
3140:
3134:
2345:
2134:
2085:. National Abortion Federation, 1977.
1722:
1585:
1491:
942:
832:Death threats, assaults, and bombings
821:considered whether it should appeal.
678:liberty and security of the person."
530:In 1975, while he was in prison, the
2738:
2537:Canadian Medical Association Journal
2524:
2373:
2271:
1950:
1883:
1743:
1693:
1386:
1268:McFadden, Robert D. (May 29, 2013).
1083:Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick
997:issues. The Award was given by the
235:General Jewish Labour Bund in Poland
3425:Dachau concentration camp survivors
3101:
2393:. YWCA, 2009 (accessed 2011-08-29).
2352:Shaw, Michael G. (April 13, 2010),
2307:The Canadian Encyclopedia: Abortion
1983:Women's legal strategies in Canada,
1658:
1411:
1185:Choice: The Henry Morgentaler Story
1131:
585:but was unsuccessful. In 1982, the
466:
451:on a Canadian national superstation
13:
3370:Canadian abortion-rights activists
2288:, 2008-04-08 (accessed 2011-08-29)
1995:MacKinnon, Leslie (May 30, 2013).
1611:Dunphy, Catherine (May 31, 2013).
1160:Media and cultural representations
1036:
14:
3436:
3231:The Morgentaler Decision turns 20
3207:
3098:2011-08-26, retrieved 2011-08-29.
2779:Rockel, Nick (October 26, 2010).
1796:Induced Abortions Statistics 2003
1318:
970:In 1989 Morgentaler received the
3237:2008-01-15 (accessed 2011-08-30)
2561:1998-10-29 (accessed 2011-08-29)
2175:Fitterman, Lisa (July 6, 2021).
1808:Video of the 1983 CHCH-TV debate
311:
3216:Globe & Mail video obituary
3178:
3119:
3077:
3057:
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2099:
2061:
1988:
1866:
1842:
1801:
1787:
1706:, p. 13. Broadview Press (1991)
1627:
1604:
1563:Martin, Sandra (May 29, 2013).
139:
3380:Members of the Order of Canada
3365:Canadian general practitioners
3016:. June 1, 2009. Archived from
2625:, Montreal, December 24, 1974.
1530:Shirley Rotbein Flaum (2007).
1054:On the matter, Prime Minister
532:Ministry of Justice for Quebec
430:Therapeutic Abortion Committee
390:Humanist Association of Canada
1:
3410:Université de Montréal alumni
3151:National Film Board of Canada
2592:Morgentaler: A Difficult Hero
2120:10.1016/S0020-7292(98)00194-5
1226:
1166:National Film Board of Canada
983:University of Western Ontario
957:American Humanist Association
836:There were many instances of
759:Ontario Health Insurance Plan
296:, and thence with Abraham to
3235:National Review of Medicine,
2224:Makin, Kirk (June 5, 2011).
274:Auschwitz concentration camp
263:Treblinka extermination camp
7:
3350:Canadian abortion providers
3311:Henry Morgentaler Interview
2436:CBC News (August 8, 2008).
1728:Morgentaler Clinic (2006).
1690:" Edwin Mellen Press, 1987.
1460:Horwitz, Gordon J. (2009).
658:Court of Appeal for Ontario
591:was enacted as part of the
10:
3441:
3405:Polish emigrants to Canada
2758:Canadian Labour Congress,
1793:Statistics Canada (2006).
1120:and pianist and conductor
1030:Transformational Canadians
937:Quebec Ministry of Revenue
763:Ontario Ministry of Health
619:Other provinces and Canada
160:Henekh "Henry" Morgentaler
3290:Supreme Court of Canada,
3044:Canada Elections Database
2037:Wright, Eleanor Pelrine.
1863:, Montreal, July 3, 2008.
1715:Wright, Eleanor Pelrine.
1671:The Canadian Encyclopedia
1642:. Toronto. Archived from
1619:. Toronto. Archived from
1250:Chava Rosenfarb biography
858:Toronto Women's Bookstore
471:
356:
278:Dachau concentration camp
184:Dachau concentration camp
149:
121:
113:
105:
95:
76:
50:
35:
23:
3319:George Stroumboulopoulos
1468:Harvard University Press
1325:Morgentaler H H (1973).
1091:Madonna House Apostolate
1013:Canadian Labour Congress
750:R. v. Morgentaler (1993)
598:
582:Morgentaler v. The Queen
336:in February 1950 on the
261:. She was killed at the
225:Morgentaler was born in
117:abortion rights advocacy
3395:Physicians from Toronto
3040:"1972 Federal Election"
2950:. Accessed 8 July 2008.
2680:"Humanist Manifesto II"
2636:Skeletons in the closet
2572:Abortion Doctor Stabbed
2141:Norber, Leslie (2008),
1850:"'Proud' to join Order"
1126:Renato Giuseppe Bosisio
440:Supreme Court of Canada
402:Robert Malcolm Campbell
257:, and took part in the
220:
3390:Activists from Toronto
3226:The Morgentaler Clinic
2735:(Scroll down to 2005.)
2658:Anne Collins (1985).
1673:(accessed 2011-08-30).
1221:Me Mom and Morgentaler
1181:CTV television network
1110:Archbishop of Montreal
1093:on behalf of the late
1069:in protest, including
1022:
1009:
981:On June 16, 2005, the
860:was nearly destroyed.
838:anti-abortion violence
794:
707:
695:
613:dilation and curettage
499:Quebec Court of Appeal
414:
363:Université de Montréal
302:Displaced Persons Camp
259:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
3065:Abortion and Violence
2997:CJAD News Talk Radio,
2539:, Volume 147, p. 1528
1538:. JewishGen Home Page
1196:editorial cartoon by
1017:
1004:
965:The Feminine Mystique
882:The murder of Doctor
789:
703:
691:
593:Canadian Constitution
521:Morgentaler Amendment
410:
379:intra-uterine devices
3385:People from Montreal
3294:(1988) (1 S.C.R. 30)
3261:'s Idea City, 2005:
3141:Cowan, Paul (1984).
2883:Canwest News Service
1880:, December 17, 2007.
1872:Ann Marie McQueen.
1765:(7): 786, 788, 790.
1210:1976 Summer Olympics
1152:In 1991, he debated
1114:Jean-Claude Turcotte
903:Other legal troubles
806:Prince Edward Island
740:Medical Services Act
733:Medical Services Act
641:Leslie Frank Smoling
544:solitary confinement
479:Montreal city police
423:an amendment to the
406:Leslie Alexander Pal
385:to unmarried women.
367:general practitioner
270:Jewish Ghetto Police
251:Ghetto Litzmannstadt
239:occupation of Poland
237:. During the German
191:intrauterine devices
3415:ĆĂłdĆș Ghetto inmates
3192:. December 19, 2006
3063:Morgentaler, Henry
2992:Deschamps, Richard
2686:on October 20, 2012
2634:Celeste McGovern. "
2590:Catherine Dunphy.
1972:Accessed 2021-07-08
1830:. November 29, 2003
1682:Bennett, Edward M.
1668:"Henry Margentaler"
1646:on December 2, 2008
1368:Am J Gynecol Health
995:reproductive health
383:birth control pills
3355:Canadian humanists
3301:(January 28, 1988)
3280:by Henia Reinhartz
3113:2011-09-04 at the
3070:2015-10-18 at the
2946:2008-07-12 at the
2926:2008-12-07 at the
2877:2012-11-10 at the
2785:The Globe and Mail
2765:2011-09-13 at the
2731:2011-10-01 at the
2641:2008-07-20 at the
2617:2008-07-20 at the
2518:Regina Leader-Post
2477:2008-12-02 at the
2415:2012-11-10 at the
2389:2011-10-03 at the
2362:on August 11, 2011
2327:Annu Rev Popul Law
2312:2011-11-29 at the
2284:2011-09-27 at the
2253:Annu Rev Popul Law
2230:The Globe and Mail
2210:2012-03-26 at the
2181:The Globe and Mail
1938:. January 13, 2009
1855:2008-08-04 at the
1737:2008-09-13 at the
1640:The Globe and Mail
1598:2011-07-25 at the
1591:Reinhartz, Henia.
1570:The Globe and Mail
1405:2008-10-11 at the
1154:William Lane Craig
1122:Jacqueline Richard
1048:The Globe and Mail
953:Humanist Manifesto
943:Honours and awards
711:abortion in Canada
488:jury nullification
339:RMS Samaria (1920)
55:Heniek Morgentaler
3083:CBC news coverage
2521:, August 4, 1983.
2421:Montreal Gazette,
1753:Krass ME (1977).
1623:on July 29, 2017.
1140:in the riding of
1095:Catherine Doherty
814:Canada Health Act
781:Canada Health Act
774:Canada Health Act
716:Canada Health Act
675:R. v. Morgentaler
663:The appeal case,
609:vacuum aspiration
562:Marc-André Bédard
447:Bernard Nathanson
381:, and to provide
290:Landsberg am Lech
286:Displaced Persons
195:vacuum aspiration
182:and later at the
157:
156:
25:Henry Morgentaler
3432:
3292:R v. Morgentaler
3202:
3201:
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3176:
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3084:
3081:
3075:
3061:
3055:
3054:
3052:
3050:
3036:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3025:
3006:
3000:
2990:
2984:
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2973:
2972:
2970:
2968:
2957:
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2930:
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2912:
2911:
2909:
2907:
2892:
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2833:
2831:
2829:
2814:
2808:
2803:
2797:
2796:
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2649:, April 1, 1991.
2632:
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2588:
2579:
2578:, July 24, 2000.
2568:
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2551:
2542:
2533:Bagley, Gordon.
2531:
2522:
2513:
2504:
2492:
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2470:Sandra Martin."
2468:
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2157:on March 4, 2016
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2012:
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1981:Jhappan, Radha.
1979:
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1511:on March 3, 2012
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1247:
1217:alternative rock
1193:Montreal Gazette
1138:Federal Election
1132:Other activities
914:Montreal Gazette
844:as single-issue
666:R v. Morgentaler
654:Attorney General
548:JĂ©rĂŽme Choquette
467:Judicial battles
398:illegal abortion
394:House of Commons
166:
143:
141:
109:Doctor, activist
88:Toronto, Ontario
83:
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62:
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21:
20:
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2610:Tom Pawlick. "
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2559:New York Times,
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1593:Bits and Pieces
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1039:
1037:Order of Canada
976:Margaret Sanger
945:
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884:Barnett Slepian
834:
826:Canadian Arctic
621:
601:
505:In 1975, under
474:
469:
371:family planning
359:
326:Chava Rosenfarb
314:
223:
206:R v Morgentaler
200:Morgentaler v R
176:abortion rights
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2963:. July 8, 2008
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2902:. July 9, 2008
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2824:. July 1, 2008
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2553:Rhode, David.
2543:
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2500:2010-01-04 at
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1441:. July 2, 2008
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1398:Globe and Mail
1385:
1374:(3âS): 38â45.
1358:
1337:(12): 1202â5.
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1306:. May 29, 2013
1286:
1274:New York Times
1253:
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1172:, directed by
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1071:Roman Catholic
1056:Stephen Harper
1038:
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991:women's rights
972:"Maggie" Award
944:
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925:Alberta Report
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873:Garson Romalis
833:
830:
802:public funding
685:Chief Justice
649:Toronto Police
620:
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513:Pierre Trudeau
510:Prime Minister
473:
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243:ghetto in ĆĂłdĆș
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3259:Moses Znaimer
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3252:(2009-05-21)
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2502:archive.today
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1087:Frank Chauvin
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1060:Stéphane Dion
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3194:. Retrieved
3189:
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3146:
3136:
3121:
3103:
3095:
3088:
3079:
3059:
3047:. Retrieved
3043:
3034:
3022:. Retrieved
3018:the original
3013:
3004:
2996:
2988:
2977:
2965:. Retrieved
2955:
2939:
2934:
2916:
2904:. Retrieved
2899:
2890:
2882:
2867:
2858:
2849:
2838:
2826:. Retrieved
2821:
2812:
2801:
2789:. Retrieved
2784:
2774:
2740:
2709:
2700:
2688:. Retrieved
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